Unit 1: Plurals of Countable and Uncountable Nouns

I. Countable nouns: Countable nouns can be singular or plural.

- They can be used with a/an and with numbers and many other determiners (e.g. these, a
few)
eg:
a car, three cars
my cousin, my two cousins
a book, a box full of books
a city, several big cities
She’s got two sisters and a younger brother.
Most people buy things like cameras and MP3-players online these days.
These shoes look old now.
I’ll take a few magazines with me for the flight.

II. Uncountable nouns

Cannot be separated or counted.
eg:
Ideas and experiences: advice, information, progress, news, luck, fun, work
Materials and substances: water, rice, cement, gold, milk
Weather words: weather, thunder, lightning, rain, snow
Names for groups or collections of things: furniture, equipment, rubbish, luggage
Other common uncountable nouns include: accommodation, baggage, homework,
knowledge, money, permission, research, traffic, travel.
- Not used with a/an or numbers and are not used in the plural.
eg:
We’re going to get new furniture for the living room.
We had terrible weather last week.
Warning:
Some nouns which are uncountable in English are countable in other languages (e.g.
accommodation, advice, furniture, information)
 Unit 2: Personal pronouns
I. Type of pronouns

II. Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns (Tính từ sở hữu và đại từ sở hữu)

- Possessive adjective comes before a noun and modifies that noun.

eg: Is that your book?
- Possessive pronoun is used to substitute a noun phrase that indicates a possession
relation.
eg: The responsibility will be mine.
We can not use a/an/the, these, that/those, no, some, any, every, etc in front of a possessive
adjective.
Ex. He is a friend of mine.
He is a my friend. (X)
 Unit 3: Possessives / Demonstratives

I. Possessives

Possessive forms show that something belongs to someone or something. They can be
used with both nouns and pronouns.

Possessive Nouns

● Singular: Add 's to the end of a singular noun. Eg: The girl's book, John's car.
● Plural (ending in "s"): Add ' after the "s." Eg: The teachers' lounge, the dogs' toys.
● Plural (not ending in "s"): Add 's. Eg: The children's games, the men's
jackets.

Possessive Pronouns

These pronouns indicate ownership and do not require an apostrophe:

● My, your, his, her, its, our, their.

○ Example: This is my pen. That is their house.

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives are used to describe ownership and are placed before the noun.

● My, your, his, her, its, our, their.

○ Example: My book, your phone.

II. Demonstratives

Demonstratives are words used to point out specific items or people. They help indicate
which one(s) you are referring to.

Types of Demonstratives:

● This/These: Used for objects that are near.

○ This (singular): This book is interesting.
○ These (plural): These apples are fresh.
● That/Those: Used for objects that are farther away.
○ That (singular): That car is expensive.
○ Those (plural): Those shoes are on sale.

Eg:

1. This is my bag. ("my" shows possession; "this" specifies the object close to the
speaker)
2. Those are her shoes. ("her" shows possession; "those" refers to objects farther
away)
 Unit 4: Articles

I. The Definite Article: "The"

● "The" is used to refer to a specific noun that is known to both the speaker and the
listener.
● It can be used with both singular and plural nouns.

Eg:

● I saw the cat outside. (a specific cat, known to both speaker and listener)
● The books on the table are mine. (specific books)

When to Use "The":

● When something is unique (the sun, the moon)

● When it’s clear from the context which thing is meant (Can you close the door?)
● With superlatives (the best, the biggest)
● When something has already been mentioned (I bought a car. The car is red.)

II. The Indefinite Articles: "A" and "An"

● "A" and "An" are used to refer to unspecific nouns.

● "A" is used before consonant sounds, and "An" is used before vowel sounds.

Eg:

● I have a pen. (any pen, not a specific one)

● She wants to eat an apple. (any apple, not a specific one)

When to Use "A" and "An":

● When mentioning something for the first time (I saw a dog in the park.)
● To refer to one of a group (I am an engineer.)
● When talking about professions (She is a doctor.)

III. Zero Article (No Article)

● Sometimes, no article is used. This is often called the zero article.

When Not to Use Articles:

● Before uncountable nouns (I drink water every day.)

