Chapter-5

CELL STRUCTURE
AND
ORGANIZATION
Cell:
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of life
capable of independent existence.
 Robert Hook discovered Cell in 1665.

Animal
Bacterial Cell Plant
Cell
Cell
Cell:
 Largest cell is Ostrich egg.
 Longest cell is Nerve cell.

Nerve Cell

Ostrich Egg
Modern Cell Theory (Rudolf Virchow):
 All organisms are made up of cells.
 Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
 New cells arise from pre-existing cells.
 Every organisms starts its life as a single cell.

Shape of cells:
 Cells do not have typical shape.
 They may be spherical, rectangular, polygonal,
oval, triangular, conical, columnar, biconcave or
irregular in shapes.
 The shape of cell depends upon the function which
they perform.
Totipotency:
 It is the capacity or the potential of a living
nucleated cell to divide and differentiate to form
a new organism.
 Cell is totipotent because it has the entire genetic
information to form a new organism.
 Embryonic animal cells are totipotent and called
as stem cells.

Kinds of Cells:
o Prokaryotes (Primitive Cell).
o Eukaryotes (Developed Cell).
 Prokaryote
(Inter cellular communications) Bacterial cell

70 S = 50S + 30 S
Protein synthesis

(Movement)

Chromatophores
Cell wall formation
&DNA replication
Prokaryotic Cell:
Prokaryotic cell shows the following structures.
o Cell envelope - Chemically complex, protective
covering.

o It is made of 3 layers.
• Outer glycocalyx (Capsule) which may be slimy
or thick, tough covering.
• Middle cell wall made of Peptidoglycan and
Murein which provides strength to the cell.
• Inner plasma membrane helps in intercellular
transport, works as site for metabolic processes.
o Mesosomes - Infoldings of cell membrane.
Helps in cell wall formation &
DNA replication.

o Ribosomes - 70S (Svedberg unit), 50S + 30S

Helps in protein synthesis.

o Genetic material - Single, circular, coiled DNA

attached to mesosomes.
o Plasmids - Small, circular, extra chromosomal,
self replicating DNA.
Helps in reproduction & resistance
against antibiotics.
o Chromatophores - Photosynthetic pigments.
o Cilia or Flagella - Helps in locomotion.
o Cytoplasm - Pool of
organic & inorganic
materials like water,
enzymes, elements,
amino acids etc.
Eukaryotic Cell:
o Cell is well developed with a definite nucleus &
membrane bound cell organelles.

Components of Eukaryotic cell:

1. Cell wall: Made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin,
lipids & protein.
Additional depositions are silica, cutin,
suberin, wax, lignin etc.
Functions: Gives shape, rigidity, support & protects
from mechanical injury & infections.
o Cell wall shows 3 layers.

Middle lamella - Thin, lies between adjacent cells.

Made of pectin, Ca & Mg pectate.
Primary wall - Present on either side of middle
lamella.
Secondary wall - Present inner to the primary wall.

 Plasmodesmata or pits - Cytoplasmic bridge

between adjacent cells.
Cell wall layers
2. Cell membrane/Plasma membrane/Biomembrane:

 Thin, quasi fluid (partly liquid & partly solid)

structure present around cell organelles &
cytoplasm.
 It is made of Phospholipids arranged in 2 layers.
 Lipids have hydrophilic polar head & 2 hydrophobic
non-polar tails.
 The tails are sandwiched between the heads.
 Proteins & carbohydrates are also present.
 Cell
membrane
Fluid mosaic model (Singer & Nicholson - 1972):

 Plasma membrane is made of phospholipid bilayer

& proteins.
 Proteins are like icebergs in the sea of lipids.
 There are intrinsic & extrinsic proteins.
 Proteins works as channels for passage of water.
 Quasifluid nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of proteins (Fluidity).
Functions:
 Selectively permeable which allows the
movement of certain molecules.
 Passive & active transport of molecules across
the membrane.
 Helps in cell to cell
communication &
cell signaling.
 Outer protective
covering.
3. Cytoplasm/Cytosol:

 Colloidal jelly like material.

 It shows streaming movement called cyclosis.
 It contains water, organic & inorganic molecules
and various cell organelles.

