UX design principles

Chapter 4: Different Design approaches

The advent of technology has opened up myriad opportunities for different sectors, including
the sphere of agriculture, where technological advancements are increasingly being harnessed
to improve farm productivity and management (Rotz et al., 2019). Among these
advancements, the role of design, specifically User Experience (UX) design and Design
Thinking, has emerged as an imperative component to ensure the effective utilisation and
acceptance of agricultural technology by farmers.

The interconnection between agriculture and design is an evolving discourse. Agriculture has
always been associated with traditional practices that were handed down through
generations. Yet, in the face of growing demands for food security and sustainability,
modernisation through technology adoption is the inevitable path forward (Schmidhuber
and Tubiello, 2007). However, this modernisation process is not without challenges. Many
digital tools developed for farmers fail to gain traction because they overlook the
importance of design in bridging the gap between technology and its users, a key
determinant of a product's success (Grudin, 1992).

Design, as a discipline, aims to shape and improve the human experience of the world
(Norman, 2013). In the context of agricultural technology, it goes beyond mere aesthetics
and deals with the overall experience of farmers, in this case. Design thus plays a crucial role
in making agricultural technologies more user-friendly, adaptable, and efficient in achieving
their goals, such as the management of farm finances.

The role of design in agriculture technology has multiple dimensions. UX Design and Design
Thinking are among the key methodologies that are being increasingly employed to devise
user-centric solutions in agriculture. Their relevance is underscored by their emphasis on
understanding the user's needs, context, and behaviour, critical aspects in developing
agricultural applications that align with the requirements and capabilities of farmers
(Giaccardi and Karana, 2015).

The importance of these design methodologies in the agricultural context stems from their
potential to increase the adoption and effectiveness of technology among farmers. Since
agriculture operates in a highly complex and variable environment, the solutions need to be
adaptable and contextual, which is precisely what UX Design and Design Thinking enable
(Dorst, 2011). These methodologies place the farmer at the centre of the design process,
facilitating the creation of tools that are more likely to be accepted and used effectively by
the farming community.
1. User Experience (UX) Design
1.1.Definition and Core Principles
The domain of User Experience (UX) Design constitutes a broad spectrum of elements
related to a user's interaction with a product, service, or system. The aim is to augment user
satisfaction by focusing on the improvement of usability, accessibility, and delight derived
from the user-product interaction (Garrett, 2010). A user-centric design tends to enhance
product ease-of-use, utility, and enjoyment. The discipline of UX Design emphasises the
emotional responses, preferences, and perceptions of users during their interaction and
post-interaction phase with a product or service.

The term User Experience was first found by Don Norman during his worktime at Apple in
the 1990s. His vision was to group all facets of the user's interaction with a company, its
services, and its products. As such, Norman (2013) envisaged User Experience as "an all-
encompassing concept related to all interactions between the end-user and the company, its
services, and its products." Therefore, UX Design surpasses the boundaries of physical
interactions with a product or system and reflects the comprehensive experience a user
garners from interacting with a company or service.

The process of UX Design involves a deep understanding of the users, their needs, their pain-
point, their abilities, and their limitations, it also takes into account their goals and objectives
tied to the product or service. All design decisions are centred around these principles to
provide a balance between user satisfaction and meeting their needs(Rubin and Chisnell,
2008).

Several key principles form the foundation of UX Design:

● Understanding the User and their Context: This principle accentuates the importance of
understanding the end-user and the context in which they will be using the product. This
understanding encompasses the user's goals, abilities, preferences, and inclinations.
(Vredenburg et al., 2002).
● User Involvement Throughout the Design and Development Process: UX Design
necessitates user involvement throughout the design and development phase to ensure
that the end product aligns with the user's needs and is user-friendly. User involvement
can take many forms, including user testing, surveys, focus groups, and interviews (Kujala
et al., 2003).
● Iterative Design: Designing is a repetitive process, typically characterised by a cycle of
prototyping, testing, analysis, and refining a product or process. Changes and
 improvements are made based on the results obtained from testing the most recent
version of a design (Nielsen, 1993).
● Designing for a Comprehensive User Experience: UX Design not only concentrates on
designing a product that's easy to use but also on providing an overall pleasant
experience. This includes considering all different elements that shape the user's
perception of a product or service, such as its performance, reliability, and emotional
appeal (Desmet and Hekkert, 2007).
● Accessibility: UX Design underscores that products should be designed to be accessible
and usable by individuals with the widest range of abilities, in a broad array of situations
(World Wide Web Consortium, 2018). This could include that the application is friendly
for illiterate people and can pass the language barrier challenges.
1.2.The UX Design Process: From Research to Implementation
The User Experience (UX) Design process is a systematic and iterative methodology that
begins with a deep understanding of the users and their needs and ends with the creation of
user-centric solutions. This process is not linear but rather cyclical, indicating that the design
process is continuous, where each iteration builds upon the learnings of the previous ones.
Below is a comprehensive breakdown of the process from the research phase to
implementation (Hassenzahl & Tractinsky, 2006).