● When talking about plural nouns in general (Dogs are friendly.)
● Before proper nouns (John, London, India)
● With meals (I had breakfast.)
● With sports (I play football.)
● With languages (She speaks French.)
IV. Summary Chart
Type Article Example

Definite The The cat, the sun

Indefinite A/An A car, An umbrella

Zero (No article) I like cats, I drink water

 Unit 5: Expressing Quantity
Expressing quantity in English involves using words or phrases to indicate how much or how
many of something there is. These expressions can be categorized based on whether the
nouns are countable or uncountable.

I. With Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are things you can count individually (e.g., apples, books, cars).

● Many: Used in questions and negative sentences.

○ How many books do you have?
○ I don’t have many friends.
● A few / Few: A small number of things.
○ I have a few pencils. (A few = a small but positive amount)
○ I have few friends in this city. (Few = almost none, a negative sense)
● Several: More than two but not many.
○ She has several projects to finish.
● A number of: Indicates an unspecified but countable quantity.
○ A number of students were absent.

II. With Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are things that can’t be counted individually (e.g., water, information,
rice).

● Much: Used in questions and negative sentences.

○ How much water do we need?
○ She doesn’t have much time.
● A little / Little: A small amount.
○ I have a little money left. (A little = a small but sufficient amount)
○ There is little milk left. (Little = almost none, a negative sense)
● A bit of: Informal, used like 'a little.'
○ Can I have a bit of sugar?
● A great deal of / A large amount of: A large, uncountable quantity.
○ He has a great deal of patience.

III. With Both Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Some expressions can be used with both types of nouns.

● Some / Any:
○ I have some friends. (Countable)
○ I don’t have any water. (Uncountable)
● A lot of / Lots of: Used in positive sentences.
○ There are a lot of apples. (Countable)
○ We have lots of information. (Uncountable)
● No / None: Zero amount.
 ○ There are no chairs in the room. (Countable)
○ I have no money left. (Uncountable)

IV. Examples in Sentences

● There is a little sugar in the bowl.

● She has many friends in her neighborhood.
● We need some help with the project.
● I don’t have much time left.
 Unit 6: Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are words that refer to non-specific people, things, or amounts. They do
not point to any particular noun and can be used when the exact identity is not known or not
important.

I. Common Indefinite Pronouns

● For People: someone, anyone, everyone, no one, somebody, anybody, everybody,

nobody
● For Things: something, anything, everything, nothing
● For Amounts: all, some, none, much, many, several, few, a little, a lot, both, either,
neither, one, each

II. Usage Rules

● Singular or Plural: Some indefinite pronouns are always singular (e.g., everyone,
someone), while others are always plural (e.g., many, few). Some can be either,
depending on the context (e.g., all, some).
● Agreement with Verbs:
○ Singular: Use a singular verb when the indefinite pronoun is singular.
■ Example: "Everyone is welcome."
○ Plural: Use a plural verb when the indefinite pronoun is plural.
■ Example: "Many were present at the meeting."
○ Flexible: "All," "some," and "none" can be singular or plural, depending on
what they refer to.
■ Example: "All of the cake is gone." / "All of the cookies are gone."

III. Negative Indefinite Pronouns

● Words like "nobody," "nothing," and "none" are negative, so avoid using them with
another negative word (double negatives).
○ Correct: "Nobody said anything."
○ Incorrect: "Nobody didn't say anything."

IV. Common Mistakes

● Confusing singular and plural agreement:

○ Incorrect: "Everybody are happy."
○ Correct: "Everybody is happy."
● Using double negatives:
○ Incorrect: "I don't need nothing."
○ Correct: "I don't need anything."

V. Examples in Sentences

● Someone left their bag here. (We don't know who)

● Everything is going well.
● None of the answers were correct.
● Many of them were late.
 Unit 7: Present Simple
The Present Simple tense is one of the most commonly used tenses in English. It is mainly
used to talk about habitual actions, general truths, and fixed arrangements. Here is a
breakdown of how it works:

I. Forming the Present Simple

● Affirmative:
○ Subject + base verb
○ Example: "I play tennis." / "She reads books."
○ For he, she, it (3rd person singular), add -s or -es to the verb.
○ Example: "He plays football." / "She watches TV."
● Negative:
○ Subject + do/does not + base verb
○ Example: "I do not (don't) play tennis." / "She does not (doesn't) read books."
● Question:
○ Do/Does + subject + base verb?
○ Example: "Do you play tennis?" / "Does she read books?"

