IMMUNITY

FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE

• Barriers
• Physical
• Chemical
• Biotic
 CHEMIC AL B ARRIERS

• salivary secretions, sweat ,mucus, tears, gastric

secretion,sebum and cerumen (ear wax ) and vaginal
secretions. These often have pH levels that inhibit
growth of bacteria and also contain antibodies and
anti-bacterial agents.
• Lysozyme, an enzyme produced in tears,
perspiration, and saliva can break down cell walls and
thus acts as an antibiotic (kills bacteria)
• Gastric juice in the stomach destroys bacteria and most
toxins because the gastric juice is highly acidic (pH 2-3)
• Saliva dilutes the number of microorganisms and washes
the teeth and mouth
• Sebum (unsaturated fatty acids) provides a protective film
on the skin and inhibits growth
• Hyaluronic acid is a gelatinous substance that slows the
spread of noxious agents
 BIOTIC B ARRIERS

• Normal flora
 SECOND LINE OF DEFENCE

• is activated if the first line fails and pathogen enter the

body
• These defenses do not differentiate between different
types of pathogen and respond the same way upon every
infection
• 1.Phagocytosis
• leukocytes migrate to infection sites and engulf foreign bodies
• 2.Fever :
• nonspecific defense mechanism because it develops in response to numerous
traumas.
• Fever is initiated by circulating substances called pyrogens, which affect the brain's
hypothalamus and cause the latter to raise the temperature.
• Although excessive fever can be dangerous, fever is believed to have a beneficial role
because it retards the growth of temperature-sensitive microorganisms ,as
increasing body temperature activate heat-shock proteins , and it
increases the metabolism of body cells while stimulating the immune
reaction and the process of phagocytosis.
 INTERFERONS

• is a group of antiviral substances produced by body cells in response to the

presence of viruses.There are different types of interferons according to
their origin :
• alpha-interferon: produced by Lymphocytes and macrophages
• beta-interferon: produced by epithelial cells
• gamma-interferon : produced by T-lymphocytes
• The interferons do not directly inhibit viruses, they stimulate adjacent cells
to produce substances that inhibit the replication of viruses in those cells.
Interferons produced in response to one virus will protect against many
other types of viruses, and for this reason, interferon is considered a
nonspecific form of defense.
4.INFLAMMATION
increase capillary permeability at infected sites, leading to
swelling.
 5.COMPLEMENT

• series of >20 proteins, circulating in the

blood and tissue fluids. Most of the proteins
are normally inactive, but in response to the
recognition of molecular components of
microorganisms they become sequentially
activated in an enzyme cascade
• Role of Complement in Disease
• The complement system plays a critical role in inflammation
and defence against some bacterial infections.
• Complement may also be activated during reactions against
incompatible blood transfusions, and during the damaging
immune responses that accompany autoimmune disease.
Deficiencies of individual complement components or
inhibitors of the system can lead to a variety of diseases
 THIRD LINE OF DEFENSE
IMMUNE SYSTEM

• Innate (Natural )immunity is an inborn capacity for

resisting disease. It begins at birth.
• Examples of natural immunity are the lysozyme
found in tears, saliva, and other body secretion,
acidic pH of the gastrointestinal and vaginal tracts,
and interferon produced by body cells to protect
against viruses.
• Adaptive (Acquired )immunity : the immunity
produced by exposure of an organism to antigens,
which stimulates the production of antibodies.
Antidots
• *Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC): is a specific
marker that sticks out on the membrane of every cell in the
human body; this marker indicates that the cell belongs to the
body.This helps the immune system identify the pathogen or
foreign invader
• Antigens:
• Macromolecules that elicit an immune response in The body
and react with it e.g : * Microbes : Capsule , cell walls , toxin ,
viral capsid and others.
• Antibodies:
• Class of proteins called Immunoglobulins ( Ig ) present in the
serum and tissue fluids produced from plasma cells in
response to antigen.
• Properties of antibodies : ( Immunoglobulins ) *

• Proteins that recognize and bind to antigen with high

specificity. 1.

• Made in response to antigen. .2

• 3.One virus or microbe may have several antigenic

determinant sites to which different antibodies may bind.

• 4.Each antibody has at least two identical sites that bind

antigen (Antigen binding sites) .
• There are 5 major sequences found for C regions of H chains . Each
Chain sequence determines a different class of Immunoglobulin .
The classes are :

• 1- IgG – Gamma ( ɣ ) ( heavy chains ) . ( 80 ) ٪

• -2 IgM – Mu (µ ) ( heavy chains ) . ( 9 ) ٪

• -3 IgA – Alpha ( α ) ( heavy chains ) . ( 13 ) ٪

• -4 IgD – Delta ( δ ) ( heavy chains ) . ( 0.2 ) ٪

• -5 IgE – Epilson ( ɛ ) ( heavy chains ) . ( o.oo4 ) ٪

 IgG IgM IgA IgE IgD
cross placenta Ig primary Ig protect Allergy unknown
enhance ( first response ) mucosal function.
phagocytosis agglutinating surfaces may trigger
against bacteria antigens B-cells .
• The adaptive immune system is comprised of two
interrelated immune pathways – humoral and cell-
mediated immunity
• Both pathways involve elements of the innate
immune system to coordinate their respective
immune reaction.
 HUMORAL