 It is the seat of various metabolic activities in

cell.
 It helps in distribution & exchange of materials
between various cell organelles.
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum(ER):

 It is a network within cytoplasm.

 It has network of tubules and sac like cisternae.
 ER is continuous from nuclear membrane to
plasma membrane.
 RER (Rough ER) and SER (Smooth ER).

 It acts as intracellular supporting frame work.

 Maintains position of cell organelles in cytoplasm.
 RER is studded with ribosomes.
 Involved in protein synthesis and membrane
formation.
 SER is not studded with ribosomes.
 Helps in synthesis of lipids, detoxification of
drugs & poisons and storage of calcium ions.
5. Golgi complex/Golgi apparatus/Golgi body
(Camillo Golgi):
 It is the manufacturing come packaging and
transport unit of cell.
 It has stacks of sacs called cisternae & vesicles.
 It has forming or cis face (on the same side) &
maturing or trans face (the opposite side).
 Cis face receive secretions from ER and trans face
release the modified secretions from Golgi.

 Modify the secretions of ER.

 Produce its own secretions (Eg. Pectin)
6. Lysosomes:
 These are membrane bound vesicles containing
hydrolytic enzymes.
 Enzymes help to digest macro molecules.
 Enzymes include amylases, proteases, lipases.
 Primary lysosomes are vesicles with enzymes in
inactive state.
 Secondary or hybrid lysosomes are fusion of lysosome
with materials to be digested.
 Residual body is the undigested materials in vesicles.

 Helps to digest damaged cell organelles, so called

suicidal bags or autophagic vesicles.
 Helps in intra & extra cellular digestion.
 Extra cellular digestion.
Eg. Acrosome dissolve protective layers of ovum.
During metamorphosis lysosomal enzymes help in
reusing the materials of redundant organs.
Lysosome helps in destruction of malignant tissues.
Lysosome

Formation
&
Function
7. Vacuoles:
 These are sacs covered
by membrane called
tonoplast.
 Cell sap is present inside
the vacuole.
 Cell sap contains ions,
proteins, excretory
products.
 Plant cell has large
vacuoles & animal cell
has less number of
smaller vacuoles.
 Attractive colours of the petals are due to storage
of pigments in vacuoles.
 Vacuoles maintain turgidity of cell.
 Phagocytosis leads to formation of food vacuole.
 Paramoecium has contractile vacuoles.

Animal cell Plant cell

8. Glyoxysomes:
 These are membrane
bound organelles which Membrane
contain enzymes that
Matrix
convert fatty acid to sugar.
 It is present in fat storage
Core
tissues of germinating
seeds.
 The seedlings use these
sugar till it starts
photosynthesizing of its
own.
 Cell organelles with single layer membrane:
o Eg. Sphaerosomes, Peroxisomes.
o Sphaerosomes:
Present in cells involved in synthesis & storage of
fats. Eg. Endosperm of oil seeds
o Peroxisomes:
This contain enzymes that oxidize materials &
produce hydrogen peroxide. It also contains
enzymes that convert toxic H2O2 to water.
Conversion of toxic substances like alcohol takes
place in liver cells by peroxisomes.
9. Mitochondria:
 These are double membrane bound organelle.
 Shape - Oval or Spherical or Spiral strip like.
 Outer membrane is permeable & inner membrane is
selectively permeable.
 Inner membrane shows several finger like folds
called cristae. It has numerous oxysomes.
 Inner membrane encloses a cavity which is filled
with a fluid called matrix.
 Matrix contains circular DNA, RNA, 70S ribosomes,
lipids & different enzymes.
Perimitochondrial

Mitochondria
 Oxysomes or
F1 particles
have a head
& a stalk. It is
involved in
ATP synthesis
& proton
pumping.
10. Plastids:
 These are double layered membrane bound
organelle containing DNA, RNA & 70S ribosomes.
 Mitochondrial & Plastidial DNA can duplicate
themselves (autonomous).
 According to pigments present plastids are of:
1. Leucoplast 2. Chromoplast 3. Chloroplast

o Leucoplast: Do not have pigments

and helps in storage of nutrients.
Eg. Amyloplast (starch), Elaioplast (oil),
Aleuroplast (protein).
o Chromoplast: Contain coloured
pigments carotene & xanthophyll.
They give colours to fruits &
flowers.