II. Uses of Present Simple

● Habitual actions: Things that happen regularly (every day, often, always).
○ Example: "She drinks coffee every morning."
● General truths and facts: Things that are always true.
○ Example: "The sun rises in the east."
● Fixed arrangements: Scheduled events in the future (like timetables or itineraries).
○ Example: "The train leaves at 8:00 AM."

III. Spelling Rules for the 3rd Person Singular

● Most verbs: Add -s

○ Example: "He writes."
● Verbs ending in -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -o: Add -es
○ Example: "She watches," "He goes."
● Verbs ending in a consonant + -y: Change -y to -ies
○ Example: "She studies," "He cries."

IV. Signal Words for Present Simple

Some words often indicate the use of the Present Simple:

● Always, usually, often, sometimes, rarely, never, every day/week/month, on

Mondays, in the morning
 Unit 8: Present Continuous
The Present Continuous tense is used to describe actions that are happening right now,
actions that are ongoing, or actions that will happen in the near future.

I. Forming the Present Continuous

The Present Continuous is formed using:

● Subject + am/is/are + verb(-ing)

Subject Auxiliary (am/is/are) Verb (-ing)

I am eating

You are running

He/She/It is studying

We/They are playing

Examples:

● I am reading a book.
● She is cooking dinner.
● They are watching a movie.

II. Uses of Present Continuous

a. Actions Happening Now (Hành động đang diễn ra)

● To describe something happening at this exact moment.

○ "I am writing a message."
○ "The kids are playing outside."

b. Temporary Actions (Hành động tạm thời)

● To describe actions that are temporary, even if not happening at this very moment.
○ "She is living in New York for a few months."
○ "He is working on a new project this week."

c. Future Plans (Kế hoạch tương lai)

● To talk about future arrangements or plans.

○ "We are meeting friends for dinner tonight."
○ "They are traveling to Japan next month."

d. Changing Situations (Tình hình thay đổi)

● To describe things that are changing or developing.

 ○ "The weather is getting colder."
○ "Technology is advancing rapidly."

III. How to Use Negative Form

To make a sentence negative, use not after the auxiliary verb.

● Subject + am/is/are + not + verb(-ing)

Examples:

● I am not eating right now.

● She is not coming to the party.
● We are not going on vacation this year.

IV. Questions in Present Continuous

To form questions, switch the subject and the auxiliary verb.

● Am/Is/Are + subject + verb(-ing)?

Examples:

● Are you listening to music?

● Is he playing the piano?
● Am I doing this correctly?

V. Common Time Expressions Used with Present Continuous

now, right now, at the moment, today, this week, currently, these days

Unit 9: Prepositions of Place - Movement - Time

Prepositions of Place, Movement, and Time are essential parts of English grammar that help
indicate location, direction, and timing in a sentence.
I. Prepositions of Place

These prepositions indicate where something or someone is located.

● Common Prepositions of Place: in, on, at, under, over, behind, between, next to, in
front of, above, below, near, by, inside, outside
● Usage Examples:
○ In: Used for enclosed spaces.
■ "She is in the room."
○ On: Used for surfaces.
■ "The book is on the table."
○ At: Used for specific points or locations.
■ "He is at the bus stop."
○ Under: Indicates a lower position directly beneath.
■ "The cat is under the chair."
○ Between: Positioned in the middle of two things.
■ "The park is between the school and the mall."

II. Prepositions of Movement

These prepositions describe the direction of an action or movement.

● Common Prepositions of Movement: to, from, into, out of, onto, up, down, across,
along, over, through, past
● Usage Examples:
○ To: Indicates movement in the direction of a destination.
■ "She is going to the office."
○ From: Shows the starting point of movement.
■ "They came from Paris."
○ Into: Movement from outside to inside.
■ "She walked into the room."
○ Out of: Movement from inside to outside.
■ "He went out of the building."
○ Through: Movement within a space, from one side to another.
■ "The river flows through the city."

III. Prepositions of Time

These prepositions specify when something happens.

