CROP SCIENCE

(Agriculturist Licensure Examination 2022)

RUSSEL VAN R. ROA
BETHEL GRACE P. TABAN
CONTENT (Crop Science I)
1. Agriculture and Crop Science
2. Classification of Crops
3. Nature and Composition of Plants
4. Physiological Processes Affecting Crop
Production
5. Growth and Development of Crops
6. Plant Growth Regulation
Nature and Composition of Plants

CONTENTS:
1. Overview of Plant Structure
2. Plant Cells
3. Plant Tissue and Tissue
Systems
4. Major Plant Organs
Nature and Composition of Plants
General Overview of Plant Structure
• All plants have similar body plan despite
immense diversity
• Composed of 3 major organs:
a. Stem – supports the aboveground parts
b. Roots – anchorage; for water and nutrient absorption
c. Leaves – gas exchange; transpiration and photosynthesis
• Roots and shoots grow vertically; leaves grow
laterally.
• Leaves’ lateral exposure captures light.
• Stem elongate upward to elevate the leaves to
capture sunlight.
• Roots elongate downwards to search for nutrients
and water.
Nature and Composition of Plants
THE PLANT CELLS
Consists of the:
a. Apoplast – the cell
wall
b. Protoplast – “living
component”” of the
cell that includes
the plasma
membrane and the
organelles
Nature and Composition of Plants
Cell Walls
• Imparts stability and rigidity to

Heldt, H.W. et al. 2010. Plant Biochemistry. Academic Press. Elsevier.

Cellulose
the cells
• Made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose, pectins &
expansins
• Cell walls are cemented together
Hemicellulose
by middle lamella
• There are two types of cell walls:
• Primary walls – thin; growing cells.
• Secondary walls – thick due to lignin
Pectins
Nature and Composition of Plants

Plasmodesmata
• Enables exchange of developmental
signals through proteins, nucleic
acids and other macromolecules.
• Intercellular transport through
plasmodesmata is called symplastic
transport.
• Transport through the wall spaces or
apoplast is called apoplastic
transport.
Heldt, H.W. et al. 2010. Plant Biochemistry. Academic Press. Elsevier.
Nature and
Composition of
Plants
Plasma membrane
• Outer fluid boundary of the living
cytoplasm
• Selective barrier that allows the entry
of oxygen, nutrients and waste to
service the entire cells.
• Consists of phospholipid bilayer.

Taiz, L. et al. 2015. Plant Physiology and Development 6th Ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc. USA.
Nature and Composition of Plants

Cytoplasm
• A term describing the organelles
suspended in the cytosol.
• Cytosol – semi-fluid substance filling
the interior of the cell and embedding
the other organelles and subcellular
compartments

Heldt, H.W. et al. 2010. Plant Biochemistry. Academic Press. Elsevier.

Nature and Composition of Plants
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Major source of membrane
phosphopids, membrane proteins
and act as protein cargo.
• Smooth ER – performs lipid synthesis
(oil, steroids and new membrane
phospholipids); for drug and poison
detoxification; stores calcium ions.
• Rough ER – has ribosomes which
perform protein synthesis;
membrane factory by incorporating
membrane proteins and lipids on its
own membrane.
https://microbenotes.com/rough-vs-smooth-endoplasmic-reticulum/
Nature and Composition of Plants

Ribosomes
• Protein factories that consist rRNA
and proteins.
• Free ribosomes – suspended in the
cytosol.
• Bound ribosomes – attached to the ER
or on the nuclear envelope.

Taiz, L. et al. 2015. Plant Physiology and Development 6th Ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc. USA.
Nature and Composition of Plants

Vacuoles
• Occupies 95% of the cell volume
surrounded by a membrane (tonoplast).
• Increase in volume of cells is primarily
due to enlargement of vacuole.
• Maintain cell turgor by accumulation of
salts from organic and inorganic acids
• Lytic vacuoles – degrades
macromolecules into simpler forms to
be used by the cells.

Taiz, L. et al. 2015. Plant Physiology and Development 6th Ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc. USA.
Nature and Composition of Plants

Mitochondria
• Site of cellular respiration that
uses oxygen to produce ATP
from sugars, fats, and other
fuel sources.
• “Powerhouse of the cells”

Taiz, L. et al. 2015. Plant Physiology and Development 6th Ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc. USA.
Nature and Composition of Plants
Plastids
• Cell organelles which only occur in plant
cells.
• Descended from proplastids in the egg
cells which becomes:
➢Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll and
appears green; site of photosynthesis.
➢Chromoplast – high in carotenoid
pigments which appears red, orange
and yellow.
➢Leucoplast
✓ Amyloplast - stores starch in non-green
tissues such as roots, tubers and seeds
✓ Elaioplast – storage of fatty acids,
terpenes and other lipids.
✓ Proteinoplast – contains crystalline
bodies of proteins