Figure 3 : UX design Process (Source: Image from https://www.kellton.com/kellton-tech-

blog/the-ux-design-process-a-step-by-step-guide)
a. User Research:

User research, an essential pillar of the User Experience (UX) design process, enables
designers to gain insights into users' requirements, aspirations, and behaviours. It ensures
the creation of products that are deeply rooted in user needs and offer meaningful
experiences. This section aims to expound on the significance of user research and the
different methodologies it employs (Baxter et al., 2019).

User research functions as a compass that directs the design process, providing clarity about
the users and their needs. Its goal is to provide invaluable insights into the user's
environment, knowing their expectations, motivations, challenges, and goals. These insights
serve as the foundation on which user-centric designs are built, therefore reducing the risk
of developing products that don't align with user needs. A deep understanding of the user is
essential for successful UX design and user research provides the tools to acquire this
understanding (Courage & Baxter, 2005).

The user research phase commences with the identification of the target user group. Once
identified, a variety of methodologies may be deployed to collect data about the users. The
choice of methodology depends on factors such as the nature of the project, available
resources, and specific research questions.

⮚ Surveys: Surveys are a useful tool for gathering quantitative data from a large population.
They can provide information on user demographics, behaviours, attitudes, and
experiences. However, they often lack the depth of qualitative methods (Rubin & Chisnell,
2008).
⮚ Interviews: Interviews offer a more in-depth exploration of individual user experiences.
They can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured and provide qualitative data
that brings the user's story to life (Baxter et al., 2019).
⮚ Observational Studies: Observational studies involve observing users in their natural
environment to understand their behaviours, workflows, and pain points. This
methodology provides context-rich insights and can reveal unexpected user behaviours
(Goodman et al., 2012).
⮚ Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small group of users to discuss specific
topics. They allow researchers to observe interactions between users and gain insights
into collective views and experiences (Krueger & Casey, 2014).

These methodologies, used individually or in combination, provide a rich understanding of

the users, their needs, and their behaviours. This understanding empowers designers to
develop solutions that are genuinely relevant and valuable to the users.
b. Analysis and Synthesis:

Following the process of user research in the User Experience (UX) design process is the
equally critical step of analysis and synthesis. This phase entails interpreting and making
sense of the collected data to uncover patterns, insights, and understanding. It can be
considered the bridge that connects user research and design, converting raw data into
actionable insights that guide design decisions (Goodwin, 2019).

The analysis phase commences as soon as data starts being collected, and it involves sorting,
cleaning, and organising the data into manageable chunks. Researchers review the data,
analyse it, and look for patterns, similarities, anomalies, and trends. These patterns serve as
the building structure of the synthesis process (Baxter et al., 2019).

Synthesis, on the other hand, is a process of sense-making. It involves sorting together the
patterns identified during the analysis in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the
user and their needs. It's during this stage that the data transforms into insights that can
drive the design process (Brown, 2008).

Several tools and techniques can facilitate the process of analysis and synthesis in UX design.
These methods help visualise the data, making it easier to uncover trends, insights, and
relationships among different data points. Some of these methods include:

⮚ Affinity Diagramming: Affinity diagramming is a method used to visually organise

information and identify relationships between different data points. This technique is
useful for synthesising large amounts of data, making patterns and trends more apparent
(Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998).
⮚ Personas: Personas are fictional characters that represent different user types within a
target demographic. They are based on the data gathered during user research and help
designers maintain a user-centred perspective throughout the design process (Cooper et
al., 2014).
The formulation of a persona, a fundamental tool in user experience design. Firstly, data
collection is necessitated, utilizing methods such as surveys, interviews, and observations to
gather quantitative and qualitative information about the target user base. Following the
accumulation of data, the next step is to identify patterns and commonalities amongst the
users. These common traits may encompass demographic information, behavioral patterns,
goals, and challenges. Subsequently, the identified patterns are utilized to construct a
representative fictional character, embodying the typical traits and characteristics of the
group. This character, or persona, is then furnished with personal details, such as a name,
occupation, and a backstory, to provide a more realistic and relatable depiction. Ultimately,
the persona serves as a consistent and coherent representation of the user group, guiding
design decisions based on its defined needs and preferences.