• The use of the term 'humoral' is also due to

the fact that the antibodies which bind to
the antigen and trigger a response are
dissolved in the humor (bodily fluids such as
blood, lymph)
 HUMORAL IMMUNITY

• describes the pathway by which antibodies are produced by B lymphocytes to

target exogenous antigens
• When macrophages engulf exogenous pathogens, they digest them within lysosomes
to release antigenic fragments.
• These fragments are presented on special surface receptors (MHC class II) that
denote the material as being foreign
• The antigens are presented to helper T cells, which in turn secrete cytokines to
activate the appropriate B lymphocytes
• The specific B lymphocytes divide and differentiate (clonal selection) to form
antibody producing plasma cells.
 CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY

• describes a pathway that does not result in antigen production but instead
targets endogenous antigens.
• Cancerous and virus-infected cells involve the body’s own cells and thus are not
recognised as foreign, evading normal detection
• These cells may instead present antigenic fragments as a complex with their
own self markers (MHC class I)
• When helper T cells identify these cells, they stimulate a second type of T
lymphocyte – cytotoxic T cells (TC cells)
• Cytotoxic T cells show specificity to particular antigens and will bind to the
presented antigen and release perforating enzymes
• These enzymes cause the infected / cancerous cell to by lysed, preventing the
further spread of infection
• Virus infected cells can also be destroyed non-specifically by NK cells, which
respond to interferon released by the infected cell.
• * Hypersensitivity Reactions : [ Histamine / Serotonin ] .
•

• Allergy is a hypersensitivity to a particular foreign

antigen, called an allergen in which an immune response
results in an exaggerated or in appropriate reactions that
are harmful to the host .

• Allergens include plant pollens , food , chemicals in

cosmetics , antibiotics such as penicillin , … such allergens
are harmless for most people .
 TYPES OF ALLERGY

•
Immediate Delayed
occurs within minutes take Y 3 days to occur
lasts for about 30 min last for long time ( T-cells)
antibody mediated ( IgE )

IgE bind to Basophils and Mast cells →

Release Histamin
• * Autoimmune diseases :

• Are diseases where The immune system begin to

attack itself .

• * Vaccination :

• Definition : A process of induction of immunity to

a pathogen by deliberate injection of a killed ,
weaken modified , or related form of the pathogen
which is no longer pathogenic .
 VACCINES

• * Characteristics of good vaccine :

• - Safe with few side effects .

• - Give long lasting , appropriate protection .

• - Low in cost .

• - Stable with long shelf - life .

• - Easy to administer .
 TYPES OF VACCINES

• Killed Attenuated Toxoid Subunit Conjugate

•
• linked to
• chemicals .
• e.g H.flu B .
•

• e.g : Rabies ( live m.o ) treated by ( Genitically e

• purtusis e.g : measles formaldehyde engineered
• Hepatitis A Rubella e.g Tetanus fragment of m.o
• Typhoid Mumps Diphteria e.g Hep B
• BCG
• Polio
• * Common Vaccinations in Infants and Children :

• - Birth - 2 mth → Hepatitis B .

• - 2 mths → Diptheria , tetanus , a cellular whooping cough pertussis ( DTap) .

• - Inactivated Polo Virus . ( IPV ) .

• - Haemophilus influenzae b ( Hib ) .

• - 2 - 4 mth → Hep B .
• 4 mth → DTaP , IPV , Hib , PCV ( Pneumococcel ) .

• - 6 - 18 mth → Help B , DTaP . Polio ( IPV ) , Hib .

• - 12 - 15 mth → DtaP , Hib .

• - Varicella Zoster / chicken Pox

• - measles , mumps , rubella ( MMR )

• - 4 - 6 yr → DTaP , IPV , MMR .

• - 11 - 12 yr → DT .
• 1) DPT :
• - Protect from Diphtheria , Pertusis , Tetanus .
• toxoid killed toxoid

• - Given by InJ .
• 2) Polio :

• - Protect from poliomyelitis .

• - Live attenuated virus .

• - Given as two oral drops .

• 3) Measles :

• - Protect from measles infection .

• - Live attenuated virus .

• 4) Tuberculosis : Live attenuated . ( Intradermal InJ ) .

• 5) Hepatitis : genetically engineer ( IM ) .

• 6) Heamophilus Influenza (conjugate InJ).

• Cellular immunity protects the body by:

• Activating antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes that are able to induce

apoptosis in body cells displaying epitopes of foreign antigen on their surface, such
as virus-infected cells, cells with intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells displaying
tumor antigens;
• Activating macrophages and natural killer cells, enabling them to destroy pathogens;
and
• Stimulating cells to secrete a variety of cytokines that influence the function of
other cells involved in adaptive immune responses and innate immune responses.
ELEK TEST
ROSE BENGAL TEST
SYPHILIS