● Common Prepositions of Time: in, on, at, before, after, during, until, by, for, since
● Usage Examples:
○ In: Used for months, years, seasons, and longer periods.
■ "She will visit in December."
○ On: Used for days and dates.
■ "The meeting is on Monday."
○ At: Used for specific times of the day.
■ "The train arrives at 5 PM."
 ○ Before: Indicates an earlier time.
■ "Finish your homework before dinner."
○ Since: Indicates a point in time when something began.
■ "They have been friends since childhood."

IV. Quick Tips

● In, On, At (Place & Time):

○ Place: in (countries, cities, rooms); on (surfaces); at (specific locations)
○ Time: in (months, years, periods); on (days, dates); at (specific times)

Unit 10: Past simple

The Past Simple tense is used to describe actions or events that happened and were
completed at a specific time in the past. It is one of the most commonly used tenses in
English.

I. Structure:

● Affirmative (Positive):
 ○ Subject + Verb (past form) + Object
○ Example: "She visited the museum yesterday."
● Negative:
○ Subject + did not (didn’t) + base form of the verb + Object
○ Example: "They didn’t go to the park."
● Question:
○ Did + Subject + base form of the verb + Object?
○ Example: "Did you see the movie?"

II. When to Use the Past Simple:

● To talk about completed actions in the past: (Để nói về các hành động đã hoàn
thành trong quá khứ)
○ Example: "I finished my homework last night."
● To describe events that happened at a specific time in the past: (Để mô tả các sự
kiện xảy ra tại một thời điểm cụ thể trong quá khứ)
○ Example: "She went to the store two hours ago."
● To list a sequence of events in the past: (Để liệt kê một chuỗi các sự kiện trong quá
khứ)
○ Example: "He woke up, brushed his teeth, and left for school."

III. Past Simple Verb Forms:

● Regular verbs: Add -ed to the base form (e.g., "play" → "played," "visit" →
"visited").
● Irregular verbs: These verbs have unique past forms that need to be
memorized (e.g., "go" → "went," "see" → "saw," "have" → "had").

IV. Time Expressions Often Used with Past Simple:

Yesterday; Last night/week/month/year; Two days/weeks/years ago; In 2000, etc.

Unit 11: Present perfect

The Present Perfect tense is used to talk about actions or events that happened at an
unspecified time in the past and have a connection to the present. It focuses on the result or
effect of the action, rather than when it occurred.
I. Structure of Present Perfect:

● Affirmative: Subject + have/has + past participle (V3)

○ Example: She has finished her homework.
● Negative: Subject + have/has + not + past participle (V3)
○ Example: They have not (haven't) visited the museum.
● Question: Have/Has + subject + past participle (V3)?
○ Example: Have you seen this movie?

II. When to Use the Present Perfect:

1. Actions Completed at an Unspecified Time in the Past

○ We don’t mention when the action happened.
○ Examples:
■ I have been to Japan.
■ She has read that book.
2. Experience
○ To talk about life experiences, without specifying the time.
○ Examples:
■ Have you ever tried sushi?
■ They have never seen snow.
3. Recent Actions with Present Relevance
○ When something just happened and has an impact on the present.
○ Examples:
■ She has just finished her meal.
■ I have already completed my assignment.
4. Actions That Started in the Past and Continue to the Present
○ Use with words like for (a period of time) and since (a specific starting point).
○ Examples:
■ We have lived here for five years.
■ She has worked at the company since 2019.

III. Common Time Expressions Used with Present Perfect:

● Ever, never (experiences)

○ Have you ever traveled abroad?
● Just, already, yet (recent actions)
○ I have just eaten.
○ She hasn’t finished her homework yet.
● For, since (duration or starting point)
○ They have known each other for ten years.
○ I have been awake since 6 AM.

IV. Key Points to Remember:

● The exact time of the action is not important or not mentioned.

● We use "have" for I, you, we, they and "has" for he, she, it.
 ● The past participle (V3) form is often regular (worked, played) or irregular (gone,
seen, done).

Unit 12: Past continuous

The Past Continuous tense is used to describe actions that were ongoing in the past.
I. Structure

The structure of the Past Continuous tense is:

● Subject + was/were + verb(-ing)

Examples:

● I was reading.
● They were playing.
● She was cooking.

