AFRICA HIBRET SECONDARY SCHOOL

2017 E.C ENGLISH HANDOUT ON UNIT ONE AND TWO FOR GRADE 12th
UNIT ONE
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

VOCABULARY SKULLS: CONTEXTUAL MEANING

1. Look at Surrounding Words:- analyze the words around the target word to infer its
meaning.
Example
- The bark of the tree was rough." (Here, "bark" refers to the outer covering of a tree, not
the sound a dog makes.)
2. Identify Parts of Speech:- determine if the word is a noun, verb, adjective, etc., to
understand its role in the sentence.
Examples
- She had to juggle her responsibilities. (Here, "juggle" is a verb meaning to manage
multiple tasks.)
- He used a bow to shoot arrows at the target. (Here, "bow" is a noun meaning a weapon
for shooting arrows).
- The ancient ruins told stories of a long-lost civilization. (Here, "ancient" is an adjective
meaning Very old)
3. Consider the Overall Theme:- reflect on the main idea or theme of the text to deduce
meanings.
Examples
- The storm caused a lot of damage. (Refers to severe weather.)
- She felt a sense of loss after moving away. (Refers to emotional sadness.)
- The vibrant flowers in the garden attracted many bees. (Meaning: bright and striking
in color.)
- He felt a melancholy mood as he listened to the sad song. (Meaning: A deep,
persistent sadness or sorrow)
4. Contextual Clues:- look for definitions, synonyms, or antonyms within the text.
Examples
- The arduous journey took many days, requiring great effort." (The word "arduous"
can be inferred to mean difficult)
- His generous donation helped many. (Means giving and kind.)
- The exhausted runner collapsed. (Means very tired.)
5. Check for Figurative Language:- Identify if the word is used metaphorically or
idiomatically.
Examples
- Time is a thief." (Here, "thief" doesn’t mean a literal burglar but suggests that time
steals moments away.)
- She has a heart of gold. (Means she is very kind.)
- Time flies when you’re having fun. (Means time seems to pass quickly.)
- He’s in the driver’s seat now. (Means he is in control.)
- That idea is a double-edged sword.(Means it has both good and bad consequences.)

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Exercise
Instructions: Read each sentence carefully and choose the correct meaning of the
underlined word from the options provided.
1. The cacophony of honking cars filled the busy street.
a) A pleasant sound c) A silent atmosphere
b) A harsh mixture of sounds d) A soft melody
2. The scientist made an arduous journey to the remote research site.
a) Easy b) Difficult and tiring c) Quick d) Unnecessary
3. The sky looked ominous as dark clouds gathered on the horizon.
a) Bright and cheerful c) Calm and peaceful
b) Threatening or dangerous d) Ordinary
4. After weeks of practice, the dancer's performance was flawless, earning her a standing
ovation.
a) Perfect and without mistakes c) Lacking enthusiasm
b) Full of errors d) Overwhelming
5. The resilient plant thrived even after being left in harsh conditions.
a) Fragile and weak c) Very delicate
b) Able to recover quickly d) Slow to grow
6. The child’s reluctance to speak in front of the class was evident as he hesitated and
avoided eye contact.
a) Eagerness b) Unwillingness c) Confidence d) Joyfulness
7. The detective found the evidence to be inconclusive, leaving the case unsolved.
a) Clear and decisive c) Easy to understand
b) Not leading to a conclusion d) Irrelevant
8. The storm caused a devastating amount of damage, leaving many homes uninhabitable.
a) Exciting b) Harmless c) Extremely damaging d) Temporary

VERBAL REASONING
 Verbal reasoning is using words to think and problem solve.
 Verbal reasoning refers to the ability to understand, analyze, and interpret written
information.
 This skill is crucial in various fields, including education, law, and business, as it helps
individuals make informed decisions based on verbal information.

Examples of Verbal Reasoning

1. Reading Comprehension: Understanding a passage and answering questions about its
main idea, supporting details, and implications.
Example: After reading a paragraph about climate change, you might be asked to
identify the author's stance on renewable energy.
2. Logical Deductions: Drawing conclusions based on given statements.
Example: If all cats are mammals and some mammals are not dogs, can we conclude
that some cats are not dogs?
3. Identifying Assumptions: Recognizing unstated premises in an argument.
Example: In the statement "If it rains, the picnic will be canceled," the assumption is
that rain leads to cancellation.
4. Analogies: Identifying relationships between pairs of words or phrases.

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 Example: Hand is to glove as foot is to what? (Answer: sock)

Techniques for Verbal Reasoning

1. Active Reading: Engage with the text by highlighting key points and taking notes to
improve comprehension.
2. Identify Keywords: Pay attention to the following group of words to understand
arguments better.
 words that indicate relationships, such as "however,""therefore,""because," and
"although,"
 words that indicate quantity, like "all", "some", "none", etc.
3. Practice Analogies: Familiarize yourself with common analogy structures to enhance
your reasoning skills.

Exercises
Logical Reasoning Questions:
Instruction: Solve puzzles or problems that require you to deduce information from given
statements.
1. "Some fruits are sweet. A lemon is a fruit. Is a lemon sweet? (Answer: Not necessarily)
2. Some birds can swim. A penguin is a bird. Can a penguin swim? (Answer: Yes)
3. If it snows, the roads will be slippery. It is snowing. Are the roads slippery? (Answer:
Yes)
4. Find the letter.
B+D=F D*E=?
Z-W=C
A. T B. S C. U D. L
5. Determine the next letter in the sequence.
D J F
M A M
J J ?
A. S B. A C. O D. N
6. If something is not priceless, then it is not expensive" What is the logical equivalent of
this statement?
A) All expensive things are not priceless
B) If something is expensive, then it is priceless
C) All priceless things are expensive
D) If something is priceless, then it is inexpensive
7. If some dogs bark and all animals that bark are noisy, which of the following must be
true?
A. Some dogs are noisy C. No dogs are noisy
B. All dogs are noisy D. None of the above

Analogy
Instruction: Complete the following analogy
8. Tree is to forest as star is to ______.
9. Pen is to write as brush is to ______.
10. Heart is to blood as lung is to ______.

