2Visual Cues

Just as black and white, when mixed, make grey, in many ways that’s what it did to my self-
identity: it created a murky area of who I was, a haze around how people connected with me. I was
grey. And who wants to be this indifferent colour, devoid of depth and stuck in the middle? I
certainly didn’t.

Rachel Meghan Markle, 1981-

ACTRESS, PHILANTHROPIST, & DUCHESS OF SUSSEX

Figure 2.1
Located in Istanbul, Turkey, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque completed in 1616 is also known as the “Blue
Mosque” for the tiles that cover its walls. The windows that ring its dome not only help illuminate the
vast interior, but also convey religious meaning.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

The brain, through its vast array of specialized cells, most quickly and
easily responds to four major attributes of all viewed objects: color, form,
depth, and movement. These four visual cues are the major concerns of any
visual communicator when designing an image to be remembered by a
viewer because they are noticed before a person even realizes what they are.
The four visual cues, therefore, are what the brain sees, not the mind.
Consequently, the four cues can be used to attract attention to a
presentation, whether in print or on a screen.

COLOR
Various philosophers, scientists, and physicians throughout recorded history
have attempted to explain the nature of color (Figure 2.1). Aristotle
reasoned correctly that light and color were different names for the same
visual phenomenon. Much later, Leonardo da Vinci proposed that there
were six primary colors—white, black, red, yellow, green, and blue. He
came to that conclusion simply by reasoning that the six colors were wholly
independent and unique. Da Vinci showed that by mixing these six colors in
the form of paints in varying degrees, all the other colors capable of being
seen by a normal human eye could be created. His interest in and theories
on the mixing of colors came directly from his experience as one of the
great masters of painting. Although all the colors desired by painters can be
made by mixing those six color pigments together in varying degrees, this
property of paints doesn’t explain how light is mixed.

Thomas Young, a British physician and scientist, was the first to link color
and the human eye. In 1801 he suggested that nerve fibers in the retina
respond to the colors red, green, and violet. Twenty years later, the great
German physiologist and physicist Hermann von Helmholtz was born. In
1851 he invented the ophthalmoscope, which enabled doctors to see inside
a person’s eye. In 1867 he published his greatest work, a handbook on
optics, in which he refined Young’s ideas on how humans see color. Their
combined work became known as the Young-Helmholtz theory, or the tri-
chromatic theory, and explained how the eye physically sees color. Their
theory became a fact in 1959 after the idea was experimentally proven. Sir
John Herschel, the scientist who invented the word “photography,” praised
Young as a “truly original genius.” The immortal physicist Albert Einstein
had kind words for von Helmholtz as well when he remarked, “I admire
ever more the original, free thinker Helmholtz.”

Every color we see can be made with three basic, primary colors—red,
green, and blue. When these colors are mixed, it is called additive color.
Equal amounts of these colored lights will add together to produce white
light. The additive mixing of colors is the basis for color we see from our
eyes and in photography, television and computer monitors, and stage
lighting.

Some students get confused because they are taught that the primary colors
are magenta, yellow, and cyan. But those colors are the primaries used for
paint pigments and printing presses—not light. When paints are mixed
together, the colors in the paint absorb every color except the wavelength
that we see reflected back. This method of color mixing is called subtractive
color because as they are mixed, they become darker. Subtractive color is
used in offset printing, in which four colors are used to create color
photographs and illustrations on paper—magenta, yellow, cyan, and for
added definition, black (Figures 2.2 and 2.3).

Figures 2.2 & 2.3

These simple Venn diagrams illustrate the primary (red, green, and blue) and secondary (magenta,
yellow, and cyan) colors. Primary colors combine to produce white light while if secondary colors
are added together they make black-colored pigment.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester
Three different methods can be used to describe color: objective,
comparative, and subjective. The objective method for describing colors
depends on known standards of measurement. The comparative and
subjective methods rely on the evaluation of the person who sees the color.

Objective Method The objective, or scientific, method for describing colors

rests on the assumption that the perception of color is a result of various
light wavelengths stimulating the cones along the back of the eyes’ retinas.
A color can be accurately measured by the location of its wavelength on the
electromagnetic spectrum. The length of an energy wave is measured in
parts per millimeter. The wavelength of the visible light spectrum is 300
nanometers wide. That’s about one one-hundredth of an inch. Blue shows
up on the visible spectrum at about 430 nanometers, green has a wavelength
that starts at about 530 nanometers, and red has a wavelength beginning at
560 nanometers.

Because of its long wavelength and quick recognition by the eye, red is
used for signal lights, stop signs, and other warning or attention- getting
purposes. There are two reasons that the eye notices red more easily—one
has to do with the length of the color’s wavelength, and the other with the
physiology of the eye. Since red has a longer wavelength, it is noticed from
farther away and stays inside a person’s eyes longer than any of the other
visible colors. Plus, the slightly yellow-colored cornea protects the eye from
harmful ultraviolet rays and also absorbs the shorter wavelength colors of
blue and green, letting the longer wavelengths of red pass through to the
retina easier.