Taiz, L. et al. 2015. Plant Physiology and Development 6th Ed. Sinauer Associates, Inc. USA.
Nature and Composition of Plants
Plastids
• Cell organelles which only occur in plant
cells.
• Descended from proplastids in the egg
cells which becomes:
➢Chloroplast – contains chlorophyll and
appears green; site of photosynthesis.
➢Chromoplast – high in carotenoid
pigments which appears red, orange
and yellow.
➢Leucoplast – non-pigmented
✓ Amyloplast - stores starch in non-green
tissues such as roots, tubers and seeds
✓ Elaioplast – storage of fatty acids,
terpenes and other lipids.
✓ Proteinoplast – contains crystalline
bodies of proteins

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid
Nature and Composition of Plants

Golgi Apparatus
• It is where the proteins are processed
and sorted out for transport to other
organelles.
• In plants, Golgi apparatus functions as
site where complex polysaccharides in
the cell walls are made.

Heldt, H.W. et al. 2010. Plant Biochemistry. Academic Press. Elsevier.

Nature and Composition of Plants
Microbodies
• Spherical organelles enclosed
in a single membrane
specializing in one or several
metabolic activities.
• Peroxisomes and
glyoxysomes specialize in the
beta-oxidation of fatty acids
and metabolism of glyoxylate.
• Catalase – the most abundant
enzyme that splits hydrogen
peroxide to water, releasing
oxygen. Forms crystalline
array.
Nature and Composition
of Plants

Nucleus
• Contains the genetic material which
codes for proteins for cellular
metabolism, growth and
differentiation.
• Enclosed in a nuclear envelope.
• Nucleolus – site of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) synthesis out from the genes
in the DNA.
Nature and Composition of Plants

PLANT TISSUE AND TISSUE SYSTEMS

1. Meristematic Tissues
2. Dermal Tissues
3. Ground Tissues
4. Vascular Tissues
Nature and Composition of Plants

Meristematic Tissues
• Areas where cells are actively
dividing or where nuclear division Apical Meristem – primary growth
(mitosis) and cell division
(cytokinesis) is highly
concentrated.
Intercalary Meristem
Nature and Composition of Plants

Meristematic Tissues

Lateral Meristem – secondary growth

Nature and Composition of Plants
Dermal Tissue
• Outer protective layer of the plant
composed of:
• Epidermis – mechanical protection; reduce
water loss due to cuticle; aerates internal
tissues via stomata.
• Periderm – protective tissues in the roots
and stems in the absence of epidermis;
aerates internal tissues via lenticels.
Nature and Composition of Plants
Ground Tissues
• Fills out the three-dimensional bulk of
the plant.
• Parenchyma – have thin and flexible
primary walls; storage site for starches,
proteins, oils, etc.
• Collenchyma – elongated cells with thick
walls; provide support to elongated
stems.
• Sclerenchyma – have thickened lignified
walls; provides permanent support; aids
in conduction of water as in the xylem.
Sclerenchyma cells
Nature and Composition of Plants

Vascular
Tissues

• Xylem – delivers water and nutrient • Phloem – translocates photosynthetic

upward from the roots into the products from the leaves to the storage
shoots. organs and actively dividing cells
Nature and Composition of Plants

Plant Organs:
1. Roots
2. Stems
3. Leaves
4. Flowers
5. Seeds
Nature and Composition of Plants
Roots
• Anchors plants into the soil; absorbs
water and soil minerals
• Stores carbohydrates and other food
reserves (root crops).
• Primary root – first to emerge after
germination (radicle).
• Secondary root – arise from primary root
which increases water and nutrient
acquisition.
• Taproot system – has one main vertical
root which enhance plant anchorage;
makes the plants grow taller.
• Fibrous system – found among
monocots; has a thick mat of slender
roots;
Nature and Composition of Plants
Roots
• Adventitious roots – roots that grow in unusual locations such as prop roots in
corn.
• Absorption happens on root hairs near the root tips of elongating roots which
comes from the pericycle.

Prop roots
Nature and Composition of Plants

Stems
• Bears the leaves and buds derive from
epicotyl of seedlings.
• Consists of alternating nodes where the
lateral shoots arise.
• Raises the leaves and flowers to enhance
sunlight exposure and facilitate pollination,
respectively.
 Nature and Composition of Plants
Stems Modifications

Rhizomes Suckers Tubers

Stolons/runners Bulb corm

Nature and Composition of Plants
Leaves
• Consist of a flattened blade (lamina) and
petiole --- attaches itself to the nodes.
• Site of photosynthesis, gas exchange, and
transpiration (for heat dissipation).
• Some leaves have important physical and
chemical attributes to prevent herbivory by
animals.