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Assumption Identification:
Instruction: Read the statements and identify the assumptions behind them.
11. The new policy will improve employee morale.
12. Increasing the minimum wage will reduce poverty.

Critical Thinking Questions:

Instruction: Analyze these short arguments and give short answer.
13. Online education is as effective as traditional education. Give evidence to support or
refute this claim.
14. Social media has a negative impact on society. What are the potential strengths and
weaknesses of this argument?

ESSLE QUESTIONS
FACTS
1. If Tessema is the head of the Department, then he is the member of the Academic
Commission. This statement can be logically deduced from which of the following
statements?
A) All members of the Academic Commission are members of the department heads
B) Tessema is either a Department Head or on the Academic Commission
C) Everyone who is Department Head is also on the Academic Commission
D) Some members of the central committee are on the Academic Commission
2. "Rahel is taller that Henok and older than Kiros. Henok is taller than Gemechu and
younger that Kiros. Kiros is shorter than Henok and younger than Gemechu. Gemechu
is shorter than Kiros and older than Rahel."
1. According to the above piece of writing, who is the tallest?
A) Rahel B) Kiros C) Henok D) Gemechu
2. Kiros is younger than _____
A) Gemechu only C) Henok only
B) Gemechu and Rahel D) Rahel only

ANALOGY
3. GUIDE is to DIRECT as REDUCE is to:
A. Increase B. preserve C. Decrease D. maintain
4. DISAGREEMENT : HARMONY::
A. Predictability : routine C. Advantage : agreement
B. Predicament : dilemma D. Impartiality : prejudice
5. HAND : ARM
A. Nose : head B. Foot : toe C. Eye : lid D. Wrist : finger
6. PROTEIN : MEAT ::
A. Cream : calories C. Starch : potatoes
B. Salt : salty D. diet : cyclamates
7. HAMMER : IRONSMITH::
A. Car : driver C. Axe : woodcutter
B. Seeds : farmer D. Medicine : doctor

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 8. DEFORESTATION is to TREES as STERILIZATION is to:
A. VACCINE B. TABLETS C. PETS D. MICROORGANISM

GRAMMAR SKILLS: COHESION:

USING COMPARING AND CONTRASTING DEVICES

COMPARING:- shows similarities between two things.

1. Similarly: The climate in New York is unpredictable. Similarly, London experiences
frequent weather changes.
2. Likewise: She loves to read. Likewise, her sister enjoys books.
3. In the same way: Just as the sun rises in the east, the moon sets in the west in the same
way.
4. Just as: Just as exercise is important for physical health, mental wellness is equally
vital.
5. Both... and: Both the novel and the film received critical acclaim for their storytelling.
6. Equally: The two candidates are equally qualified for the position.
7. Comparable to: Her artistic style is comparable to that of famous impressionists.
8. In addition: The project will save money. In addition, it will reduce environmental
impact.
9. As well as: He is skilled in painting as well as in sculpture.
10. Not only... but also...: She is not only an excellent musician but also a talented writer.

CONTRASTING:- shows diferences between two things.

1. However: The weather was beautiful on Saturday. However, it rained all day on
Sunday.
2. On the other hand: Some people prefer city life for its convenience. On the other hand,
others enjoy the peace of rural living.
3. Conversely: The economy is thriving in urban areas. Conversely, rural regions are
facing significant challenges.
4. In contrast: In contrast to her outgoing sister, she is quite shy and reserved.
5. Unlike: Unlike his brother, who loves sports, he prefers reading and music.
6. Whereas: She enjoys hiking on weekends, whereas he prefers staying home to relax.
7. While: While some students excel in mathematics, others find it challenging.
8. Although: Although the movie received mixed reviews, it was a box office success.
9. Though: Though he was tired, he decided to go for a run.
10. Nevertheless: The task was difficult; nevertheless, they managed to complete it on time.

Context 1
Comparing
Both apples and oranges are popular fruits that offer health benefits. Similarly, they are rich in
vitamins and can be enjoyed fresh or in juices. Both fruits are low in calories and provide
essential nutrients, making them great choices for a healthy diet. Whether eaten on their own or
added to dishes, they contribute positively to nutrition.

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Contrasting
While apples and oranges are both nutritious, they have distinct differences in taste and texture.
Apples are generally sweeter and can be eaten with the skin on, providing a crunchy texture. In
contrast, oranges have a tangy flavor and require peeling before consumption. Additionally,
apples can be used in pies and salads, whereas oranges are often juiced or eaten fresh.

Context 2
Comparing

Growth and development are interconnected processes that represent changes over time.
Similarly, both are essential for the maturation of individuals and systems. For example, in
humans, growth involves physical changes, such as an increase in height, whereas development
includes the acquisition of new skills and emotional understanding. Furthermore, these
processes often influence each other, as physical growth can impact developmental milestones,
underscoring their importance in overall progress.

Contrasting
While growth and development are related, they differ significantly in their focus and
measurement. Growth is primarily quantitative, referring to the physical increase in size or
mass, such as a plant growing taller or a child gaining weight. In contrast, development is
qualitative and encompasses emotional, cognitive, and social changes, such as learning to
communicate or forming relationships. Therefore, growth can be seen as a part of development,
but development includes a broader range of changes that contribute to an individual's overall
progression and maturity.