o Chloroplast: Green pigments (chlorophyll) present

in all photosynthetic plant cells.
It differs in size, number & shape in different cells.
It can be oval, spherical, discoid or ribbon like.
Chloroplast
 Structure of Chloroplast:
• Outer & inner membranes present which
encloses matrix or stroma.
• In the stroma sac like thylakoids are arranged
one above the other.
• Stacks of thylakoids present together are
called grana (granum - singular).
• Grana are connected to each other by
membranous tubules called stroma lamellae.
• Chloroplast contains various enzymes essential
for photosynthesis, DNA & ribosomes.
11. Ribosomes (Pallade - 1953):
 Ribosomes are made up of rRNA & proteins.
 They do not have membrane covering.
 It is present in mitochondria, plastids & in cytosol.
 It may be attached to rough ER (RER).
 In eukaryotes 80S & in prokaryotes 70S ribosomes
are present.
 Each ribosome is made up of 2 sub units (one large &
one small sub unit).
 Ribosomes synthesize proteins, so known as protein
synthesizing factory of the cell.
 Many ribosomes forms a chain called
polyribosome/polysome.
Ribosomes
12. Nucleus:
 Nucleus is the controlling part of the cell.
 It is made up of nuclear envelop, nucleoplasm,
nucleolus and chromatin network.
 Nuclear envelop is double layered outer membrane.
 Space present between the two membrane is
perinuclear space.
 Outer membrane is continuing with endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) at places.
 In the nuclear membrane there are pores called
nucleopores.
 Nucleoplasm or karyolymph contains chromatin
network, nucleolus, proteins, minerals & salts.
 Nucleolus is not covered by cell membrane.
 It is made up of rRNA & proteins.
 Ribosomes are synthesized at nucleolus.
 The number of nucleolus vary in cell (1 or 2).
 Chromatin network is DNA associated with histone &
non histone proteins.
 Chromatin network condenses to form chromosomes.
 DNA is more in some regions & is more genetically
active - euchromatin.
 Some regions have more protein & less DNA and are
genetically inert - heterochromatin.
 Nucleus play important role in heredity & variation.
 It is the sight for synthesis of DNA, RNA & ribosomes.
 Chromosome number is constant for every species.
Nucleus
Ultrastructure of nucleus
13. Cytoskeleton:
 It is the network of fibrils present
in the cytoplasm.
 Cytoskeleton consists of
microtubules, microfilaments &
intermediate filaments.
 Microtubules are made of protein
tubulin, microfilaments are made
of actin & intermediate filaments
are made of fibrous protein.

 Cytoskeleton helps in maintenance of shape,

contraction and mobility of cell & cell organelle,
changes in shape of the cell & cell organelle.
14. Cilia and flagella:
 They are hair like membrane bound protoplasmic
outgrowths on the surface of cell.
 They help in locomotion.
 Cilia are small and more in number but flagella are
longer and few in number.
 They consists of basal body, basal plate & shaft.
 Shaft is the exposed part which consists of sheath &
axoneme.
 Cilia arises from basal body and the core (center)
continue as axoneme which has 11 microtubules, 2
single ones in the center connected to the 9 double
ones arranged around the periphery (9+2).
 The central fibers are connected to side ones by radial
lamellae like spokes of wheel.
Cilia

Flagella
15. Centrioles and Centrosomes:
 Centrosome is present in animal cell.
 It contains a pair of cylindrical structures called
centrioles.
 Cylinders are perpendicular to each other & are
covered by pericentriolar material.
 Each cylinder is made of 9 sets of triplet (peripheral)
microtubules of tubulin protein.
 Triplets are connected to each other by non tubulin
protein.
 The proximal end (starting point) of centriole has a set
of tubules called hub & it is connected to the peripheral
ones through radial spokes.
 Centrosomes help in assembly of spindle apparatus
during cell division and forms the basal body of cilia.
 Microtubule triplet Centrioles
Centrioles

1
Microtubule
9 triplet
A-C Linker
2

Connecting
fibers
Foot 3

Radial 7 4
fibre
(spoke)
6 5
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