Figure 4 : Persona Template (Source : https://xtensio.com/user-persona-template/ )

⮚ User Journey Maps: User journey maps are visual representations of a user's experience
with a product or service over time. They help identify pain points, moments of delight,
and opportunities for improvement in the user's journey (Kalbach, 2020).
Figure 5 : User Journey map template (Source: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/journey-
mapping-101/ )

The insights garnered through the process of analysis and synthesis are pivotal in guiding the
subsequent phases of the UX design process. They inform ideation, design, prototyping, and
usability testing, ensuring that these stages remain rooted in a deep understanding of the
user and their needs.

c. Ideation and Conceptual Design: Crafting User-Centric Solutions

Upon completion of the user research phase, and after comprehensive data analysis and
synthesis in the UX design process, the stage of ideation and conceptual design comes into
play. This phase involves generating innovative ideas and developing concepts for potential
solutions. These concepts are based on the insights gained from the earlier phases, ensuring
a user-centric design approach (Goodwin, 2019).

Ideation is a divergent phase, involving the generation of a wide array of ideas without any
limitation or judgment. It capitalizes on creativity and innovation to craft potential solutions
that meet user needs. The goal is not to find a single 'right' idea but to explore various
possibilities and to stimulate creative thinking (Brown, 2008).

Conceptual design, on the other hand, is about creating abstract representations or models
of the proposed solution. These models or concepts are based on the most promising ideas
generated during the ideation phase. They represent the core functionality and structure of
the solution without going into detailed design or implementation (Preece et al., 2015).
Multiple tools and techniques can be used during the process of ideation and conceptual
design. Some of these include:

⮚ Brainstorming: This is a widely used technique that encourages free thinking and
spontaneous contributions of ideas. It fosters a collaborative environment where every
participant's ideas are valued (Osborn, 1963).
⮚ Sketching: Sketching is a quick and inexpensive way to visualize ideas. It is used to bring
abstract ideas to life and to facilitate communication and discussion within the design
team (Buxton, 2010).
⮚ Storyboarding: Storyboards are visual narratives that illustrate the user's journey through
the proposed solution. They help designers visualize the context, user interactions, and
the overall user experience (Truong et al., 2006).

Figure 6 : Example of a story Board: https://www.nngroup.com/articles/storyboards-

visualize-ideas/ )

The phase of ideation and conceptual design is pivotal in the UX design process. It allows for
the translation of insights gathered from user research into creative and user-centric design
solutions.

d. Prototyping and Wireframing: Building and Refining User Interfaces

This phase of prototyping and wireframing represents the shift from abstract ideas to
tangible, interactive models of the proposed solution (Snyder, 2003).

Wireframing is the initial step in this phase, providing a visual guide that represents the
skeletal framework of the application. It outlines the structure, layout, and basic
functionality of the application, offering a blueprint for the prototype. Wireframes act as the
foundation of the application, setting the stage for more detailed design and development
(Greenberg et al., 2012).

On the other hand, Prototyping is about creating an interactive model of the application that
demonstrates its functionality, design, and flow. Prototypes can vary in fidelity, from low-
fidelity paper prototypes to high-fidelity digital models that closely resemble the final
product. The primary purpose of prototyping is to test the functionality and usability of the
application before investing time and resources in development (Rudd et al., 1996).

In the prototyping phase of product or service design, a fundamental component employed

is the User Flow Diagram. Originating from the field of user experience (UX) design, this
schematic depiction serves as a vital tool to outline the entire journey a user would
undertake when engaging with the system.

A User Flow Diagram enables us to visualize the sequence of steps a user may need to
perform to accomplish a specific task, starting from their point of entry into the application,
proceeding through various decision points, and concluding with their final interaction.

This tool is integral to the design process as it aids in clarifying the users' paths, predicting
potential issues, and ensuring that we architect the most streamlined, intuitive user
experience. Moreover, it plays a pivotal role in facilitating communication among different
stakeholders, providing them with a shared understanding of the user’s journey.

By using User Flow Diagrams during the prototyping phase, we can iteratively test and refine
the interactions, layouts, and overall structure before the final product is developed. This
process helps to reduce the risks and costs associated with major changes late in the
development cycle.

Therefore, the incorporation of User Flow Diagrams in the prototyping phase provides us
with a comprehensive view of the user's journey, making it an indispensable tool in the
design.