Exercise

Instructions: Read each pair of sentences. Identify whether the focus is on comparing
(showing similarities) or contrasting (showing differences). Write Compare or
Contrast on the line.

1. Both cats and dogs can be loyal and affectionate pets.

2. While a tablet is portable and lightweight, a desktop computer is stationary and more
powerful.

3. The beaches in Florida and Hawaii both offer stunning sunsets and warm sand.

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 4. Unlike summer, which is hot and sunny, winter is cold and often snowy.

Instructions: Combine the information in each pair of sentences below to form one
sentence using comparison or contrast words (e.g., similarly, but, unlike,
whereas).

5. The elephant is the largest land animal. The blue whale is the largest animal in the ocean.

6. Lions hunt in groups called prides. Tigers are solitary hunters.

7. Both snowboarding and skiing are popular winter sports. Snowboarding involves one board,
while skiing uses two.
____________________________________________________________________________
8. The twins enjoy playing soccer, and they both excel in art classes at school.
________________________________________________________________________

Instructions: Fill in the table below by listing similarities and differences between apples
and oranges based on the given sentences.

Books and eBooks are both popular forms of reading material that offer entertainment and
information. However, physical books are tangible objects that you can hold and flip through,
while eBooks are digital and read on electronic devices. Books come in various sizes and
formats, from pocket-sized paperbacks to large hard covers, whereas eBooks are accessible on a
wide range of screen sizes, such as smart phones, tablets, or e-readers. Both offer the pleasure of
reading, but eBooks are more portable and often offer features like adjustable text size and built-
in dictionaries.

similarities differences
Both are popular forms of reading material
that offer entertainment and information.

Instructions: Read the prompts below and write a short paragraph comparing and
contrasting the two items. Use linking words like both, similarly, however, on
the other hand, and while.

6. Compare and contrast books and movies as forms of entertainment.

7. Compare and contrast city life and rural life.

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WRITING SKILLS: SENTENCE FRAGMENT MEANING

Sentence fragment is a group of words that does not express a complete thought. It may lack a
subject, a verb, or both, making it unable to stand alone as a sentence.

Ways to Fix Sentence Fragments

1. Add Missing Element: Identify what's missing (subject or verb) and add it.
Example
- Running down the street. ➔ She was running down the street.
- The book on the table. ➔ The book on the table belongs to Sarah.

2. Combine with a Complete Sentence: Attach the fragment to a nearby complete

sentence.
Example
- Although she was tired. ➔ Although she was tired, she finished her homework.
- When we went to the park. ➔ When we went to the park, we had a great time.
3. Cancel the subordinating conjunction: Rewrite the fragment to make it a complete
thought.
Example
- Because it was raining. ➔ She stayed indoors because it was raining.
- After we went out for dinner. ➔ We went out for dinner.

Exercise
Instructions: Identify the sentence fragments in the following sentences and correct them.

1. Fragment: Because I was late.

Correction: ________________________________________
2. Fragment: The dog barking loudly.
Correction: ________________________________________
3. Fragment: If it rains tomorrow.
Correction: ________________________________________
4. Fragment: In the middle of the night.
Correction: ________________________________________
5. Fragment: While she was cooking.
Correction: ________________________________________

Instructions: Read each set of sentences. Select the fragment or the incorrect sentence from
the options.

1. a) He was tired after running the marathon.

b) The sky was clear and blue.
c) Running through the park.
d) She went to the store to buy some groceries.

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 2. a) After the meeting, we went to lunch.
b) He enjoys reading books in his free time.
c) I have to finish my homework before I can go out.
d) Waiting for the bus to arrive at the station.
3. a) She decided to stay home because of the weather.
b) They were excited to see the movie.
c) Before the concert started, we got snacks.
d) Enjoying the view from the mountain top.
4. a) The teacher explained the lesson clearly.
b) He likes both swimming and running.
c) We went hiking through the forest.
d) Playing with her friends at the park.
5. a) I woke up early and went for a jog.
b) She walked to the store to buy some milk.
c) He was surprised by the news.
d) Walking through the quiet streets

UNIT TWO

TIME MANAGEMENT

SPEAKING SKILLS: GIVING REASONS

To express purpose (reason), you can use phrases or clauses that clearly indicate the reason
behind an action. Here are some common ways:
1. Using "to" + infinitive verb (V1)
Examples
- I wake up early to exercise before work.
- They traveled to Italy to experience the culture.
- A: What did you buy at the store?
B: I bought some groceries to make dinner.
2. Using "in order to" + infinitive (V1)
Examples
- She exercises regularly in order to stay healthy.
- They are taking a class in order to learn photography.
- A: Why are you practicing every day?
B: I’m practicing every day in order to improve my skills.
3. Using "So as to" + infinitive (V1)
Examples
- She left early so as to avoid the traffic jam.
- They whispered so as not to disturb the sleeping baby.
- A: Why are you saving money?
B: I’m saving money so as to buy a new car.
4. Using "for" + noun/gerund (V-ing)
Examples
- This book is useful for learning new languages.