(-) Negative

Subject + was/were + not + verb(-ing)

Example: He was not (wasn't) sleeping.

(?) Questions

Was/Were + subject + verb(-ing)?

Example: Were they playing football?

II. When to Use Past Continuous

a. Ongoing Actions in the Past

It describes an action that was happening at a particular time in the past.

● Example: At 7 PM last night, I was watching TV.

b. Interrupted Actions

It shows that a longer action was interrupted by a shorter one. The shorter action is often in
the Simple Past.

● Example: I was having dinner when the phone rang.

c. Two or More Parallel Actions

It is used to describe two actions happening simultaneously in the past.

● Example: While I was studying, my brother was playing video games.

d. Setting the Scene

It can be used to set the scene in a story, indicating background activities.

● Example: The sun was shining, and the birds were singing.
III. Signal Words

Some words and phrases commonly indicate the Past Continuous:

While; When; At [specific time]

Examples:

She was reading a book when the lights went out.

They were chatting while having lunch.

At 10 AM, I was attending a meeting.

Unit 13: The future (Be going to/ Will/ Shall)

I. "Will"
 ● Usage:
○ Decisions made at the moment of speaking: When you decide to do
something spontaneously.
■ Example: "I forgot my wallet. I will go get it."
○ Offers, promises, and requests:
■ Example: "I will help you with your homework."
○ Predictions: For general predictions about the future.
■ Example: "It will rain tomorrow."
○ Facts or certain future events:
■ Example: "The sun will rise at 6 AM."

II. "Be Going To"

● Usage:
○ Plans or intentions: When you have already decided to do something in the
future.
■ Example: "I am going to visit my grandmother this weekend."
○ Predictions based on evidence: When there is evidence that something will
happen.
■ Example: "Look at those dark clouds. It’s going to rain."

III. "Shall"

● Usage:
○ Suggestions or offers: Often used with "I" and "we" to make suggestions or
ask for advice. More formal and common in British English.
■ Example: "Shall we go out for dinner?"
○ Formal statements or promises: Sometimes used for strong determination
or promises.
■ Example: "I shall never forget your kindness."

Key Differences
Expression When to Use Example

Will Spontaneous decisions, offers, "I will call you later."

promises, predictions

Be Going Planned actions, predictions based on "I am going to start a new job
To evidence next month."

Shall Formal suggestions, offers, or strong "Shall we dance?" / "I shall finish
determination it."
 Unit 14: Modal verbs
Modal verbs are auxiliary (helping) verbs that express abilities, possibilities, permissions,
requests, suggestions, or obligations.

● Can
● Could
● May
● Might
● Must
● Shall
● Should
● Will
● Would

I. General Rules

● Modals do not change form (e.g., there is no -s or -ed form).

● Modals are always followed by a base verb (e.g., "She can speak," not "She can
speaks").
● Modals do not need an auxiliary verb for questions or negatives (e.g., "Can you
come?" not "Do you can come?").

II. Common Modals and Their Uses

Modal Use Example
Verb

Can Ability, Permission, Possibility "She can swim." / "Can I leave?"

Could Past Ability, Polite Request, "He could run fast." / "Could you help
Possibility me?"

May Permission, Possibility, Polite "May I open the window?" / "It may rain
Suggestion today."

Might Possibility, Suggestion "We might go to the party."

Must Obligation, Strong Necessity, "You must wear a helmet." / "She must
Deduction be at work."

Shall Offer, Suggestion (formal), Future "Shall we dance?" / "I shall finish it
(BrE) soon."

Should Advice, Recommendation, "You should drink more water."

Expectation

Will Future, Willingness, Promise "I will call you tomorrow."

Would Polite Request, Preference, "Would you like some tea?" / "I would
 Hypothetical Situations travel more if I had time."

III. Forming Sentences with Modals

● Affirmative: Subject + Modal + Base Verb

○ "She can speak Spanish."
● Negative: Subject + Modal + not + Base Verb
○ "He should not eat so much sugar."
● Question: Modal + Subject + Base Verb
○ "Can you help me?"

IV. Examples

1. Ability: "I can play the piano."

2. Permission: "May I use your phone?"
3. Possibility: "It might snow tonight."
4. Obligation: "You must finish your homework."
5. Advice: "You should see a doctor."