In addition, several tools and techniques are used to facilitate the process of wireframing
and prototyping, such as:
Figure 7 : User flow Diagram Template (Source : https://www.nngroup.com/articles/user-
journeys-vs-user-flows/ )

⮚ Sketching: Sketching is a simple and cost-effective technique used to create low-

fidelity wireframes and prototypes. It allows designers to quickly visualize and
communicate their ideas (Buxton, 2010).
⮚ Digital Wireframing Tools: Tools like Balsamiq, Axure, and Sketch allow designers to
create more detailed and interactive wireframes. They offer various features like clickable
elements, component libraries, and the ability to simulate different states of the
application (Courage & Baxter, 2005).
⮚ Prototyping Software: Applications such as Adobe XD, Figma, and InVision are used to
create high-fidelity, interactive prototypes. These tools allow designers to replicate the
look, feel, and interactivity of the final product, enabling thorough usability testing
(Sefelin et al., 2003).

The prototyping and wireframing phase of the UX design process is essential for
transforming conceptual designs into functional models. These models serve as a testbed for
assessing the design's usability, allowing for adjustments and refinements before moving to
the development stage. Thus, this stage ensures the final product aligns with the user's
needs and offers an optimal user experience.

e. Usability Testing and Iteration: Refining the User Experience

Upon the completion of the prototyping and wireframing phase, the next step in the User
Experience (UX) design process involves usability testing and iteration. This stage forms the
heart of refining the UX design, as it offers insights into the user's interaction with the
product and the areas that require further enhancement (Nielsen, 1993).

Usability testing is a method that allows designers to evaluate a product by testing it with
representative users. The primary goal of usability testing is to identify any usability
problems, gather quantitative data on participants' performance (such as effectiveness,
efficiency, and satisfaction), and derive solutions to improve the product (Dumas & Redish,
1999).

The process typically involves users performing tasks while designers observe, record, and
analyse their interactions with the prototype. It can be conducted in various ways, including
moderated in-person sessions, remote testing, and automated online tests, depending on
the resources available and the nature of the product (Rubin & Chisnell, 2008).

Following usability testing, the gathered data and insights are used to iterate and refine the
design. This iterative design process, involving successive cycles of design, testing, and
refinement, ensures that the product continually evolves to align with user needs and
expectations, enhancing the overall user experience (Lewis, 2014).

f. Implementation: Bringing the Design to Life

The pinnacle of the User Experience (UX) design process resides in the implementation
phase. This stage involves the conversion of validated and refined design solutions into
functional and deployable products (Mayhew, 1999).

The implementation phase requires close collaboration between UX designers and the
development team to ensure the accurate translation of the design into a working product.
During this stage, the designs and specifications crafted in the prototyping and wireframing
phase are turned into actual code, bringing the design to life (Hartson & Pyla, 2012).

This stage is not merely about developing the product but also about preserving the design's
integrity and ensuring that the user experience remains consistent with the design vision.
Designers often use style guides, design languages, or design systems to ensure consistency
across different parts of the product and to guide the developers in their work (Goto &
Cotler, 2014).
Key activities during this phase include:

⮚ Development: Developers transform the designs and prototypes into a functioning

product, following the design specifications provided by the UX designers.
⮚ Quality Assurance Testing: This involves testing the implemented product for any bugs,
errors, or inconsistencies with the design. It ensures that the product meets the desired
quality standards and functions as intended (Kaner, Falk, & Nguyen, 1999).
⮚ Final User Acceptance Testing: This involves testing the implemented product with real
users to verify if it meets the defined user requirements and provides a satisfactory user
experience (Maguire, 2001).

The implementation phase plays a critical role in the UX design process as it brings the
design solutions to life. It involves the careful transformation of the design into a functioning
product while preserving the integrity of the user experience. It also ensures that the final
product meets the user requirements and provides a satisfactory user experience.

1.3.Tools and Techniques in UX Design

The practice of User Experience (UX) design employs a diverse suite of tools and
methodologies to facilitate user understanding, design ideation, iteration, and refinement.
Excluding the tools previously cited , the competitive audit and the empathy map, each
serving distinct functions in the UX design process, emerge as powerful instruments.
(Quesenbery & Brooks, 2010).

a. Competitive audit

A competitive audit, also known as competitive analysis, is an essential step in the User
Experience (UX) design process that focuses on examining competitors' products to gain
insights into their design strategies, strengths, and weaknesses. This knowledge informs and
influences the design process, promoting better, more informed decision-making (Chapman
& Plewes, 2012).

Although competitive audits can be conducted at any stage, they are commonly performed
during the initial stages of the UX design process. Here's how it fits into different phases:

⮚ User Research: At this stage, a competitive audit helps identify the different design
strategies adopted by competitors, providing insights into how these strategies meet user
needs and expectations.
⮚ Analysis and Synthesis: Insights from the competitive audit can be analyzed and
synthesized alongside user research findings to influence the design strategy and
direction.
⮚ Ideation and Conceptual Design: By identifying the strengths and weaknesses of
competitors' designs, a competitive audit can inspire new design ideas and avoid
potential pitfalls, helping to shape the conceptual design.
⮚ Prototyping and Wireframing: While not typically a focus during this stage, the learnings
from the competitive audit can continue to influence the design, informing the
development of prototypes and wireframes.

