GEOGRAPHY SUMMARY CHAPTER 2.

Global commodity chains involve the progression of a product from design to sale and
distribution.

Cell phones are a prominent example, with many ending up as electronic waste in China due to
informal treatment methods that pose health and environmental risks.

Advances in technology and management have enabled the segmentation of corporate

production lines, allowing companies to design products in one country, have them produced
elsewhere, and sell them globally.

Despite the potential for recycling, only a small percentage of mobile devices are recycled
annually, missing out on
the opportunity to recover valuable materials.

Cell phones are designed primarily in the US but manufactured mainly in China and other Asian
countries.

China's Foxconn is the world's largest electronics contract manufacturer, producing electronics
for leading brands like Apple, HP, Dell, and more.

Over 90% of rare-earth minerals used in electronic components are mined in China, but cleaner
and more efficient processes are being developed in other countries.

The average user in the US upgrades their cell phone every 21.7 months, resulting in 130
million discarded devices annually, while users in other countries keep their devices for a longer
duration.

The largest growth areas for smartphone sales are projected to be China and India.

Human activities such as land clearing, mining, and agriculture have transformed human
populations, wildlife, and vegetation, while also producing waste and pollution that strain the
environment's capacity.

Climate change caused by human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, agriculture,
and deforestation, has serious implications for environmental quality and could lead to
significant temperature increases and extreme weather events.

In addition to global warming, we face severe global environmental degradation through

deforestation, desertification, acid rain, loss of biodiversity, and pollution of water bodies.

Lake Baikal, known for its beauty and unique ecosystem, has experienced warming and
environmental mismanagement, leading to international concern and designation as a World
Heritage Site.
The concept of sustainability emphasizes the interdependence of the economy, the
environment, and social well-being, aiming to meet present needs without compromising
future generations' ability to meet their own needs.
Climate change results from human activities, affecting natural environments like Lake Baikal.

Health concerns arise due to increased international trade and travel, exemplified by the
spread of diseases such as MERS and the potential for influenza pandemics.

Globalization brings security issues, including climate change, weapons of mass destruction,
and risks of epidemics.

Ulrich Beck's concept of a risk society highlights the shift from wealth distribution to risk
distribution, emphasizing the importance of scientific knowledge and resilience in facing global
hazards.

Income inequality, environmental protection, and overall economic growth pose challenges to
sustainable development, requiring a balance between physical environment, equity, and
economic efficiency.

In 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused severe damage along the Atlantic coast of the United States,
particularly in New Jersey and New York, highlighting the vulnerability of coastal communities.

The 23 most populous counties in the US are located on the coast, mostly on the Atlantic
seaboard, and are increasingly susceptible to storms and hurricanes due to climate change and
rising sea levels.

The 600-mile stretch of coastline between Cape Hatteras and Boston has experienced a sea
level rise three to four times higher than the global average since 1980. Scientists predict a
significant rise of one meter or more in the next 80-90 years.

The US Global Change Research Program reported higher rates of relative sea level rise in the
mid-Atlantic region compared to the global average, leading to the decline of tidal wetlands
and the potential loss of most wetlands and disintegration of narrow barrier islands if sea levels
rise by one meter in the next century.

Sea level rise poses significant threats to coastal areas, including shoreline erosion, flooding,
water pollution, infrastructure damage, and harm to ecosystems.

Some governments, influenced by real estate interests, have resisted acknowledging sea level
rise, despite scientific evidence.

North Carolina, for example, banned considering rising sea levels in coastal development
decisions for four years, putting over 30,500 homes and valuable real estate at risk.

This highlights the clash between politicians and experts on environmental issues, as seen in
other debates such as climate change policies.
Globalization has led to increased disparities between the core and periphery, with the richest
fifth of the world's population controlling 75% of global income and 84% of export markets,
while 3 billion people live on less than $2 per day.
This has resulted in feelings of marginalization, exploitation, and neglect in many peripheral
regions.

The concept of spatial justice is important in considering the distribution of society's benefits
and burdens at different scales, taking into account variations in people's needs and
contributions.

Many people, nations, and ethnic groups feel marginalized, exploited, and neglected due to the
rapid pace of change and increasing dependence on cheap labor and resources from the
periphery.

The world perceives the United States as an imperialistic superpower due to its military actions
and policies, such as the "war on terror" and interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq.

This perception is reinforced by military threats, extraordinary rendition, and rejection of

international agreements.

Some academics view this new imperialism as a result of the United States' declining ability to
achieve economic superiority through innovation and productivity.

Benjamin Barber describes the cultural tensions of globalization as "Jihad versus McWorld,"
with "Jihad" representing religious fundamentalism and "McWorld" symbolizing Western pop
culture and materialism.

Modernization is often equated with Westernization, particularly Americanization, leading to

disillusionment and a widening gap between rich and poor countries.

The United States is seen as a self-interested superpower that provides relatively little aid
compared to other developed nations.

The globalization of the capitalist world-system has accelerated since World War II,
transforming world regions shaped by 18th and 19th-century European colonialism.

Optimistic futurists believe technological innovations will overcome resource limitations and
improve living standards, while pessimistic futurists emphasize Earth's finite resources,
environmental fragility, and unsustainable population growth.

These scenarios suggest a potential polarization between the privileged and disadvantaged.

Drawing from the past and present trends, we can outline more realistic future geographies
that consider both optimistic and pessimistic perspectives.

East and Southeast Asia's growing power and untapped resources will significantly influence
future geographies.
The modern world's foundation lies in industrialization, colonization, and the international
market economy, evident in the geography of the Information Age.
Globalization has led to increased interdependence among places and regions, blurring national
and regional differences.

Despite the spread of transnational culture, local geographies still modify global experiences.

The modern world-system emerged over centuries, exposing diverse populations to

technologies and ideas.

The Industrial Revolution's new technologies facilitated a global economic system, leading to
colonization and imperialism.

Different world regions play specific roles within the competitive world-system, creating
interdependence and affecting each other's development.

The industrial core nations exploited the world's midcontinental grassland zones for grain and
stock production in the 18th and 19th centuries.

They also gained political and economic control over most of the tropical world for plantation
products.

Globalization has led to environmental issues, health risks, core-periphery disparity, and
security concerns.

The modern world-system consists of core regions with advanced technologies and diversified
economies, semiperipheral regions that exploit peripheral regions but are dominated by the
core, and peripheral regions with dependent trading relationships and undeveloped
economies.

The growth of core regions depended on the resources and markets provided by the colonized
periphery.

Peripheral regions were developed to provide raw materials for industrializing regions and
markets for their products.

The core regions of the world dominate trade, control advanced technologies, have diversified
economies, and high per capita incomes.

Different countries specialize in producing particular goods or services, as seen in Bolivia,

Ghana, Guinea, Libya, Namibia, Peru, and Zambia.

Disease outbreaks like Bird flu and Ebola have occurred in various countries, and measures can
be taken to make these countries more resilient.

Globalization, income disparity, climate change, and other factors shape our world.
Worker-run factories in Argentina emerged after their economic collapse, providing alternatives
to traditional economies.

Alternative economies can potentially reduce income disparities and improve quality of life.