Comparative Method The second technique for describing colors is less

accurate than the objective method, but more useful. As with a dictionary
definition, the color red might be compared to the color of blood, green
with healthy plants, and blue with the sky on a clear, sunny day. But one
person’s conception of the color red isn’t always the same as from someone
else. Blood red is dark, but the red of poinsettia plant leaves and traffic
lights are slightly different. For the comparative method to be of use, the
color that another color is compared with must be accepted universally as a
standard. It should be clear that the comparative method could only be used
to give a rough estimate of what a color might look like.

Subjective Method This third technique for describing color is the most
symbolic. A person’s mental state or association with an object strongly
affects the emotional response to a color. In their drawings, children tend to
prefer abstract colors to shapes and lines. Painters have known for years
that the warm colors— reds and yellows—appear closer than the cooler
colors—blues and greens. The terms warm and cool are psychological
distinctions and are not related to the actual temperature of the color.
Lighter colors tend to be viewed as soft and cheerful, and darker colors
have a harsh or moody emotional quality about them. Because people
associate colors with objects and events, this visual attribute is highly
subjective and emotional.

We tend to associate a memorable experience, whether pleasant or bad, with

the colors of the objects that constitute the event. Do you relate it to a
specific object? Most people never associate color with a formless blob, but
with a definite object. For that reason, memory of an object affects the
perception of its color.

For green, the color symbolizes fertility, youth, nature, money, jealousy, and
hope. In 1434 the painter Jan Van Eyck painted, “The Arnolfini Portrait.” A
woman wears a green dress and looks pregnant by her pose (Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4
“The Arnolfini Portrait,” oil on oak panel, 1434 by Jan van Eyck. The Dutch artist Jan van Eyck’s
painting is a seemingly simple portrait of a man with his wife, and yet it is considered to be one of the
most complex in Western art. The image is actually a memorial. It shows Giovanni di Nicolao
Arnolfini and his first wife Costanza Trenta who had died the year before. With its use of natural
lighting, a perspective probably achieved from the use of a camera obscura visual aid to create an
illusion of depth, and numerous objects displayed throughout the work that have symbolic meanings,
the work is a favorite of art history students. Although it is often mistakenly thought that the woman
is pregnant, it was fashionable at the time for dresses to make their wearers appear to be with child.
In the 15th century, the color green symbolized hope—in this case, hope that the couple would have a
child by the green dress she wears. But as signified by the one lit candle in the chandelier on his side
and the burned out candle on hers, their hope was dashed when she died.
Courtesy of the National Gallery, London

Another artist, the New York born Edward Hopper became a leader in the
realist style of oil painting. A tall, shy, introspective person, Hopper often
captured lonely people who were unable or unwilling to communicate with
each other. His use of lighting and colors often gave an eerie, otherworldly
spookiness to his works such as “Early Sunday Morning,” “Chop Suey,”
“New York Movie,” “Hotel Room,” and his masterpiece, “Nighthawks”
(Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5
“Soir Bleu,” oil on canvas, 1914 by Edward Hopper. When the American Edward Hopper was 32-
years-old he painted this Parisian scene: A sex worker with heavy makeup surveys possible prospects
while her pimp sits alone, his eyes focused on another view. During this blue evening lit by oriental
lanterns, she considers the strange trio of a bearded Vincent van Gogh look-alike in a beret, a
military officer, and a “classically attired” clown in white (Could it be Puddles?), while an upper-
class couple enjoys a late-night drink. Hopper’s use of color is an “early attempt to create, rather
than merely record, a sophisticated, anti-sentimental allegory of adult city life” that he duplicated
later in “Nighthawks” (1942).
Courtesy of the Whitney Museum of American Art

Graphic designers in print and screen media know the power of color to
attract attention. Logo and poster designers are careful about their use of
color. They must consider not only the possible symbolic meanings of
color, but also how color should be used to make a logo memorable and
prominent in a crowded media market. Two colors that are distinct but not
too similar should be used (Figure 2.6). A website that uses too many colors
that are too bright runs the risk of looking amateurish. Care should also be
taken in choosing colored copy and backgrounds so that persons with low
vision or color deficiencies can read the words. Since green and red colors
are sometimes hard to see, a designer should avoid highlighting text in
those colors. Many times newspapers that must compete with other
publications on a newsstand’s rack for a reader’s eyes often display red
banners and photographs with the color prominently displayed.
Figure 2.6
A poster created by graphic designer Crystal Adams announces a design competition. Overlapping
silhouettes of common household objects are set large and in the center of the poster, with a subtle
gradated color scheme over a black background, for maximum viewer effect.
Courtesy of Crystal Adams

The use of color on the front page of a newspaper can be controversial. In

1984, the worst mass murder in the history of America up to that time
occurred when a gunman opened fire and killed 22 and wounded 19 at a
McDonald’s restaurant outside San Diego. The front page of The Tribune
showed a ghastly pair of color photographs. In one, blood streams down the
leg of a young victim sitting on an ambulance, and the other has a yellow
“Golden Arches” logo and arrow pointing to rescue workers trying to save
the life of a boy on the ground. Readers wrote letters and made phone calls
to the editor of the San Diego newspaper complaining about the gruesome
nature of the images. If the pictures had been printed in black and white, it
is doubtful readers would have complained (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7
In San Ysidro, California, a mass murder at a McDonald’s restaurant on July 18, 1984, resulted in 22
deaths with 19 injured. Part of the horror of these front-page images comes from the added
information supplied by color. The brightly colored and usually benign McDonald’s “golden arches”
and entrance sign points to an emergency worker struggling to the save the life of a young victim.
Courtesy of the San Diego Union-Tribune

Color is a highly subjective and powerful means of communicating ideas.