Competitive audits involve identifying key competitors, evaluating their products on various
parameters (such as design, functionality, user interface, etc.), and comparing these findings
with your product. Tools used during a competitive audit can include spreadsheets for data
compilation and visualization tools like mind maps or flowcharts to visualize relationships
and comparisons.

b. Empathy Maps

An empathy map is a collaborative visualization tool used in the User Experience (UX) design
process to help teams gain deeper, more nuanced insights into their users. It is typically used
during the user research phase of the process but can influence decisions throughout all
stages of the UX design process (Gray, 2017).

Empathy maps help to synthesize and sort the information obtained from user research,
allowing the team to step into the user's shoes and understand their needs, motivations, and
pain points more clearly. These maps typically include several sections that reflect different
aspects of the user's experience, such as what the user is thinking, feeling, seeing, hearing,
saying, doing, and their pain points and gains (Gray et al., 2010).

An empathy map is a picture divided into four sections:

Figure 8 : Empathy map template (source : https://www.nngroup.com/articles/empathy-
mapping/ )

Thinking and feeling: This is where we try to understand what the user wants, their dreams,
and feelings. We consider what makes them happy or upset.

Hearing: Here we imagine what the user hears from others. This could be advice from
friends, comments from their boss, or even things they hear on social media.

Seeing: This part is about what the user sees around them. It includes their environment and
what products or services they see available in the market.

Doing: This section focuses on what the user does and says, how they behave, and their
attitudes.

On top of these four sections, we can add two more parts called 'pains' and 'gains'. 'Pains'
are problems the user faces.

Here's how an empathy map can be applied at different stages of the UX design process:

⮚ User Research: Empathy maps help synthesize and visualize data gathered from user
research, such as interviews, observations, and surveys. They provide a user-centered
lens through which to view the data, helping to build a deeper understanding of the user.
⮚ Analysis and Synthesis: Empathy maps assist in the interpretation and analysis of user
research data, promoting a user-centric perspective in understanding the information.
⮚ Ideation and Conceptual Design: The insights derived from the empathy map can inform
the ideation process, influencing the development of design ideas that address user
needs and pain points.
⮚ Prototyping and Wireframing: The user understanding gained from the empathy map
guides the design of the product's features, interactions, and overall user experience.
⮚ Usability Testing and Iteration: The empathy map can provide a reference point during
usability testing, helping to interpret user feedback and informing subsequent design
iterations.

2. Design thinking:
User Experience (UX) Design and Design Thinking, while distinct concepts, share
fundamental similarities and possess a symbiotic relationship that is crucial in fostering
innovation and user-centric design solutions. Design Thinking provides a holistic and
strategic framework for understanding and solving user problems, while UX Design applies
these insights to create tangible, effective, and engaging user interfaces and experiences.

2.1. Definition and principles of Design thinking

Design Thinking is a way of solving problems that really takes people into account. It
originally comes from the field of product design, but nowadays, it's used everywhere - from
building apps to making healthcare services better (Brown, 2009).

A key ingredient in Design Thinking is empathy. This means we strive to see things from
other people's perspectives. It's the idea that to solve a problem well, we need to truly
understand the people we're solving it for (Kouprie & Sleeswijk Visser, 2009)

Design Thinking is characterized by its core principles, each vital to the successful application
of the methodology:

a) Human-Centric: Design Thinking prioritizes the human perspective in all steps of the
problem-solving process. The goal is to develop a deep understanding of the people for
whom the solution is being designed by engaging directly with them, empathizing with
their experiences, and understanding their needs and contexts (Brown, 2009).
b) Collaborative: Design Thinking flourishes in a collaborative environment, particularly one
that involves cross-disciplinary teams. This principle acknowledges that valuable insights
and creative solutions can be found at the intersection of different disciplines,
perspectives, and experiences. It encourages teams to leverage their diverse expertise,
leading to more innovative and holistic solutions (Sawyer, 2007).
c) Experimental: At its core, Design Thinking is an experimental approach that encourages
risk-taking and values learning from failure. It emphasizes the importance of creating
quick, low-fidelity prototypes to test hypotheses and ideas, understanding that failure is
not a setback but a critical part of the learning and innovation process (Brown, 2009).
d) Iterative: The Design Thinking process values iteration and continuous learning,
recognizing that the first solution is rarely the best solution. It promotes a culture of
 ongoing refinement based on feedback and insights, optimizing the solution over time
(Ries, 2011).
e) Optimistic: Design Thinking promotes an optimistic mindset that every problem is
solvable. This positive outlook fosters creativity, resilience, and the persistence to keep
iterating and refining until a suitable solution is found (Brown, 2009).