Unit 15: Conditionals

Conditionals are sentences that describe a condition and the result if that condition is met.
They are commonly used in English to talk about possibilities, hypotheses, or situations and
their outcomes.

I. Zero Conditional
 ● Use: To talk about general truths, facts, or things that always happen under certain
conditions.
● Structure:
○ If + Present Simple, Present Simple
● Example:
○ If you heat water to 100°C, it boils.
○ If I drink coffee at night, I can’t sleep.

II. First Conditional

● Use: To talk about real and possible situations in the future. It describes a likely
outcome if a certain condition is met.
● Structure:
○ If + Present Simple, will + Base Verb
● Example:
○ If it rains tomorrow, we will cancel the picnic.
○ If you study hard, you will pass the exam.

III. Second Conditional

● Use: To talk about hypothetical or unlikely situations in the present or future. It is

often used to express a dream, wish, or imaginary situation.
● Structure:
○ If + Past Simple, would + Base Verb
● Example:
○ If I won the lottery, I would buy a house.
○ If she knew his number, she would call him.

Note: Although we use the past tense, it does not refer to past time. It’s used to talk about
something that is not real or very unlikely in the present or future.

IV. Third Conditional

● Use: To talk about hypothetical situations in the past. It refers to something that did
not happen and imagines the result if it had been different.
● Structure:
○ If + Past Perfect, would have + Past Participle
● Example:
○ If I had known about the meeting, I would have attended.
○ If they had left earlier, they would have caught the train.

Note: This conditional is often used to express regret or to talk about how things could have
been different.

V. Mixed Conditionals
Mixed conditionals are combinations of the second and third conditionals. They can describe
hypothetical scenarios that connect past actions with present consequences, or present
actions with hypothetical past outcomes.

● Example of Past to Present:

○ If I had studied harder, I would have a better job now.
● Example of Present to Past:
○ If she were more confident, she would have spoken up during the meeting.

Quick Tips:

● Use "if" to introduce the condition.

● "Would", "could", and "might" are often used to express the result in the second
and third conditionals.
● In informal English, "if" can sometimes be replaced with "when" in zero conditionals
to emphasize that the condition always leads to the result.

Unit 16: Yes/No Questions - Wh- Questions

I. Yes/No Questions
Yes/No Questions are questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." They
usually start with an auxiliary (helping) verb.

Structure:

● Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb + ...?

Examples:

● Present Simple: Do you like ice cream? (Answer: Yes, I do. / No, I don't.)
● Present Continuous: Are they coming to the party? (Answer: Yes, they are. / No,
they aren't.)
● Past Simple: Did she finish her homework? (Answer: Yes, she did. / No, she didn't.)
● Future Simple: Will it rain tomorrow? (Answer: Yes, it will. / No, it won't.)

Tips for Use:

● Start the question with the correct auxiliary verb (e.g., do, does, did, is, are, was,
were, will).
● If there's no auxiliary verb in the sentence, use "do/does" for the present or "did" for
the past.

II. Wh- Questions

Wh- Questions ask for specific information and begin with a question word such as who,
what, where, when, why, how, etc.

Structure:

● Wh- Word + Auxiliary Verb + Subject + Main Verb + ...?

Examples:

● Who: Who is calling? (Answer: My friend is calling.)

● What: What did you eat for breakfast? (Answer: I ate cereal.)
● Where: Where do you live? (Answer: I live in New York.)
● When: When will the meeting start? (Answer: It will start at 10 AM.)
● Why: Why are you sad? (Answer: Because I lost my keys.)
● How: How did you get here? (Answer: I took the bus.)

Tips for Use:

● Choose the correct Wh- word based on the type of information you want (e.g., "what"
for things, "where" for places, "why" for reasons).
● Follow the Wh- word with the auxiliary verb, then the subject and main verb.
● If the main verb is to be, it can come immediately after the Wh- word without an
auxiliary verb (e.g., Where is she?)
 Unit 17: Passive
The passive voice is a grammatical construction used when the focus is on the action itself
rather than who or what is performing the action. In a passive sentence, the object of an
active sentence becomes the subject, and the verb changes to a passive form.
I. Structure of the Passive Voice

The basic structure of a passive sentence is: Subject + to be (in the correct tense) + past
participle (V3) + (by + agent)

● Subject: The person or thing receiving the action.