James Maxwell, the Scotsman who gave the electromagnetic spectrum its
name and invented color photography in 1861, once wrote that the “science
of color must be regarded essentially as a mental science.”

FORM
The brain responds to another common attribute of images, which is the
recognition of three types of forms: dots, lines, and shapes.

Dots The dot is the simplest form that can be written with a stylus. A dot
anywhere within a framed space demands immediate attention. In the
center, it becomes the hub of visual interest. If off to one side, it creates
tension since the layout appears out of balance. Two dots within a framed
space also create tension, since the viewer is forced to divide attention
between the two forms. When three or more dots appear in an image, the
viewer naturally tries to connect them with an imaginary line. It may be a
straight or curved line, or it may take the basic shape of a square, triangle,
or circle.

Hundreds of small dots grouped together can form complex pictures.

Georges Seurat in the 19th century used a technique called pointillism in
which he peppered his paintings with small colored dots that combined in
the viewer’s mind to form an image. His most famous work, “Un dimanche
aprè-midi à l’Île de la Grande Jatte” (1884-1886), is an invigorating concert
of colored dots. If a security guard at the Chicago Institute of Art lets you
get a few inches from the canvas, you can appreciate the technique
involved, but you won’t be able to tell the work’s subject. But if you view
this work from 20 feet away, you see a scene of pleasant relaxation on a
sunny day (Figure 2.8).

Figure 2.8
“Un Dimanche après-midià l’Île de la Grande Jatte,” 1884–1886, by Georges-Pierre Seurat. The
19th century French pointillist constructed his paintings by using a series of dots and only twelve
separate colors, never mixing one color with another. This tedious, mathematically based painting
technique found few advocates because the style lacked spontaneity. Nevertheless, this Sunday
Parisian scene, his most famous work, can be appreciated on a technical level when the thousands of
tiny dots are clearly discerned from a close up view while its optimism is communicated by its
inherent vibrancy viewed from a few yards back.
Courtesy of the Art Institute of Chicago

Lines When dots of the same size are drawn so closely together that there is
no space between them, the result is a line. According to anthropologist
Evelyn Hatcher, straight lines convey a message of stiffness and rigidity,
and they can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal. Horizontal lines, especially
when low in the frame, remind viewers of a horizon with plenty of room to
grow. If the horizontal line is high in the frame, the viewer feels confined,
as the layout seems heavy. Vertical lines bring the eye of the viewer to a halt
in a layout. The eye attempts to travel around the space created by the line.
Diagonal lines have a strong, stimulating effect in a field of view. The most
restful diagonal line is one that extends from one corner to its diagonal
opposite. It is a perfect compromise between horizontal and vertical forces.
Any other diagonal line strongly moves the eye of the viewer in the line’s
direction. Several diagonal lines within a composition create a nervous
dynamic energy. Curved lines convey a mood of playfulness, suppleness,
and movement. Curves have a gracefulness about them that softens the
content of their active message. If lines are thick and dark, the message is
strong and confident. If lines are thin and light with a clear separation
between them, the mood is delicate, perhaps a bit timid.

Grouped lines form blank spaces that the eyes naturally want to inspect.
When drawn as part of an object, they combine to simulate the sensation of
touch. The lines that form the surface of an object may be part of an
illustration or part of the natural lighting where the object is located. A
rough surface has several small curved lines that make up its bumpy
exterior. A smooth surface has few lines that mark its coating. Texture
stimulates the visual sense by the image itself and the tactile sense through
memory. For example, previous experience with the sharp points of the
needles of a cactus transfers to a picture of the plant.
Commercials for AT&T’s wireless network service cleverly repeat its logo,
which comprises rising vertical lines. In “Sweet Pea,” with music by Amos
Lee, the logo can be seen as palm trees, buildings, newspapers, bread sticks,
and playground equipment (Figure 2.9). Likewise, a public service
announcement (PSA) for the Peace Corps starts with a hand’s life line and
continues the theme of a horizontal journey in its “Life is Calling”
commercial narrated by Matthew McConaughey (Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.9
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/q3iSs1)
The joy of watching this commercial is enhanced by the clever ways the vertical bar motif is
incorporated into the backgrounds of the scenes

Figure 2.10
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/MqBP30)
Except for one scene, the graphic narrative of a life’s journey is communicated by a variety of
horizontal lines.