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 - He went to the store for some groceries.
- A: What’s this gift for?
B: It’s for your birthday!
5. Using "with the intention of" + gerund (V-ing)
Examples
- They are working late with the intention of finishing the project.
- She is studying hard with the intention of passing the exam.
- A: Why did you join the gym?
B: I joined the gym with the intention of getting fit.
6. Using "because" + clause (S + V)
Examples
- I stayed home because it was raining.
- She was late because she missed the bus.
- A: Did you finish your project?
B: No, I didn’t finish it because I ran out of time.
7. Using "As" + clause (S + V)
Examples
- As it was getting dark, we decided to head back.
- He left early as he had an appointment.
- A: What are you doing this weekend?
B: I’m going hiking as the weather is supposed to be nice.
8. Using "Since" + clause (S + V)
Examples
- Since it was a holiday, the store was closed.
- I haven’t seen her since she moved to another city.
- A: Why are you so tired today?
B: I’m tired since I stayed up late studying.
9. Using "so that" + clause (S + V)
Examples
- I’m saving money so that I can go on vacation.
- They left early so that they wouldn’t miss the train.
- A: Why are you studying late?
B: I’m studying late so that I can pass the test
10. Using "In Order that" + clause (S + V)
Examples
- She saved money in order that she could buy a new laptop.
- The teacher explained the lesson clearly in order that all the students could understand.
- A: Why are you taking notes?
B: I’m taking notes in order that I can remember everything.

EXERCISE
Instructions: Choose the most appropriate connector (since, as, because, to, in order to, so as
to, for, with the intention of, so that, in order that) to complete each sentence.
1. He studied hard all year ___ he could pass his exams.
a) since b) so that c) in order to d) because

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 2. We decided to go to another one _____ the restaurant was closed.
a) as b) for c) so as to d) in order to
3. She joined a gym ___ improve her fitness.
a) so as to b) for c) because d) in order that
4. They arrived early ___ get good seats.
a) because b) in order to c) as d) for
5. ________ it was raining, we postponed the picnic.
a) Since b) To c) So that d) In order that
6. He would no longer have to take the bus _______ he bought a new car.
a) because b) for c) so as to d) with the intention of
7. I’m calling ___ make a reservation.
a) in order to b) since c) because d) as
8. They moved to the countryside ___ enjoying a quieter life.
a) with the intention of b) so that c) because d) since
9. She brought her umbrella ___ she wouldn’t get wet.
a) so that b) as c) for d) because
10. He opened the window ___ let fresh air in.
a) with the intention of b) so as to c) for d) in order that

VOCABULARY SKILLS: PHRASAL VERBS

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and one or more particles (prepositions) that
together create a meaning different from the individual words.
Examples:
1. Give up - stop trying
- She decided to give up smoking for her health.
2. Look after - take care of someone or something.
- Can you look after my son while I'm on job?
3. Run into - meet someone unexpectedly.
- I ran into an old friend at the store yesterday.
4. Get along - have a friendly relationship.
- They get along well despite their differences.
5. Look forward to - anticipate something with pleasure.
- I look forward to the weekend.
6. Break up with - end a romantic relationship.
- He broke up with his girlfriend last week.
Types of phrasal verbs
Phrasal verbs can also be categorized as transitive or intransitive based on whether they require
an object.
1. Transitive Phrasal Verbs - require a direct object to complete their meaning.
A. Separable phrasal verbs - the object is placed between the verb and the particle.
Examples
- Please turn off the light.
Please turn it off.
- I will pick up the book.
I will pick it up.
- Please put the toys away.

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 - He took the jacket off.
B. Inseparable Phrasal Verbs - the object must follow the entire phrasal verb.
Examples
- I came across an interesting article.
- We need to go through the documents carefully.
2. Intransitive Phrasal Verbs - do not require a direct object.
- They can stand alone without object.
Examples
- I usually wake up early. (No object needed.)
- After a long debate, he finally gave in. (No object needed.)
- My car broke down on the way to work.

Exercise
Instructions: Choose the correct meaning of the underlined phrasal verb in each sentence.

1. She had to give up her seat to the elderly woman on the bus.
a) Continue b) Refuse c) Stop doing something d) Offer
2. I can’t believe you ran into Sarah at the grocery store!
a) Met by chance b) Started an argument c) Left suddenly d) Worked with
3. After the meeting, we decided to call off the event due to the weather.
a) Postpone b) Cancel c) Organize d) Talk about
4. Can you pick up some groceries on your way home?
a) Drop b) Collect c) Pay for d) Eat
5. They finally figured out the problem with the software.
a) Solved b) Forgot c) Created d) Ignored
6. I need to catch up on my reading this weekend.
a) Skip b) Complete c) Avoid d) Discuss
7. He was so angry that he broke down in tears during the conversation.
a) Smiled b) Became emotional c) Left immediately d) Fixed something
8. I’m going to turn down the music because it’s too loud.
a) Increase b) Decrease c) Turn off d) Change
9. She was really nervous, but she pulled through the exam with flying colors.
a) Failed b) Succeeded c) Cheated d) Complained
10. I can't put off the meeting any longer. We need to talk now!
a) Cancel b) Postpone c) Interrupt d) Begin

Instructions: Choose the correct phrasal verb to complete each sentence.

1. I need to ___ my homework before I can go out with my friends.

a) catch up on b) give up c) put off d) break down
2. We should ___ the meeting until next week because of the holiday.
a) turn off b) call off c) take off d) get along
3. She was so tired, but she managed to ___ and finish the project on time.
a) get away b) break down c) pull through d) turn down
4. They had to ___ the old house because it was falling apart.
a) look after b) take up c) move out of d) break up

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 5. He promised to ___ smoking, but it’s been difficult for him.
a) give in b) give up c) take off d) pick up
6. I’m going to ___ the volume on the TV; it's too loud!
a) turn down b) take off c) put off d) look out
7. I’ll need to ___ some new shoes because these are too old now.
a) pick up b) set up c) turn off d) take over
8. They were able to ___ the problem after hours of discussion.
a) break in b) figure out c) pick out d) run into
9. Can you ___ the music while I’m on the phone?
a) turn up b) look after c) get away d) break up
10. I’m sorry I ___ your call earlier. I was in a meeting.
a) turned off b) ran into c) picked up d) gave up

ANALOGY is the relationship between two words.