2.2. The Five-Stage Model of Design Thinking

Design Thinking is often described as a five-stage process. This model was proposed by the
Hasso-Plattner Institute of Design at Stanford (d.school), and it includes the following stages:
Empathize, Define, Ideate, Prototype, and Test. This framework serves as a guide to tackle
complex problems, but it is not necessarily linear. It is iterative, allowing designers to move
back and forth between stages as required (d.school, 2021).
Figure 9 : Design thinking process(Source :https://www.nngroup.com/videos/design-
thinking/ )

a. Phase 1: Empathize

The initial stage of the design thinking process, commonly referred to as "empathise," entails
an in-depth understanding of the target audience, in the case, the farmers - the intended
users of the proposed application. Recognising the challenges, requirements, and emotions
of the people we are designing for is not only intricate but also a vital prerequisite in crafting
a resilient and practical product (Buchanan, 2001).

This stage is primarily concerned with obtaining a comprehensive understanding of the end-
users via both quantitative (such as the frequency of using certain features) and qualitative
(such as identifying the feelings, needs, and problems of the concerned individuals) data
collection. It is crucial to set aside any assumptions and prejudices to prevent any biases that
might influence the process (Brown, 2009).

There are numerous methods utilised in this stage, including:

- Interviews: These are specifically formulated to elicit emotional responses from the end-
users. The objective is to apprehend the feelings, motivations, and aspirations of the end-
users (Kolko, 2015).
- Focus Groups: Focus groups entail assembling a group of end-users to share their
experiences, needs, and pain points. This approach can offer invaluable insights into the
end-users' perceptions and attitudes (Krueger & Casey, 2014).
- Immersion: This involves immersing oneself in the environment of the end-users to gain a
deeper understanding of their requirements, objectives, and challenges. This might
necessitate spending time with the end-users, observing their behaviours and actions
(Stickdorn, Lawrence, Hormess & Schneider, 2018).
- Additional Techniques: Other strategies involve research and documentations (reviewing
previous work), surveys, understanding body language, and more.

Throughout all these methods and techniques, it is vital to actively engage the end-users to
uphold the principle of user-centred design and increase the effectiveness of the process
(Norman & Draper, 1986).

b. Phase 2: Define

The subsequent stage in the design thinking process is termed as the 'Define' stage, where
the principal task is to identify the problem accurately. This stage necessitates sufficient time
and space to facilitate the development, refinement, and re-framing of the problem until we
discern the genuine issue that requires a solution (Plattner, Meinel & Leifer, 2011).

During this stage, we utilise the data obtained from the empathy stage, deconstruct it, and
synthesise it to assimilate what was learned during the process and seek insights and needs.
This stage also demands us to accept the inevitability of ambiguity and uncertainty,
therefore allowing ample time to define the problem precisely is crucial (Brown, 2009).

Often, we may discover that additional data is required, prompting a return to the first
stage. This underscores why the design thinking process is iterative and non-linear in nature
(Razzouk & Shute, 2012).

Several techniques are typically deployed at this stage, such as:

- Creating Personas: Personas represent fictitious clusters of end-users that have several
shared characteristics like issues faced, pain-points, behaviours, etc. The creation of
personas involves the use of both qualitative and quantitative data (Cooper, Reimann,
Cronin & Noessel, 2014).
- The 5 Whys: This problem-solving technique necessitates asking "why" five times to
discern the root cause of a problem. By iteratively questioning "why", we can unveil
underlying causes that may not be immediately evident (Serrat, 2017).
- Redefining the Problem: The more information we accumulate, the more refined and
precise the objectives become.
- "How Might We..?": This brainstorming technique involves rephrasing a problem as a
question beginning with "How Might We", designed to encourage creative thinking and
foster the generation of new ideas (Doorley & Witthoft, 2012).
c. Phase 3: Ideate

In the Design Thinking, the third step is Ideation. This phase is dedicated to conjuring up as
many possible solutions as possible to address identified problems. The aim is to cultivate a
wide spectrum of ideas, without regard to their immediate feasibility or practicality (Brown,
2008). Here, the focus is on generating a vast array of ideas, giving preference to quantity
over quality. Once a diverse set of ideas has been brought forth, the subsequent step
involves sifting through these solutions and refining the ones that hold the most promise
(Liedtka & Ogilvie, 2011).