Shapes The third type of form, shapes, is the combination of dots and lines
into patterns that occur throughout nature and in graphic design. Shapes are
figures that sit on the plane of a visual field without depth and define the
outside edges of objects. They can be as simple as a beach ball and as
complex as the side of a person’s face. A shape that is quickly recognized is
clearly separated from the background of the image. The three basic shapes
are parallelograms, circles, and triangles. From these three shapes,
variations that make all known or imagined forms can be created. The name
of a form created by a combination of shapes is polygon. As with all visual
attributes, cultural meaning is assigned to each shape.

Parallelograms The parallelogram is a four-sided figure with opposite sides

that are parallel and equal in length.

The two major types of parallelograms are squares and rectangles. “Be
there or be square” is often a challenge given by those organizing a party. In
Western culture, a square is defined as an unsophisticated or dull person.
Similarly, a square shape, with its formally balanced, symmetrical
orientation, is the dullest and conventional shape (Figure 2.11). But strength
also comes from its plain appearance. A square is considered sturdy and
straightforward. In language, the equivalents are a square deal or a square
shooter. The implication from the phrases is that the business transaction or
person so described may not be flamboyant but that you can trust that the
person or transaction is fair. Rectangles are the slightly more sophisticated
cousins of squares. Of all the geometric figures, rectangles are the most
common and are the favored shape of the frame for mediated images. High-
definition television (HDTV) changed the shape of television screens from
squares to the wide-screen rectangular form used in movie theaters.
Composition in motion picture and still photography formats often takes
advantage of the horizontal sides that a rectangle naturally creates. In a
rectangular frame, the chief object of focus does not have to be in the center
for the work to appear balanced. A clever commercial for a Volkswagen
Beetle aired in 2003. It compared the modern, oval shape of the car with
everyday square objects—a clock, house, piece of toast, sponge, and so on,
which made the point that you didn’t want to drive just another box (Figure
2.12).

Figure 2.11
The dull square shape of a table during a conference in Helsinki, Finland is made more interesting by
the turned perspective, the casual arrangement of discarded objects, and the harsh side lighting that
distorts the shadows.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

Figure 2.12
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/C1XtsE)
The contrast of everyday square-shaped objects and the sleeker design of the VW automobile is made
clear in a witty way.

Circles The first shapes primitive humans probably took notice of were the
bright, circular forms in the sky (the sun and the moon), the round shape of
another person’s head, and the two circular eyes staring at them. As
Leonardo da Vinci once wrote, “The sense which is nearest to the organ of
perception functions most quickly, and this is the eye, the chief, the leader
of all other senses.”

Circles have always been important attention getters. No wonder advertisers

of video games, picture agencies, and motion pictures use the human eye in
ad campaigns. To emphasize the form of the red Target logo, a television
commercial featured eyes, a door’s peephole, a ball, and other circle shapes.
Photojournalists also know how telling a person’s eyes are in understanding
a subject’s personality. If the subject stares straight into a camera’s lens, the
message might be one of bewilderment, defiance, innocence, happiness, or
concentration. A specific genre of photography, the police mug shot, in
which the person arrested must look into the lens, often reveals a hidden
side of a celebrity caught doing something wrong, whether it’s Mel Gibson
in a nice shirt and a glowing smile in 2006 or Nick Nolte in 2002 with
disheveled hair and a much too colorful Hawaiian shirt (Figures 2.13).
Figures 2.13
In their booking photographs by patrol and sheriff officials for being under the influence, actors Mel
Gibson (left) and Nick Nolte are contrasts in demeanor, hair styles, and shirt choices. But they do
have one thing in common—they look straight into the camera’s lens, a requirement of such pictures.
Gibson’s eyes reveal playfulness and vulnerability, whereas Nolte’s eyes show defiance and anger.
Courtesy of the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department/California Highway Patrol

The Dublin-born singer Sinéad O’Connor gained tremendous popularity

early in her career with a 1990 music video directed by John Maybury, a
British filmmaker known for his films The Jacket (2005) and The Edge of
Love (2008). “Nothing Compares 2 U,” written and originally performed by
Prince with his 1980s band The Family, showed arresting, close-up images
of O’Connor singing with her eyes mainly looking into the camera’s lens.
The intimate filmmaking technique allowed a viewer to feel her pain after
losing a love (Figure 2.14).

Figure 2.14
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/BEobpx)
The agony of a lost love is enhanced by the close-up view of Sinéad O’Connor’s face that emphasizes
the misery in her eyes.

Triangles These are the most dynamic and active of shapes. As energetic
objects, they convey direction, but they can burden a design with the
tension they can create. The two types of triangles— equilateral and
isosceles—have vastly different symbolic meanings. All three sides of an
equilateral triangle are the same length. Its shape conveys a serene mood
because of symmetrical balance. Think of the silent stone pyramids of
Egypt. They calmly watch the passing of each millennium and tourist with a
camera. Seen from a distance, they are an abrupt change in the naturally
sloping sand dune–filled horizon. Seen up close, their power obviously
comes from their stable bases. The triangle juggles its two parts—the base
and the apex—to create a dynamic energy. From its base comes stability,
but from its peak comes tension (Figure 2.15). In contrast, the isosceles
triangle draws its power not from its base but from its sharp point. Think of
the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. When the point is vertical
and used in architecture, the shape is called a steeple and symbolizes a
religious person’s hoped-for destination. But pointed in any direction,
isosceles triangles invite the eyes to follow. When using the isosceles shape,
a visual communicator must be sure to give the viewer something to see at
the end (Figure 2.16).