● To be: The verb "to be" conjugated in the appropriate tense (am, is, are, was, were,
been, being).
● Past Participle (V3): The main verb in its past participle form (e.g., written, built,
seen).
● Agent (optional): The doer of the action, introduced by "by."

II. When to Use the Passive Voice

● When the doer of the action is unknown or unimportant:

○ The window was broken. (We don't know or care who broke it.)
● When the action itself is more important than the person doing it:
○ The book was published in 2001.
● To sound more formal or impersonal:
○ The meeting will be held at 10:00 AM.

III. Examples of Active vs. Passive Sentences

Active Sentence Passive Sentence

The chef cooked the meal. The meal was cooked by the
chef.

Someone stole my car. My car was stolen.

They are cleaning the The room is being cleaned.

room.

IV. Forming the Passive in Different Tenses

Here’s how to form the passive voice across various tenses:

Tense Active Passive

Present Simple They bake bread. Bread is baked.

Present They are baking bread. Bread is being baked.

Continuous
 Past Simple They baked bread. Bread was baked.

Past Continuous They were baking Bread was being

bread. baked.

Present Perfect They have baked bread. Bread has been baked.

Future Simple They will bake bread. Bread will be baked.

Modal Verbs They must bake bread. Bread must be baked.

V. How to Change an Active Sentence to Passive

1. Identify the object in the active sentence. It will become the subject in the passive
sentence.
○ Active: The manager approved the request.
○ Object: the request
2. Change the verb to the passive form (use the correct form of "to be" + past
participle).
○ Passive: The request was approved.
3. Optionally add the agent (the doer of the action) if necessary, preceded by "by".
○ Passive: The request was approved by the manager.

VI. Passive Voice with Modals

When using modal verbs (can, could, must, should, etc.), the structure is: Modal + be + past
participle

● The cake can be eaten.

● The project must be completed by tomorrow.

Unit 18: The Infinitive / -ing form / Too-Enough

I. The Infinitive

The infinitive is the base form of a verb, usually preceded by "to." There are two main types:

● To-infinitive: to + verb (e.g., to read, to run, to eat)

● Bare infinitive: verb without "to" (e.g., read, run, eat)

Uses of the To-Infinitive:

● To express purpose: "She went to the store to buy groceries."

● After certain verbs (e.g., want, need, decide, expect): "I want to learn English."
 ● After adjectives: "It's difficult to understand this."
● As a subject: "To travel can be expensive."

Uses of the Bare Infinitive:

● After modal verbs (can, could, will, should): "She can swim."
● After verbs like let, make, see, hear, feel (in causative structures): "I heard her
sing."

II. The -ing Form

The -ing form (also known as the gerund) is the base form of the verb + "ing" (e.g., reading,
running, eating).

Uses of the -ing Form:

● As a subject: "Swimming is a good exercise."

● After prepositions: "She's good at dancing."
● After certain verbs (e.g., enjoy, avoid, suggest, finish): "I enjoy playing the
piano."
● After phrases with 'go' (for activities): "They go camping every summer."

III. Too & Enough

These are used to describe the degree of something.

Too:

● Too + adjective/adverb: It means "more than necessary" or "more than is good."

○ "This bag is too heavy."
○ "She drives too fast."
● Too + adjective/adverb + to-infinitive: Used to indicate that something is excessive
to the point that it prevents an action.
○ "It’s too hot to drink the coffee."

Enough:

● Adjective/adverb + enough: Indicates sufficient quantity or degree.

○ "She is old enough to drive."
○ "They ran fast enough to win the race."
● Enough + noun: "Enough" goes before a noun to show there is a sufficient amount
of it.
○ "Do you have enough money?"
● Enough + to-infinitive: Used to show that the degree is sufficient to allow an action.
○ "He is strong enough to lift the box."