- It is a comparison between two situations, processes etc. that is intended to show that
the two are similar.
Types
1. Part to Whole: shows how a part contributes to a whole.
Example: Leaf (part) to Tree (whole)
2. Cause and Effect: illustrates how one event (the cause) leads to another event (the effect).
Example: Rain (cause) leads to Wet Ground (effect).
3. Antonyms: have opposite meanings.
Example: Hot (antonym) to Cold.
4. Synonyms: Words that have similar meanings.
Example: Happy (synonym) to Joyful.
5. Definitions: meaning of a word.
Example: "Benevolent" means showing kindness or goodwill.
6. Item Category: Groups of items that share common characteristics.
Example: Fruits (category) includes apples.
: Rose is to Flower as Eagle is to Bird.
7. Time Sequence: The order in which events occur.
Example: Wake up → Eat breakfast
8. Object to Use: The item that serves a particular function.
Example: Knife (object) to Cut Food.
9. Product to Producer: The relationship between an item and the entity that produces it.
Example: Bread (product) to Baker (producer).
10. Degree: Shows a relationship based on intensity or degree.
Example: Warm is to Hot as Cool is to Cold.
11. Action: Compares actions or processes.
Example: Swim is to Water as Fly is to Air.
12. Symbolic: Compares items based on symbolic meaning.
Example: Dove is to Peace as Skull is to Death.

Important points to understand analogies

1. Parts of speech
 Verb to Noun: Run is to Runner as Swim is to Swimmer

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  Adjective to Noun: Happy is to Happiness as Sad is to Sadness
 Noun to Verb: Teacher is to Teach as Doctor is to Heal
 Adverb to Verb: Quickly is to Run as Quietly is to Whisper
 Noun to Adjective: Child is to Playful as Dog is to Loyal
2. Word order
Examples: Painter is to Brush as Carpenter is to Hammer
Musician is to Instrument as Writer is to Pen

Exercise
Instruction: Choose the correct word that completes the analogy.
1. Hot is to Cold as Light is to:
A) Bright B) Dim C) Heavy D) Dark
2. Leaf is to Tree as Petal is to:
A) Flower B) Stem C) Root D) Garden
3. Knife is to Cut as Pen is to:
A) Write B) Erase C) Draw D) Paint
4. Fire is to Heat as Ice is to:
A) Cold B) Water C) Freeze D) Chill
5. Rose is to Flower as Oak is to:
A) Tree B) Leaf C) Branch D) Bark
6. Whisper is to Speak as Shout is to:
A) Yell B) Scream C) Talk D) Murmur
7. Piano is to Music as Paintbrush is to:
A) Art B) Dance C) Poetry D) Theater
8. City is to Country as School is to:
A) Classroom B) Education C) University D) District
9. Dog is to Loyal as Cat is to:
A) Independent B) Playful C) Furry D) Friendly
10. Mountain is to Tall as River is to:
A) Deep B) Flowing C) Wide D) Long
11. Book is to Interesting as Movie is to:
A) Boring B) Exciting C) Long D) Colorful
12. Flower is to Beautiful as Storm is to:
A) Dangerous B) Calm C) Bright D) Strong
13. Car is to Fast as Snail is to: A) Slow B) Quick C) Heavy D) Light

GRAMMAR SKILLS: EXPRESSING RESULT

Result refers to the outcome or effect that follows from a particular cause or action.
Examples
- It was raining heavily, so we decided to stay indoors.
- The project was completed ahead of schedule. Therefore, we were able to present it early.
- He missed the bus; consequently, he was late for the meeting.
- The team worked overtime; as a result, they met the deadline.
- She was the most qualified candidate; hence, she got the job.
- The weather was perfect; thus, we decided to have a picnic.
- The evidence was compelling; accordingly, the jury reached a quick verdict.

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- He trained hard for months; for this reason, he won the championship.
- The company faced financial difficulties; in consequence, layoffs were necessary.
- The project was delayed; that being the case we need to adjust our timeline.
- The company invested in new technology; in turn, this improved productivity.
- She studied hard for her exams so that she could achieve her goals.
- It was such a difficult exam that many students struggled to pass.
- They faced such difficult challenges that they had to rethink their strategy.

EXPRESSING WISHES
 Expressing wishes involves conveying a desire or hope for something that is not
currently true or may not happen.
 It often reflects feelings about the present, past, or future.
Types of Wishes
1. Wishes about the Present:-are used to express a desire for a current situation to be different.
Form: I wish + subject + past simple (past continuous).
Past Simple: is used to express a wish about a current situation that is not true or is different
from reality.
Example: I wish I had a car.(You don’t have a car now.)
- I wish I had more time to relax.
- If only I knew the answer to the question.
- I wish I were taller.
- I wish I had a better job.
Past Continuous: is used to express a wish about an ongoing situation or action that is not
happening.
Example:- I wish I were studying right now. (You are not studying at the moment.)
- I wish I were traveling to Europe this summer. (You are not traveling to
Europe now.)
- She wishes she were working on a more exciting project. (She is not
working on an exciting project at the moment.)
- They wish they were living in a warmer climate. (They are not living in a
warmer climate currently.)
2. Wishes about the Past:- are used to express regret or a desire that a past event had been
different.
Form: I wish + subject + past perfect verb.
Examples
- I wish I had studied harder for the exam.
- I wish I hadn't said those hurtful words.
- I wish I had worked more when I was younger.
3. Wishes about the Future:- are used to express a hope for a future event or situation.
Form: I wish + subject + would/could + base form of the verb.
Examples
- I wish my team would win the championship this year.
- I wish they could see how much they mean to me.
- I wish I could play the piano like a professional.