Figure 2.15
The Temple of Kukulcan, known as “El Castillo,” “The Castle” at Chichén Itzá, Mexico, is a Mayan
structure built about 800CE. At 30 meters high, the terraced pyramid with a temple on top is a
masterwork that demonstrates precise architectural and construction skills. As with the pyramids in
Egypt, its shape causes passersby to notice its silent, solemn dignity.
Courtesy of Daniel Schwen

Figure 2.16
Cherry trees in full blossom frame the Washington Monument in the background. The powerful and
striking shape of the monument against the clear sky is in contrast to the stable and constant pyramid
shapes found in Mexico and Egypt.
Courtesy of Scott Bauer, U.S. Department of Agriculture

DEPTH
If humans had only one eye and confined their visual messages to drawings
on the walls of caves, there would be no need for more complex
illustrations that could be made from dots, lines, and shapes. But because
we have two eyes set slightly apart, we naturally see in three dimensions—
width, length, and depth—rather than only the first two. In 1838, Sir
Charles Wheatstone presented a paper to the Royal Society of London
detailing his views on binocular vision. He concluded that our two eyes
give different views and create the illusion of depth. The images are
projected onto each two-dimensional (2-D) retinal screen at the back of
each eye and travel to the brain, which interprets the difference between the
images as depth.

Eight Depth Cues Since perception is such a complicated combination of

eye and brain properties, researchers have identified eight possible factors,
used singly or in combination, that give viewers a sense of depth: space,
size, color, lighting, textural gradients, interposition, time, and perspective.
All of these cues, when combined with our two eyes, help us to notice when
one object is near and another farther away.

Space This cue depends on the frame in which an image is located. With a
natural scene, the illusion of space depends on how close you are to a
subject. Standing in an open field gives the feeling of a large amount of
space and enhances the feeling of depth. If an object is close to the eyes,
depth perception is limited. Likewise, the placement of content elements is
important for an image. Often, beginning photographers are told to add
interest to their pictures by including a tree limb or some other object in the
foreground of the frame (Figure 2.17).
Figure 2.17
“Abandoned Restaurant Window, Pecos, Texas,” 2005, by Gerry Davey. A cloudy day without direct
sunlight makes it hard to determine which forms are in the foreground and which ones are in the
back. Are the dark shapes on the right side the eyes of a space alien looking at you?
Courtesy of Gerry Davey

Size If a viewer is aware of an object’s actual size, it can help in the illusion
of depth perception. An airliner seen from a distance is a small size on the
viewer’s retina. If someone had no idea what the flying object was, she
might conclude that it was quite small. But because we are familiar with the
actual size of the aircraft, we know that it is far away and not as small as an
insect (Figure 2.18). Size, consequently, is closely related to our ability to
determine an object’s distance. Distance is related to space and helps in our
perception of depth. Size also is related to scale and mental attention.
Without knowing an object’s size, we have to view it next to an object of
known size.
Figure 2.18
Captured via telescope, the space shuttle Atlantis is seen in flight in front of the sun in 2009.
Knowing the relative size of objects helps determine the foreground from the background. The
extreme telephoto effect also makes it appear that the spacecraft is quite close to the star.
Courtesy of NASA/Thierry Legault

Color As indicated at the start of this chapter, an object’s color can

communicate depth. Because of their high electromagnetic frequency,
warm-colored objects appear closer than those that are cool-colored. High-
contrast pictures with great differences between light and dark tones seem
closer than objects colored with more neutral colors (Figure 2.19).
Figure 2.19
The muralist who painted this scene on a wall near the Pacific Ocean in Long Beach, California
understands the power of the color red to help viewers notice the objects in the background.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

Lighting Differences in light intensities can communicate depth. A

television studio technician will position a light above and behind a news
announcer. Called a “hair light,” the brightness level is slightly higher than
the lights in front in order to separate the person from the background. The
prevalence of shadows also indicates an object’s volume and gives the
viewer another depth cue. The light’s brightness and position create
shadows that the viewer notices (Figure 2.20).
Figure 2.20
Electric lights along the walls and sunlight through a window in the background help create the
illusion of depth and an eerie feeling in this hallway in a Taos, New Mexico hotel.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

Textural Gradients The ripple effect seen in a still pond suddenly disturbed
by a rock or the ridges from the wind on a sand dune are called textural
gradients. With water, the ridges appear closer together as they move away
from a viewer’s point of view. With sand, shadows in the foreground are
larger than the shadows in the craters that are farther away. The difference
in their size contributes to the illusion that the scene fades into the
background (Figure 2.21).
Figure 2.21
Our eyes can sense the illusion of depth in the photograph of this Southern California beach because
the shadows within the footprints in the sand in the foreground are large compared with those farther
back in the picture.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