Examples in Sentences:

● "She is too tired to walk home." (to-infinitive)

 ● "He enjoys playing football." (-ing form)
● "They were fast enough to catch the bus." (enough + to-infinitive)
● "Running is a great way to stay fit." (-ing form as a subject)

Unit 19: Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are used to connect clauses or phrases to a noun or pronoun. They
provide more information about the noun or pronoun by introducing relative clauses.
Common relative pronouns include who, whom, whose, which, and that.

I. Who

● Used for people.

● Acts as the subject of the relative clause.
● Example: The girl who won the race is my friend.
○ "Who won the race" gives more information about "the girl."
II. Whom

● Also used for people, but acts as the object of the relative clause.
● Example: The man whom you met yesterday is my uncle.
○ "Whom you met yesterday" adds detail to "the man."

Tip: In informal English, "whom" is often replaced by "who," or it can be omitted entirely.

III. Whose

● Used to show possession.

● Can refer to people, animals, or things.
● Example: The boy whose bike was stolen is sad.
○ "Whose bike was stolen" tells more about "the boy."

IV. Which

● Refers to animals, objects, or abstract ideas.

● Can be used as the subject or object of the relative clause.
● Example: I read the book which you gave me.
○ "Which you gave me" describes "the book."

V. That

● Can refer to people, animals, or things.

● Used as both subject and object in restrictive clauses (clauses that provide essential
information).
● Example: The movie that we watched last night was amazing.
○ "That we watched last night" specifies which movie.

Note: "That" is usually not used after a comma because it indicates essential information.

VI. When and Where

● When: Used for time (e.g., I remember the day when we met.).
● Where: Used for places (e.g., This is the park where we used to play.).

Key Points

● Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive Clauses:

○ Restrictive: Essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas (e.g., The
student who studies hard will succeed.).
○ Non-restrictive: Extra information, separated by commas (e.g., My brother,
who lives abroad, is visiting next month.).
● "That" is typically not used in non-restrictive clauses.
● "Whose" can be used for both people and things to indicate possession.
 Unit 20: Adjectives - Adverbs - Comparisons

I. Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns (people, places, things, or ideas). They
give more information about a noun's size, color, shape, condition, etc.

Usage:

● Before a noun:
○ a beautiful dress
○ a tall building
● After a linking verb (is, are, seem, look, feel, etc.):
○ She is happy.
 ○ The soup tastes delicious.

Examples of Adjectives:

● big, small, red, tall, easy, difficult, expensive

II. Adverbs

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They often answer questions like
"how?", "when?", "where?", and "to what extent?". Many adverbs end in "-ly."

Usage:

● Modifying a verb:
○ She sings beautifully.
○ He runs quickly.
● Modifying an adjective:
○ It’s a very cold day.
○ She is extremely intelligent.
● Modifying another adverb:
○ She sings quite beautifully.
○ He runs very quickly.

Examples of Adverbs:

● slowly, quickly, well, badly, very, quite, easily

III. Comparisons

Comparisons are used to show the differences or similarities between two or more nouns.

Types of Comparisons:

1. Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs:

○ Used to compare two things.
○ Formed by adding -er to short adjectives/adverbs or using more/less for
longer adjectives/adverbs.
○ Examples:
■ My car is faster than yours.
■ She is more intelligent than her brother.
■ He works more efficiently than I do.
○ Rules:
■ Short adjectives/adverbs: Add "-er" (big → bigger, fast → faster)
■ Long adjectives/adverbs: Use "more/less" (more beautiful, more
carefully)
2. Superlative Adjectives and Adverbs:
○ Used to show the highest or lowest degree of quality in a group of three or
more things.
 ○ Formed by adding -est to short adjectives/adverbs or using most/least for
longer adjectives/adverbs.
○ Examples:
■ He is the tallest in the class.
■ This is the most interesting book I’ve ever read.
■ She drives the most carefully of all.
○ Rules:
■ Short adjectives/adverbs: Add "-est" (big → biggest, fast →
fastest)
■ Long adjectives/adverbs: Use "most/least" (most beautiful, most
carefully)
3. Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives:
○ Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms.
○ Examples:
■ good → better → best
■ bad → worse → worst
■ far → farther/further → farthest/furthest

IV. Key Points to Remember

● Adjectives modify nouns, while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
● Use comparative forms when comparing two things and superlative forms when
comparing three or more.
● Pay attention to irregular forms of adjectives and adverbs when using comparisons.