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  You can express wishes for someone else's situation.
Examples
- I wish you would come to the party.
- I wish my boss would listen to my ideas.
- I wish my neighbor would keep the noise down at night.

NOTE THAT: To determine if a wish is present or future:

• Check for time indicators or contextual clues.
• Assess whether the wish pertains to a current situation or a desired change in the future.

Exercise
I. Choose the correct wish that fits with the sentence
1. They didn’t go to the concert last night.
A) They wish they go to the concert.
B) They wish they had gone to the concert.
C) They wish they were going to the concert.
2. He doesn’t know how to cook.
A) He wishes he know how to cook.
B) He wishes he knew how to cook.
C) He wishes he is knowing how to cook.
3. We aren’t visiting our friends this weekend.
A) We wish we are visiting our friends.
B) We wish we could visit our friends.
C) We wish we visited our friends.

II. Express your wishes based on the given sentences.

PRESENT
1. I don't manage my time.
I wish I managed my time better.
2. She doesn't feel confident in her skills.
_______________________________________
3. I feel lonely.
_______________________________________
4. I'm feeling overwhelmed with my workload.
_______________________________________
5. I don't have enough time for exercise.
_______________________________________
PAST
6. I didn't learn to swim as a child.
I wish I had learned to swim as a child.
7. I didn't take that job offer.
_______________________________________
8. I forgot my friend's birthday last year.
_______________________________________
9. I didn't keep in touch with my old friends.
_______________________________________

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 10. I didn't study for the exam.
_______________________________________
FUTURE
11. I struggle with public speaking.
I wish I would become more confident in public speaking.
12. I may not have enough time to finish my project.
_______________________________________
13. I don't have a pet.
_______________________________________
14. My friend is always late for school.
_______________________________________
15. I can't find my keys.
_______________________________________
16. I may not finish my assignment by the deadline.
_______________________________________

GERUND
A gerund is a verb form that ends in "-ing" and functions as a noun in a sentence. It can
represent an action or a state of being.
Types of gerunds
1. Gerund as a Subject
Examples
- Running is a great way to stay fit.
- Swimming helps improve cardiovascular health.
2. Gerund as an Object
Examples
- She enjoys reading."
- They discussed going to the concert.
3. Gerund as an Object of a Preposition
- usually following a preposition.
Examples
- He is interested in learning new languages.
- They talked about traveling to Europe.
4. Gerund as an Object of a Complement
- usually following a linking verb.
Examples
- Her favorite hobby is painting.
- His dream is becoming a professional musician.

Exercise
Instruction: Choose the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is a gerund? A) Run B) Running C) Ran D) Runs
2. She is interested in _____ new languages. A) learn B) learning C) learns D) learned
3. ________ is my favorite hobby. A) To cook B) Cooking C) Cook D) Cooks

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 4. They talked about ______ to the concert. A) go B) going C) gone D) went
5. He enjoys _____ on weekends. A) to swim B) swimming C) swim D) swims

Instruction: Underline the gerunds in the following sentences and write their function.
1. They discussed going to the museum this weekend. (used as object)
2. Jogging in the park helps clear my mind.
3. Her passion is painting landscapes.
4. He is excited about traveling to new places.
5. She enjoys reading books before bed.

RITING SKILLS: RUN ON SENTENCES

A run-on sentence occurs when two or more independent clauses (complete thoughts) are
joined without proper punctuation or conjunctions. This can lead to confusion and makes the
sentence difficult to read.

Types of Run-On Sentences

1. Fused Sentences: Two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation.
Example: I love to read I go to the library
every week.
2. Comma Splice: Two independent clauses are joined by just a comma, which is incorrect.
Example: I love to read, I go to the library every week.

Ways to Correct Run-On Sentences

1. Use a Period: Separate the clauses into two sentences.
Correction: I love to read. I go to the library every week.
2. Use a Semicolon: Connect the clauses with a semicolon if they are closely related.
Correction: I love to read; I go to the library every week.
3. Use coordinating conjunctions: Add a conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) after a
comma.
Correction: "I love to read, and I go to the library every week.
4. Use a Subordinating Conjunction: Turn one of the independent clauses into a dependent
clause.
Correction: Because I love to read, I go to the library every week.
Examples
- Run-On: She enjoys hiking she goes every weekend.
Correction: She enjoys hiking; she goes every weekend.
- Run-On: It was raining I stayed inside.
Correction: It was raining, so I stayed inside.

Exercise

Instruction: Read each sentence below. If it is a run-on sentence, write "Run-On" on the
line. If it is a correct sentence, write "Correct."

1. The sun was shining brightly we decided to go for a picnic. __________

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 2. I love reading books my favorite genre is fantasy. __________
3. Sarah went to the store, and she bought some milk. __________
4. The dog barked loudly it woke up the baby. __________
5. We went to the park we played basketball. __________

Instruction: Correct the following run-on sentences. Rewrite them as two sentences, or
connect them using proper punctuation or conjunctions.

1. I was hungry I made a sandwich.

Correction: ___________________________________________
2. She enjoys painting her favorite medium is watercolor.
Correction: ___________________________________________
3. The cat jumped onto the table it knocked over a glass.
Correction: ___________________________________________
4. We wanted to go to the beach it started raining.
Correction: ___________________________________________
5. John studied hard for the exam he passed with flying colors.
Correction: ___________________________________________

LETTER WRITING – TYPES, FORMAT AND EXAMPLES

What is a letter?
A Letter is a written, typed, or printed communication, sent in an envelope by post or
messenger. Basically it is a written form of communication where in one can write by hand or
type information on paper and send through post or by hand.