Stomatal
opening and
closing
Nature and Composition of Plants
Economically useful parts
Leaf sheath in Abaca Spathe Terminal buds

Spathe

Spadix

Leafy vegetables

Bracts
 Flowers
Nature and
• Organ for reproduction in most
angiosperms
Composition of
• Accessory parts:
▪ Petals (corolla) – highly colored used to
Plants
attract pollinators
▪ Sepals (calyx) – green leaf structure
which encloses the bud at early stage.
▪ Receptacle – enlarged base of a flower
where floral organs are arranged.
• Essential parts
▪ Pistil (gynoecium) – female
❑ Ovary – contains ovules > seeds
❑ Stigma – pollen landing site
❑ Style – connects the ovary and stigma
▪ Stamen (androecium) – male
❑ Anther – contains the pollen
❑ Filament – stalk of the anther
Nature and Composition of Plants
Classification of Flowers
Complete – have all the parts Monoecious – both male and female parts are
Incomplete – lacks one of the parts found in one plant
Dioecious – male and female parts are found
in different plants of the same species
Perfect – has pistil and stamen
Imperfect – either pistil or stamen is
present

Dioecious
Staminate – stamen only
Pilstillate – pistil only

Female papaya
Male papaya
Nature and Composition of Plants
Fruits
• Mature, ripened ovary resulting from
fertilization of the egg cell.
• Parthenocarpy – fruit development
without fertilization like banana,
pineapple, and seedless grapes.
• Consists of three layers:
• Exocarp – outer covering which is
colored, thick and has oil glands beneath
the surface.
• Mesocarp – middle part that is often
fleshy (mangoes) or fibrous (coconut).
• Endocarp – boundary around the seed
and maybe hard and stony or papery.
Nature and Composition of Plants
Parthenocarpy in Fruits
• Parthenocarpy – fruit development
without fertilization like in banana,
pineapple, and seedless grapes.
• Application of hormones like auxin,
gibberellins and cytokinin induces
parthenocarpy.
• Parthenocarpy is important in citrus for
fresh consumption.
• Parthenocarpy happens naturally through:
• Lack of pollination
• Pollination but with no fertilization
• After fertilization, the embryo is aborted.
Nature and Composition of Plants
General Classification of Fruits
Nature and Composition of Plants
Classification Fruits

1. Simple Fruits – formed from single pistil

Dry Fruits
a. Dehiscent
Fleshy Fruits i. Legume
a. Drupe ii. Follicle
iii. Capsule
b. Berry
b. Indehiscent
i. Pepo
i. Achene
ii. Hesperidium ii. Nut
c. Pome iii. Grain/caryopsis
iv. Samara
v. Schizocarp
Nature and Composition of Plants
Fleshy Fruits
▪ One seeded fruit arising from superior ovary
Drupe ▪ Exocarp is relatively thin
▪ Mesocarp is either fleshy or fibrous
▪ Endocarp is stony or hard
Berry ▪ Exocarp is thin and distinct
▪ Mesocarp and endocarp are fused, enlarged
and juicy

Hesperidium ▪ Exocarp or rind is leathery

▪ Fruit is divided by septa which indicates the
number of carpels the fruits have
Nature and Composition of Plants
Fleshy Fruits

▪ Exocarp or rind is thick and hard at maturity

Pepo ▪ Has fused endocarp and mesocarp not
divided by septa.

Pome ▪ Accessory fleshy fruit formed by a group of

carpels firmly united with each other and
surrounded by and united to the floral tube or
receptacle.
Nature and Composition of Plants
Dry Fruits - Dehiscent
▪ Developed from 1 carpel which splits along
Legume both the ventral and dorsal sutures at
maturity

Follicle ▪ Developed from 1 carpel which splits along

only 1 suture

Capsule ▪ Developed from several carpels

▪ It has many types such as: loculicidal,
septicidal, silique, silicle, pyxis, poricidal
Nature and Composition of Plants
Dry Fruits – Indehiscent
▪ One seed is attached to the fruit wall at a
single point (sunflower)
Achene

▪ Similar to achene but with the fruit wall

greatly hardened and thickened
Nut

▪ Similar to achene although the fruit wall and

Grain/caryopsis the seed coat are fused
Nature and Composition of Plants
Dry Fruits – Indehiscent

Achene
Nature and Composition of Plants
Dry Fruits – Indehiscent

▪ One- to two-seeded fruit in which part of the

Samara
fruit wall grows out into a wing

▪ Fruits formed from several carpels and each

carpel of the pistil encloses a single ovule at
maturity
Schizocarp
▪ The carpels separate as separate indehiscent
fruits
Nature and Composition of Plants
Fruits