The Ideation step is a vital part of the Design Thinking approach. It assures the exploration of
a broad array of potential solutions, fostering the emergence of innovative and effective
solutions by the conclusion of the process. This stage mainly targets the generation of new,
out-of-the-box ideas rather than immediately applicable ones (Cross, 2006).

A variety of techniques can be employed during this phase, which include:

- Mind-mapping: This involves the graphical representation of ideas, typically in a diagram,

to visually organize information (Kouprie & Sleeswijk Visser, 2009).
- Sketching: Drawing out ideas can often help in visualizing potential solutions and
discussing them with the team (Kelley & Kelley, 2013).
- Brainstorming: This involves intensive group discussion to generate and pool a multitude
of ideas (Kolko, 2015).
- Games: For example, introducing random words can stimulate creative thinking.
- Modifying Existing Ideas: Sometimes, an existing idea can be tweaked or combined with
others to create something new (Ries, 2011).

To effectively employ these methods, it can be beneficial to involve end-users and solicit
their opinions. Interestingly, during this stage, it may become apparent that there is a lack of
information or the problem has not been adequately defined. This realization could lead
back to the initial stages of the process - illustrating the iterative and non-linear nature of
Design Thinking (d.school, 2021).
d. Phase 4 : Prototyping

The fourth phase in the Design Thinking process revolves around Prototyping. This is where
the solutions or ideas that have been brainstormed and selected are turned into tangible,
interactive models. The core objective of prototyping is to visually and physically depict the
solution, ensuring the accuracy of the problem that has been identified and ideated upon
(Ries, 2011). Prototyping enables exploration of the functionality of the concept and sparks
productive conversation among end-users and collaborators by putting something tangible
in their hands. It aids in the discussion and evaluation of whether the envisioned product
meets the user needs (Brown, 2008).

Two primary aspects to embrace in this stage include:

- Acceptance of Failure: During the prototyping stage, certain aspects of the concept may not
function as envisioned, and some ideas may need to be discarded. Accepting these failures
and shifting to a new design or idea will expedite the product creation process and help
avoid future issues (Liedtka & Ogilvie, 2011).

- Iteration: This stage is characterized by multiple attempts and variations. Numerous

versions of the prototype are created, each refining the previous one based on feedback and
testing results (Cross, 2006).

Through prototyping, we might learn that we need to revisit previous phases - empathizing,
defining, or ideating. The iterative nature of Design Thinking allows for such flexibility
(d.school, 2021).

In terms of mobile apps, several types of prototypes can be used:

⮚ Paper Prototype: This type of prototype is created using materials like index cards, sticky
notes, or printer paper. It is a simple, cost-effective method to visualize an idea (Kouprie
& Sleeswijk Visser, 2009).
⮚ Low-Fidelity Prototype: These are quick to create and can be made using inexpensive
materials such as paper, cardboard, or foam. They offer a basic representation of the final
product (Kelley & Kelley, 2013).
⮚ High-Fidelity Prototype: These are detailed, realistic representations of the final product,
often created using advanced digital tools. They provide a near-accurate depiction of the
final product (Kolko, 2015).

After the creation of a prototype, feedback is solicited from end-users and other
stakeholders. This crucial feedback helps in refining the ideas before substantial resources
are allocated to product development. Feedback is indispensable as it informs the designer
whether the proposed solution meets the users' needs (Ries, 2011).
e. Phase 5 : Testing

The final phase in the Design Thinking methodology is Testing. However, it's worth
mentioning that reaching this stage does not denote the end of the process. On the
contrary, it often signifies the start of another cycle as the insights gained may prompt a
return to previous stages for refinement (Brown, 2008).

The testing phase underscores the iterative nature of the Design Thinking process. It is in this
phase that solutions, once perceived as final, are subjected to real-world scrutiny. In several
instances, products and solutions, like mobile applications, are constantly refined even after
their initial release, with updates and improvements made based on user feedback and
evolving needs (Kolko, 2015).

The methods utilized for testing vary widely depending on the nature of the product and the
target user base, some of the common ways include:

- Screening: This method involves presenting the solution or product in front of a selected
audience to gather their responses and feedback (Cross, 2006).
- Launching: In some cases, the product or application is launched to the target user base,
and data is collected based on their interactions and feedback. This data is then used to
refine and improve the product (Ries, 2011).
- Beta Version: In some cases, a beta version of the product is released to a limited group
of users. Feedback from these users is then used to fine-tune the final product before a
full launch (Liedtka & Ogilvie, 2011).
- Interviews and Surveys: Direct interaction with the users through interviews and surveys
provides valuable insights into the user's perspective. These can be used to make
informed adjustments to the product (Kouprie & Sleeswijk Visser, 2009).