Interposition Graphic designers for Sports Illustrated magazine regularly

use interposition for their covers with a picture of a player in front of a
headline or the publication’s name. The 3-D effect often shows a player
seemingly leaping off the page. Such a graphic technique is employed so
that the cover catches the eye of a potential customer within a crowded
bookstore (Figure 2.22).
Figure 2.22
The close-up view of the spelling-challenged Occupy Wall Street protestor in New York City is an
example of interposition as the sign and the Guy Fawkes’ mask fill the foreground.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

Time As a depth cue, time refers to a viewer’s attention to a particular

element within an image. When something interests us, we tend to stare at it
for a longer amount of time than other parts of a visual array. Examples
might be someone you know or something you are attracted to because of
past associations. To an outsider, the element may technically be considered
in the background. In a magazine advertisement, for example, words, a
model’s face or clothing, or an unusual object in the background that
triggers a memory might propel that element to the foreground for you
(Figure 2.23).

Figure 2.23
The Taos, New Mexico, Pueblo is an archeological site where Native Americans lived almost one
thousand years ago. Presently, about 150 persons still live there. Depending on your personal
interest, you may spend more time looking at the adobe structure, the store “OPEN” sign, the
window frame, the sleeping dog, the handwritten sign with the “F” letters drawn as two “7s,” the
elaborate smiley face, the parched ground, the play of light and shadow in the background, or some
other detail. Consequently, whichever element you spend more time looking at becomes the
foreground.
Courtesy of Paul Martin Lester

Perspective The most complex depth cue is perspective. That’s because it is

equal parts brain function and learned behavior. A person’s cultural heritage
has more bearing on the interpretation of perspective attributes than any
other cue. The concept of perception as used in Western art is relatively new
compared with the entire history of art. In Europe during the Renaissance,
visual communicators usually were artists and scientists. Probably the most
famous during this era was Leonardo da Vinci. His paintings reflect an early
attention to duplicating on a 2-D surface the illusion of depth as viewed in
the real world. One of Leonardo’s most famous works, “The Last Supper,”
uses perspective to express the social importance of the Christ figure. His
“Leonardo box” aided painters in duplicating depth by tracing a scene on a
sheet of paper (later on glass) with the artist’s eye remaining in the same
position. Using this method, a painter could be sure that the drawn lines
accurately mimicked an actual scene (Figure 2.24). But the “box” most
commonly used by artists of the day to draw accurate landscapes was the
camera obscura, or “dark chamber.” A small hole in a box projects an
upside-down view of the outside scene if lighting conditions are favorable.
Artists inside a large camera obscura traced the outside view on a thin sheet
of paper to replicate depth cues. Much later, light-sensitive material
replaced paper and became the basis for modern photography. The medium,
more than any other invention, spurred artists to render scenes in their
proper perspective.

In her book Visual Metaphors: A Methodological Study in Visual

Communication, Evelyn Hatcher identifies four major forms of perspective:
illusionary, geometrical, conceptual, and social.
Figure 2.24
The woodcut by Albrecht Dürer from his 1525 book, Introduction in the Art of Measurement with
Compass and Ruler, shows an example of an apparatus for translating 3-D objects into 2-D
drawings. No doubt a best seller. The perspective tool uses a frame to achieve an accurate linear
perspective of an object.
Courtesy of the estate of Albrecht Dürer
Illusionary Perspective An illusionary perspective can be achieved through
size, color, lighting, interposition, and linear perspective. When you stand
on a railroad track and look down the ties, the steel rails seem to converge
into a single area, or vanishing point, in the distance. This trait of parallel
lines when seen at a distance is called linear perspective and provides the
illusion of 3-D depth in a painting, photograph, film, or other flat surface.

Some artists played with the illusion of depth by having their subjects
appear to be escaping from their frames. Called trompe l’oeil, or “trick of
the eye” artists such as Titian, Pere Borrell del Caso, Edward Collyer, and
George Henry Hall used techniques that gave the illusion of 3-D depth
(Figure 2.25). Contemporary British artist Julian Beever creates pavement
chalk drawings that delightfully trick and intrigue the eyes (Figure 2.26),
and the Italian artist known as Blu further advances the artform with his
large, 3-D animated drawings. In his piece named “Muto,” Blu makes a
drawing, a camera records the frame, he erases it, makes a new drawing,
and repeats the process. When edited, the result is a captivating animated
film of the 3-D public artwork (Figure 3.27).
Figure 2.25
“Escaping Criticism,” 1874. The Spanish painter Pere Borrell del Caso used the trompe l’oeil effect
to make it appear the wide-eyed peasant boy is leaving the frame.
Courtesy of the Collection of the Bank of Spain

Figure 2.26
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/w1YccY)
Julian Beever travels the world as an invited artist to create his three-dimensional drawings during
art shows and street festivals.