Individuals can express themselves thoughtfully and clearly through letter writing, which
provides a concrete and long-lasting record of contact. It can be used to make professional
connections, maintain relationships, resolve disagreements, or communicate critical
information.

Types of Letters
Letter writing is classified into numerous forms based on its aim and content. Here are several
examples:

Informal Letters: Informal letter writing is a more casual and personal form of communication
typically used between friends, family members, or acquaintances. Here are some common
types of informal letters:
1. Friendly Letters: These letters are casual and conversational, exchanged between
friends, close relatives, or acquaintances. They can include personal updates, shared
experiences, and friendly conversations.
2. Thank-You Letters: Informal thank-you letters are used to express gratitude for a gift,
favor, support, or any act of kindness. They often contain heartfelt appreciation and
personal anecdotes.

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 3. Invitation Letters: Informal invitations are sent to friends or family members to invite
them to events such as parties, gatherings, celebrations, or informal get-togethers. These
letters provide details about the event, including date, time, venue, and any specific
instructions.
4. Congratulations Letters: These letters are written to congratulate someone on an
achievement, milestone, or special occasion. They can be sent to friends or family
members to express joy and admiration.
5. Condolence Letters: Informal condolence letters are written to express sympathy and
support to someone who has experienced a loss or bereavement. These letters offer words
of comfort, condolences, and personal memories of the deceased.
6. Apology Letters: When you want to apologize for a mistake or wrongdoing to a friend
or family member, you can write an informal apology letter. These letters express
remorse, take responsibility for the actions, and seek forgiveness.
7. Letters of Appreciation: Informal letters of appreciation are used to show appreciation
for someone’s efforts, help, support, or any positive impact they have had on your life.
These letters express gratitude and highlight the value of the person’s contribution.

Formal Letters: Formal letter writing is a formal writing style used for professional or official
correspondence. It adheres to a predetermined format and employs a respectful
tone. Formal letters are frequently produced for a variety of reasons, including
job applications, corporate correspondence, official complaints, requests, or
inquiries.
 There are various types of formal letters, each serving a specific purpose in
professional or official communication. Here are some common types of formal
letters:
1. Business Letters: These letters are exchanged between businesses, companies, or
individuals engaged in professional relationships. They can include letters of inquiry,
sales letters, complaint letters, job application letters, recommendation letters, and more.
2. Recommendation Letters: These letters are written to provide a reference or
recommendation for an individual applying for a job, academic program, or other
opportunities. They discuss the person’s skills, qualifications, and suitability for the
position or program.

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 3. Invitation Letters: These letters are sent to invite individuals or organizations to attend
an event, such as conferences, seminars, meetings, or social gatherings. They provide
details about the event, including the date, time, venue, and purpose.
4. Complaint Letters: When a customer or client is dissatisfied with a product, service, or
experience, they may write a complaint letter to express their concerns. These letters aim
to seek resolution or compensation for the issue at hand.
5. Academic Letters: Academic letters are often written by students or researchers.
Examples include application letters for academic programs, formal communication with
professors or institutions, and letters of recommendation for academic pursuits.
 For details on the different types of formal letters, check these links-
1. Letter to the editor
2. Letter to the Government
3. Letter to the police
4. Letter to the principal
5. Order letter
6. Complaint letter
7. Enquiry letter
8. Business letter
9. Application letter for job
10. Letter to the Bank manager
11. Invitation letter
12. Resignation letter
13. Leave Application
14. Leave Application for marriage
15. Leave Application for maternity

Difference between Formal Letter and Informal Letter

Formal letters are usually written for official reasons. A formal letter, also known as an official
letter, and it is written in a formal language with a specific structure and layout.

An informal letter is a personal letter, you may want to ask for something, or communicate with
a friend far away.

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 Aspects Informal
Formal

Language and
Formal and polite Colloquial, friendly
tone

Business, officials, school /

Addressed to Friend, cousin, siblings, parents, relatives
college authority, editor

Format To be followed strictly Not so strict, can vary

Tips
There are certain essential tips that one should follow and remember when writing a letter.
1. Understand the Purpose: Having a clear aim will help you arrange your letter effectively.
2. Be Polite and Respectful: Throughout the letter, use courteous and respectful language.
3. Organize the Information: Divide your letter into paragraphs to make it more reasonable.
4. Include pertinent information: To reinforce your point, include pertinent information, facts, or
supporting proof.
5. Proofread and edit your message completely before sending it to ensure that it is free of grammar,
spelling, and punctuation issues.

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 Examples of Formal and Informal Letters

A. Informal Letters
Example 1

Oromia, Ambo
Ambo Ifa Boru Special
Boarding School

15 October 2024

Dear Meskerem

How have you been? I hope my letter finds you in the best of health and spirits. It has been
almost two months since I moved to the boarding school. I am very happy in my new school.
The classes and dormitories are very spacious. There are well equipped science laboratories and
a library with a great collection of books. The school also provides instructions in French,
Arabic and Chinese in addition to English.

I believe my life here will be interesting and enjoyable. Although I have made many new
friends, I still miss you and the other friends. Please, pay my regards to your parents.

Best,
Ayantu

Example 2
Addis Ababa
Lideta

November 11, 2024

Dear Ayantu
My happiness knew no bounds when I got to know that you have topped your school and
achieved your dream. I felt so pleased that I wished I were there to congratulate you personally.
The result has proved that hard work, determination, and perseverance bring good results. You
were so laborious and passionate about it. I know you were very nervous too, but I was always
very confident that you would come out with flying colors. I apologize that I couldn’t even
attend the celebration party despite my wishes.