2. Aggregate Fruits – fruit formed by the 3. Multiple Fruits – derived from many flowers
development of a number of pistil from which are usually clustered such as in
the same flower such as in strawberry pineapple, rimas, jackfruit
Nature and Composition of Plants

Seeds
▪ Ripened ovule consisting of
embryo and stored food supply
enclosed in a seed coat
▪ Dicotyledon – embryo lies
within the axis of 2 cotyledons
▪ Monocotyledon – consist of
seed coat, endosperm and
emryo
Nature and Composition of Plants

Part of the Seed

▪ Embryo – rudimentary plant inside the seed
▪ Hilum – scar on the seed coat where it was
attached to the ovary wall.
▪ Micropyle – seed pores
▪ Radicle – future root system
▪ Plumule – future shoot system
▪ Seed coat – outer protective layer
▪ Hypocotyl – part just above the roots and
below the cotyledonary stalk
▪ Endosperm – food reserves
Hilum?
Nature and Composition of Plants
Types of Seeds
▪ Dries out naturally in the plant at (<20%) moisture
▪ Can be dried to low MC (<5%) without damage
Orthodox ▪ Can be stored at low temperatures
▪ Examples: rice, corn, beans, vegetable seeds
▪ Can withstand desiccation to about 10-12% MC and can
be stored under hermetic conditions
Intermediate ▪ Lose viability more rapidly at low temperature (<10°C)
than at warm temperature
▪ Coffee, oil palm, papaya, citrus, star apple, chico
▪ Do not normally dry in mother plant (shed in moist
conditions at 50-70% MC)
Recalcitrant ▪ Killed if MC is reduced below critical values (12-30%)
▪ Susceptible to freezing (below 0°C) or chilling (10-15°C)
▪ jackfruit, cacao, rambutan, lanzones, mango
QUIZ
1. These meristematic tissues are responsible for secondary growth
especially in dicots.
a. Lateral meristem
b. Apical meristem
c. Intercalary meristem
d. Merry meristem
2. Most cucurbits have this fleshy fruit type.
a. Hesperidium
b. Pome
c. Pepo
d. Berry
QUIZ
3. This type of plastid contains carotenoid pigments which impart color in
most fruits
a. Chloroplast
b. leucoplast
c. Chromoplast
d. amyloplast
4. These plants are adapted to thriving in arid areas as observed in most
species of cacti.
a. Halophytes
b. Mesophytes
c. Hydrophytes
d. Xerophytes
QUIZ
5. A phenomenon where fruits are developed without fertilization.
a. Autophagy
b. Seedlessness
c. Parthenocarpy
d. Both b & c
6. Most seeds of vegetables and cereal crops has this type of seeds
a. Orthodox
b. Intermediate
c. Recalcitrant
d. Edible seeds
QUIZ
7. This type of cells are mostly dead at maturity which specializes in water
and nutrient assimilation.
a. Parenchyma
b. Collenchyma
c. Sclerenchyma
d. Guard cells
8. Seeds of this type do not normally dry up in the mother plant and are
vulnerable to chilling and freezing injury.
a. Orthodox
b. Intermediate
c. Recalcitrant
d. Edible seeds
QUIZ
9. The husk in coconut and edible flesh of mango are what parts of the fleshy
fruit anatomy?
a. Pericarp
b. Exocarp
c. mesocarp
d. endocarp
10. These stems usually grow horizontally along the soil surface
a. tubers
b. rhizomes
c. stolons
d. suckers
QUIZ
11. What cells in the leaf that specialize in photosynthesis?
a. Guard cells
b. Mesophyll cells
c. Bundle sheath cells
d. Phloem cells
12. This structure is formed from ovary after fertilization of the egg cells.
a. flowers
b. fruits
c. seeds
d. leaves
QUIZ
13. Potato – tubers; taro -
a. suckers
b. rhizome
c. corm
d. tuber
14. Pods of mungbean and soybean are what type of dry fruits?
a. Dehiscent
b. Indehiscent
c. Superdehiscent
d. fleshy
QUIZ
15. A cell organelle where sugars, fats and other fuels are metabolized to
generate energy and carbon dioxide.
a. vacuole
b. mitochondria
c. nucleus
d. ribosomes
16. All members of the Rutaceae have this type of fleshy fruit.
a. Pome
b. Drupe
c. Pepo
d. Hesperidium
QUIZ
17. Seeds of mango and cacao have this type of seed
a. Orthodox
b. Intermediate
c. Recalcitrant
d. Edible seeds
18. Cucurbita maxima and Citrullus lanatus have this type of fleshy fruit.
a. Pome
b. Drupe
c. Pepo
d. Hesperidium