Figure 2.27
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/nsugtr)
Produced by the street artist Blu, the edgy, scratchy drawing style requires erasing and creating
countless images for this thoroughly engaging animation.

Those who make 3-D motion pictures and television shows are currently
enjoying a renaissance of the genre. Instead of the poor quality sci-fi and
horror 3-D pictures of the 1950s seen with red-and-blue cellophane pasted
on cheap cardboard frames, audience members now are able to watch
motion pictures originally produced in 3-D such as Ralph Breaks the
Internet (2018), The Fate of the Furious (2017) and previously released 2-D
movies converted into 3-D such as Disney’s Beauty and the Beast (2012),
Top Gun (1986), Jurassic Park (1993), and all nine Star Wars films. With
comfortable glasses in theaters equipped to show digitally projected 3-D
movies producers expect new box office life from their past efforts.

However, because of the widescale and uncontrolled spread of COVID-19

and the public’s understandable concern about contracting the virus, 2020
was a devastating year for 3-D and traditional films and television
programs.

Geometrical Perspective This type of perspective is common among

traditional Japanese and Mayan artwork. The goddess Lalitā-Tripurāsundari
is higher and larger in the frame so is considered in the foreground (Figure
2.28). Young children without artistic training also often exhibit this type of
perspective in their drawings. The child’s drawing in Chapter 1 is an
example.

Figure 2.28
Sri Matre Namaha is known as the Great Empress who rules the universe is surrounded by various
attendants. She is enthroned with her left foot upon the Sri Chakra, also known as Sri Yantra. She
holds the traditional symbols of the sugarcane bow, lotus arrows, noose, and goad, a spiked stick for
driving cattle. Contrary to Western traditions, this geometrical perspective uses the size and
placement of Namaha in the frame to signify supremacy over the other gods.
Courtesy of the Encyclopedia of Sri Lalitha Tripura Sundari
Conceptual Perspective This element of perspective is a compositional trait
that relies on a more symbolic definition of depth perception. With this
perspective, a viewer can see many different sides of an object at the same
time. The picture is like an X-ray, or transparent view of the object. Near
objects overlap far objects only by the outside edges or lines that make up
their shapes. Pablo Picasso often used this type of perspective in which the
subject’s various moods and angles are seen all at the same time.
Photographer Clarence John Laughlin in “The Masks Grow to Us” (1947)
employed a multiple exposure technique in which the hard, cold stare of a
mannequin’s face starts to cover the soft features of a live model. If a
person is not truthful, she might become permanently phony (Figure 2.29).

Figure 2.29
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/vgLxDE)
Louisiana born poet and photographer Clarence John Laughlin often wrote lengthy captions for his
photographs. For his “The Masks Grow to Us” created in 1947 he wrote an apt description of the
conceptual perspective, “In our society, most of us wear protective masks (psychological ones) of
various kinds and for various reasons. The end result is that the masks grow to us, displacing our
original characters with our assumed characters. This process is indicated in visual, and symbolic,
terms here by several exposures on one negative—the disturbing factor being that the mask is like the
girl herself, grown harder, and more superficial.”

Social Perspective In social perspective, the most important person in a

group picture is often larger in size, centrally located, or separated from
other, less important people (Figure 2.30). A viewer often assumes power
relationships because of social perspective. A group picture of a large
family often has older adults in the center with the children surrounding
them on the edges. The owners and partners of a law firm may pose for an
advertising photograph in the center.
Figure 2.30
The position of these friends emphasizes that the man in front is the boss—an example of social
perspective.
Courtesy of Allison Lester

MOVEMENT
Color, form, and depth join movement to constitute the principal qualities
of images that make the cells in the visual cortex respond quickly to a
stimulus. Recognizing movement is one of the most important traits in the
survival of an animal.

Knowing whether an object or animal is moving closer or farther away

helps you avoid potentially harmful encounters. The four types of
movement are: real, apparent, graphic, and implied.

Real Movement This type of movement is motion not connected with an

image presented in the media. It is actual movement as seen by a viewer of
some other person, animal, or object. Because real movement does not
involve mediated images, we don’t emphasize it in this textbook.

Apparent Movement The most common example of this type of movement

is motion picture films. Moving images are a series of still images put
together sequentially for film, videotape, or digital media and moved
through a viewing device at a fast speed. Each single picture is shown only
for a fraction of a second. Movement is perceived in the brain because of a
phenomenon called persistence of vision. In 1824 Peter Mark Roget, who
later became famous for his popular Thesaurus, proposed that this
phenomenon resulted from the time required for an image to fade from the
cells of the retina. Scientists now know that persistence of vision is a result
of the time needed for the brain to receive and recognize the picture. It takes
about one-tenth of a second for an image to enter the eyes and register in
the mind. Consequently, at 24 frames a second, a character or object in a
film appears to move because of a blurring between individual frames as
they pass through a projection device at that speed.