Hope to see you soon. Please be encouraged and continue your hard work. Your future is very
bright. My parents and elder sister have sent lots of love and heartiest congratulations.

With lots of love and best wishes.

Yours lovingly

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Mesk

B. Formal Letters

Example 1

Addis Ababa
Merkto

12th July 2024

The Editor
The Herald
Addis Ababa

Subject: An appeal to raise concern about the incorrect disposal of protective masks

Dear Sir/Madam

With great respect and faith in the columns of your newspaper, I, Robel, a resident of Merkato,
am writing to you. I want to inform you that face masks, which are widely used for safety against
Covid-19, are being discarded in inappropriate locations by a segment of the population.

Face masks are being worn by a growing number of individuals to be safe from the disease, but
disposing them away anywhere is not acceptable as it can cause many health related as well as
environmental issues. People dump these masks carelessly in places like roadsides, pavements,
gardens, etc. The elastic bands on these can pose a death threat for the animals who mindlessly
chew them. Also, these are a hub of germs and microbes and can spread infections. Proper
disposal of face masks is crucial for prevention of spread of diseases.

I would like to request the residents, through the columns of your prestigious publication, to stop
careless discarding of their used masks. The government agencies should sensitize people
regarding this issue.

Thanking you in anticipation

Yours faithfully
Robel

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Tamiru Yibeltal
Addis Ababa

July, 2023

Queens College
Addis Ababa

Dear sir/madam,

I am eagerly applying for the position of English teacher.

I accomplished MA Degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) at Addis Ababa

University. I also got my first degree in Accounting and Finance at St. Mary’s University.

In addition to my university training, I have held 10 years experience in the field of teaching.
My position with teaching have taught me to manage my time efficiently, to meet deadlines,
adapt readily to new responsibilities, work as a team member, and function well under pressure.

In my present role as a teacher, I have had many achievements, including being model teacher
in Addis Ketema sub city government high schools.

I would relish the opportunity to bring this level of success to your company. If you would like
to get in touch to discuss my application and to arrange an interview, you can contact me via
0989 … or tamiru1@gmail.com.

Thank you for your time and consideration. I look forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully,
Tamiru Yibeltal

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WORD CHOICE IN FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS
1. Salutation (Greeting)

 Formal Letter:
o Use titles and full names.
 "Dear Mr. Smith,"
 "Dear Dr. Brown,"
 "To Whom It May Concern," (if recipient is unknown)
 Dear sir/madam (if recipient is unknown)
o Avoid overly casual terms like "Hi" or "Hello."
 Informal Letter:
o Use first names or casual greetings.
 "Hi John,"
 "Hello Mary,"
 "Dear Emma,"

1. Body

 Formal Letter:
o Tone: Polite, professional, and concise.
o Structure: Organized with clear paragraphs, often beginning with the purpose of
the letter.
 Example: I am writing to inform you about...
Kindly let me know if you require further details.
o Avoid contractions and slang. Use complete sentences.
 Example: Use "I am" instead of "I'm."
 Informal Letter:
o Tone: Friendly, conversational, and personal.
o Structure: Flexible, can be more expressive and less rigid in paragraphing.
 Example: Hope you’re doing well! It’s been ages since we last caught up.
o Contractions and casual phrases are acceptable.
 Example: Use "I'm" or "can't" instead of "I am" or "cannot."

2. Closing

 Formal Letter:
o Use respectful and standard closings.
 Examples:
 "Sincerely,"
 "Yours faithfully," (when addressing an unknown recipient)
 "Yours sincerely," (when addressing a known recipient)
 "Best regards,"
 Informal Letter:
o Use casual and friendly closings.
 Examples:
 "Best,"

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  "Take care,"
 "Love," "Cheers,"

Exercise

Instruction: Choose the correct answer for the following questions.

1. Choose the most appropriate salutation for a formal letter.

a) Hi Sarah, b) Dear Mr. Anderson, c) Hey there, d) Hello buddy!
2. What type of tone should you use in a formal letter?
a) Casual and relaxed c) Playful and humorous
b) Polite and professional d) Informal and emotional
3. Which of the following is the correct closing for a formal letter?
a) Sincerely, b) Love, c) Cheers, d) Take care,
4. Identify the sentence that best fits in the body of a formal letter.
a) "Just dropping a quick note to say hi!"
b) "I hope this email finds you well. I am writing to request clarification regarding..."
c) "Hey, what’s up? Let me know if you’re free to meet up!"
d) "Long time no see! How’s everything going?"
5. In an informal letter, how would you address a friend?
a) To Whom It May Concern, c) Hey Alex,
b) Dear Dr. Smith, d) Dear Sir/Madam,
6. What is the purpose of a formal letter?
a) To share personal updates with friends
b) To communicate professional or official information
c) To invite someone to a casual party
d) To express informal gratitude
7. Which of the following is NOT suitable for a formal letter?
a) Avoiding contractions (e.g., "cannot" instead of "can't")
b) Using slang (e.g., "cool" or "yeah")
c) Being concise and to the point
d) Using a professional tone
8. What is the most suitable introduction for an informal letter?
a) "I am writing to inform you about…"
b) "Hope you’re doing well! It’s been so long since we last talked."
c) "Please find attached the details…"
d) "I would like to draw your attention to…"
9. What is a key feature of informal letters?
a) Clear paragraph structure and no personal expressions
b) Use of slang, personal anecdotes, and casual tone
c) Focus on professional tone and no contractions
d) Formality and strictly professional vocabulary
10. What is the purpose of the closing line in a formal letter?
a) To leave a lasting impression with a joke
b) To end the letter with a casual farewell

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 c) To summarize the main purpose and express gratitude
d) To include emojis or drawings

Set by: H/michael Teshome

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