In essence, the testing phase of the Design Thinking process serves to confirm whether the
proposed solution effectively addresses the user's needs and whether any modifications are
required based on the feedback received

3. Lean UX
Lean User Experience (Lean UX) design is an approach that combines principles from both
Lean Startup and Agile development methodologies, focusing on the actual experience being
designed rather than deliverables. It aims to reduce waste and promote efficiency by
ensuring that all activities directly contribute to improving user experience (Gothelf &
Seiden, 2013).

3.1. Steps of Lean UX

The Lean UX process focuses on reducing wasted time and resources, and producing a
workable product as soon as possible. The Lean UX process can be broken down into the
following stages:

Figure 10 : Lean UX process (Source : https://blog.devgenius.io/learn-more-about-different-

design-frameworks-d365a544deaa )

a. Think (Conceptualization phase):

This step is all about gathering research, so we can form a clear idea of who the product is
for and how it will help them. Instead of starting with a detailed requirements document,
Lean UX begins with a set of assumptions about the users, their needs, and the proposed
solution. These assumptions form the basis for the initial product design.

b. Make (Implantation phase) :

With a clear understanding of your users and their needs, it's time to move into action. Build
a minimal viable product (MVP) based on your initial assumptions and prototypes. This stage
emphasizes the Build-Measure-Learn cycle at the core of Lean UX, which advocates for
iterative design cycles. Each cycle is an opportunity to further refine your design based on
real-time user feedback. Remember, iterative design is key in this stage, so be prepared to
continuously refine your product based on what you learn.
 ● Build-Measure-Learn Cycle

The Build-Measure-Learn loop is a concept coined by Eric Ries(2011) in The Lean Startup to
capture the feedback loop startups use to convert ideas into products.

The Steps of BML cycle (Figure 11) are:

Figure 11 : Build-Measure-Learn

a) Idea

We begin with a need acknowledged by the stakeholders. We understand this need and
believe we've pinpointed a possible solution. Essentially, the anticipated outcome is based
on a series of assumptions that require validation. We also need to identify some form of
metric based on the overall goal that we can use later on as a measuring tool to tell whether
we are successful or not.

b) Build

We select a specific solution (or component of the solution) for implementation, which
becomes the output. The technique of impact mapping can assist us in choosing the
appropriate output. The primary objective isn't just to deliver this output, but to
comprehend its effect on fulfilling the need and achieving the intended outcome.

c) Product

This signifies the completion of the project – the concrete product we have crafted.

d) Measure
Upon delivery of the product(output), we observe its influence on the outcome in isolation,
minimizing the effect of other potential variables as much as possible.

e) Data

We monitor the previously selected metric to evaluate the impact.

f) Learn

We examine the data to ascertain whether the change we implemented has yielded the
desired impact. If it has, we might have reached the goal. If not, we must contemplate a
different strategy. This brings us back to the start of the cycle, where we evaluate the
remaining options and choose the next one.

c. Check (Evaluation phase)

The final phase involves gauging the efficacy of the implemented design by amassing and
analyzing user feedback. The performance of the MVP is scrutinized, and necessary
adjustments are identified. This evaluative process aligns with the BML cycle of Lean UX,
thereby completing the iterative cycle of design, implementation, and evaluation.

3.2. Principles of lean UX

There are six principles of the lean UX according to philosophy of (Jeff Gothelf and Josh
Seiden,2013):
● Progressive Action:

Concentrate only on design elements that contribute towards the final goal. Avoid
engaging in non-essential features, ensuring all efforts are aligned with key objectives.
● Sustained Inquisitiveness:

Maintain a mindset of continuous learning. Utilize feedback from users and stakeholders as
a vital tool for refining and enhancing designs. Consistent feedback aids in understanding
the impact of design decisions.
● Empirical Verification:

Implement testing of designs with potential users in real-world scenarios. This principle
highlights the value of context-based, authentic feedback in shaping effective design
solutions.
● Idea Materialization:

Encourage the transformation of ideas into tangible, observable, and testable forms at an
early stage. Timely feedback on these physical manifestations provides diverse insights,
enhancing the overall design process.
● Outcome-centric Focus:

Prioritize creating usable, enjoyable products that fulfill users' needs. Keep the users' needs
at the forefront, placing their preferences above those of the project stakeholders.
● Complete Transparency:

Promote an environment of openness within the team, fostering honesty and free exchange
of ideas. This transparent approach aids in informed decision-making and prevents wastage
of time and effort, leading to effective team collaboration.