Graphic Movement Graphic movement can be the motion of the eyes as

they scan a field of view or it can also refer to the way a graphic designer
positions elements so that the eyes move throughout a layout. Visual
communicators often position the graphic elements in a design to take
advantage of the eyes’ movement around a picture and layout. A viewer’s
eyes will move through and notice elements in an image based on previous
experiences and current interests, seeing certain parts of the picture and
ignoring others. Nevertheless, a visual communicator can direct a viewer’s
eyes in a preconceived direction. The eye will usually follow a line, a slow
curve, or a horizontal shape before it follows other graphic elements. Of
course, colors, sizes of individual pieces, and placement of elements against
a frame’s white or background colored space also are crucial.

Implied Movement Implied movement is motion that a viewer perceives in

a still, single image without any actual movement of an object, image, or
eye. Some graphic designs purposely stimulate the eyes with implied
motion in order to attract attention. Optical or “op” art has been used in
advertisements and in psychedelic posters of the 1960s to achieve frenetic,
pulsating results. The implied motion attracts attention. Optical or “op” art
has been used in advertisements and in psychedelic posters of the 1960s to
achieve frenetic, pulsating results. Visual vibration is the term used for
these images. Through high-contrast line placement or the use of
complementary colors, moiré (wavy) patterns seem to move as if powered
by an unseen light source (Figure 2.31).
Figure 2.31
“A Hand for Riley,” 2009, by xtine burrough. The British artist Bridget Riley is one of the most
influential painters of the Op Art movement. After earning her degree from the Royal College of Art
in London, she worked as a teacher and illustrator for the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency. In
the 1960s she developed her distinctive style of black and white geometrical forms that created an
internal, vibrant, visual energy and helped launch the Op Art movement. This piece is based on
Riley’s “Movement in Squares,” 1961.
Courtesy of xtine burrough

Implied movement also has roots in the beginnings of human

communication. Outside the village of Montignac in southwestern France,
the entrance to the Lascaux Cave was discovered in 1940. In 1994 while
exploring a cave on his family’s land in southern France, Jean-Marie
Chauvet discovered the oldest known cave etchings and paintings. Le
Grotte Chauvet contains 416 cave paintings of extraordinary detail and
cultural significance dating from approximately 30,000 years ago. Many
paintings in several of the caves discovered have views of animals in which
they appear to be running. For example, one of the drawings in the cave
shows a stag running with additional antlers. With so many other animals
accurately displayed, archeologists puzzled why this one was not
anatomically correct. Speculation about the artist’s intent ended after
someone brought in a flaming torch to see the drawing as the cave dwellers
themselves would have seen it. With the aid of a fire’s light, it could easily
be seen that the extra legs gave the viewer the illusion that the bison was
actually galloping across the cave. Perhaps this example of implied
movement is evidence that early humans longed for motion pictures (Figure
2.32). Unfortunately for these cave dwellers, buttered popcorn and flavored
sugar water were invented much later.

Figure 2.32
Zach Zorich of Nautilus magazine writes that these “Five stag heads in the Nave region of Lascaux
cave might represent a single stag in different stages of motion.”
Courtesy of Norbert Aujoulat

In 1990 director Martin Scorsese made a critically acclaimed mobster

movie, Goodfellas. The action leading up to a drug bust scene is a clinic in
camera and actor movements synchronized to make an audience member
feel the tension and paranoia that the characters have when taking drugs and
performing other illegal acts. The scene starts with the character played by
Ray Liotta snorting a line of cocaine and ends with him being busted in the
driveway of his house. In between, the camera zooms in and out, pans left,
right, up, and down, and moves in and out. The shots are quickly edited for
maximum tension. The musical selections also enhance the frenetic feeling.
The actors are constantly moving, talking, and looking for surveillance
helicopters. The scene is also a powerful anti-drug message (Figure 2.33).

Figure 2.33
(Weblink: http://goo.gl/7pnSUy)
The frenetic lifestyle of Ray Liotta’s drug selling character in Goodfellas is enhanced by the
directorial choices made by Academy Award winner Martin Scorsese.

For many millennia visual communicators have used the four visual cues,
color, form, depth, and movement in their work, whether it has appeared on
cave walls or on computer screens (Figure 2.34). An important lesson for
image producers who want to make memorable messages is to understand
that brain cells are complex “difference detectors.” They are stimulated
more by the relative differences between visual elements than by the
intensity of each one. Consequently, a gaudy, colorful presentation may lose
much of its impact if all its graphic elements have the same intensity. The
content of a visual message, which we discuss next, also plays a vital role.
Figure 2.34
The four visual cues of color, form, depth, and movement combine equally and intricately in this
seemingly simple still photograph.
Courtesy of an Anonymous Donor

KEY TERMS FROM THIS CHAPTER

Binocular vision • Composition • Cortex (Visual) • COVID-19 •
Electromagnetic spectrum • Feminist movement • Genre • Gesture •
Halftone • Layout • Logo • Microelectrode • Moiré pattern • Mug shot •
Multiple exposure • Pan • Photoshop • Public Service Announcement (PSA)
• Random dot stereogram • Renaissance • Retinas • Shot • Visual array •
Wavelength • Zoom

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