34 LESSONS

IN

RADIO
AND

TELEVISION

PUBLISHED BY

!SHORT WAVE RADIO

 34 LESSONS
IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

CONTENTS
Lesson One — Fundamentals of Electricity 3
Lesson Two — Vacuum Tubes 4
Lesson Three — Reception Of Radio Waves 6
Lesson Four — Radio Symbols and Circuits 6
Lesson Five — A Simple Diode ( or Crystal) Receiver 8
Lesson Six — Operation Of Vacuum Tubes 9
Lesson Seven — A Simple Triode V. T. Receiver 10
Lesson Eight — R. F. and A. F. Amplification II
Lesson Nine — A One- Stage Audio Amplifier 12
Lesson Ten — How A Power Supply Works 13
Lesson Eleven — Operation Of An Audio Amplifier 14
Lesson Twelve — Fidelity of Ampl fiers 15
Lesson Thirteen — Building An Amplifier- Power Unit 16
Lesson Fourteen — Regeneration 17
Lesson Fifteen — A Two-Tube Regenerative Tuner 18
Lesson Sixteen — Operation of Pentode Tubes 20
Lesson Seventeen — Advantages Of Pentodes 20
Lesson Eighteen — Simple Tuned R. F. Receiver 21
Lesson Nineteen — T. R. F. and Superheterodynes 22
Lesson Twenty — High-Quality Broadcast Receiver 23
Lesson Twenty- Oie — Automatic VDIume Control 25
Lesson Twenty-Two — Facts About Antennas 27
Lesson Twenty-Th-ee — Photocells 28
Lesson Twenty- Four — Breaking Into The Amateur Game 30
Lesson Twenty- Five — Code Practice Oscillators 31
Lesson Twenty- Six — History Of Telavision 32
Lesson Twenty- Seven — Application Of The Kerr Cell 33
Lesson Twenty- Eight — Scanning Disk Television 35
Lesson Twenty- Nine — Cathode Ray Tubes 36
Lesson Thirty — Tne Sweep Circuit and Power Supply 37
Lesson Thirty-One — Cathode- Ray Television 38
Lesson Thirty-Two — Television Receiver Design 40
Lesson Thirty-Three — Television In The U. S. 42
Lesson Thirty- Four — Television Abroad 45
Supplement — Oscillators and Mixers 47

Edited By Laurence M. Cockaday

Associate Editors
S. Gordon Taylor William C. Dorf
John M. Borst Walter H. Holze John H. Potts
Copyright 1937 by Teck Publications, Inc., 461 Eighth Avenue, New York, N. Y.
Second Edition — Printed in U. S. A.
2 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Once upon atime...

The real reason for publishing this book goes back to the
time six years ago when your editor decided to prepare a
Radio Lesson Book to help Radio News readers learn some-
thing about elementary radio theory. When the material for
the book was gotten together, it was found that it could be
divided into twenty-three parts and the book was, therefore,
called " 23 Lessons In Radio." Since that time, this little book
has been the most popular publication we have had any
experience with. It was printed and reprinted, and the copies
were snapped up just as soon as they came off the press.
Now, six years in radio is along time and although the
fundamental concepts remain the same, there have been so many
new applications coming each year that it became evident
a new Radio Lesson Book of increased scope and containing
the latest data on such new developments as cathode-ray tubes
and television itself would fill adistinct need.
This fine new book in which the lessons have been
increased to 34, starts out with the fundamentals of electricity
and wave motion, tells you what is necessary to know about
radio symbols and circuits, vacuum tubes, amplifiers, various
kinds of receivers, facts about antennas, the development of
the cathode-ray tube, and the unfolding of television — and
tells it in a simple and direct manner that anyone should be
able to understand.
A glance at the contents page is enough of an introduction
to " 34 Lessons In Radio And Television" without many more
words from me. It is hoped that these lessons, and the knowl-
edge they contain, will give you a better understanding of
radio and more complete enjoyment in your radio activities.

LAURENCE M .COCKADAY
Editor, Radio News and Short Wave Radio
34 LESSONS IN R
ADIO AND TELEVISION 3

LESSON ONE
Fundamentals Of Electricity

W
HO would ever have believed, when Fundamental experiments about the me-
in 1793 Alessandro Volta, aphysics ELECTRODE POTENTIAL SERIES chanism of the conduction of electricity
professor, finished his lecture before (MOLAL ELECTRODE POTENTIALS REFERRED in a liquid ( called an electrolyte) had
TO THE HYDROGEN ELECTRODE AS ZERO)
a Pavia audience, that from such a crude been carried out as early as 1853, and the
device as his original arrangement voltaic ELECTRODES
POTENTIAL SIGN physical laws of ionization in liquids have
METALTO ION TO followed since that time.
cells ( see Figure 3), would come a de- (VOLTS)
ION METAL
velopment which, if only a little further Li - Li + 2.958 + — LR As a starter, in considering the genera-
understood, would teach us about the Rb- Rb + 2.924 + — LR tion of electric potentials in batteries
nature of materials, the constituents of K - K + 2.922 4- — LR containing afluid electrolyte, we might ask
metals and fluids, the ability to build elec- Na- Na + 2.713 + — LR the question: How are these potentials
trical equipment of vast power to run our Ba- Ba ++ 2.8 started in batteries and how is conduction
+ — LB
industries, and, finally, to enable us to Sr- 5r ++ 2.1 accomplished? An ordinary fluid without
+ — LB
communicate over the entire globe by Ca- Ca ++ 2.5 any energy passing through it may be
+ — LB
radio. A first crude arrangement of bat- Mg- Mg ++ 1.55 thought of as neutral, electrically. But
+ — LB
teries—zinc and copper plates immersed in Mn- Mn ++ the atoms of a liquid may be decomposed
1.0 + — LB
an acid solution—in its systematic investi- + under the influence of an electrical poten-
Zn- Zn ++ 0.158 — LR
gation made possible the study of the tiel, and the ions resulting will carry
Cr- Cr ++ 0.551 + — IC
fundamentals of electro- chemistry. In con- tiny charges through the electrolyte to the
Cr- Cr ++ 0.40 + — IC
sequence there came the investigation of the electric terminals ( sometimes called elec-
Fe- Fe ++ 0.441 -1- — LR
phenomena connected with the motion of trodes). These ions may be considered as
'Cd- Cd ++ 0.398 -F — LR
electrical charges in gases, fluids, and tiny little " boats" which float through the
TI -T1 + 0.336 + — LR
solids and finally, the study of electrical electrolyte between the electrodes starting
charges much smaller than the others, Co- Co ++ 0.29 + — LB
the current flow through the battery.
namely—those practically free from matter Ni - Ni ++ 0.231 + — 1C
Sn- Sn ++ 0.136 -I- — LR
The material of the electrode governs the
—electronic physics. potential difference that will be generated
Pb- Pb ++ 0.122 + — LR
Fe- Fe +++ + — LR
by the battery and there follows in
0.045
How Currents Flow (Pt-H2)- H + 0.0 + —
Figure 1 a list of electrode materials and
Sb- Sb +++ 0.1
their electrical characteristics in comparison
— + LB
What is actually concerned in the passage to hydrogen in an electrode- potential series.
Bi - Bi +++ 0.2 — + LB
of electricity through conducting mediums?
As- As +++ 0.3 — + LB
Is it different if we screw a lamp into "Wandering" Electrons
Cu- Cu ++ 0.345 — -1- LR
a light socket, or if we receive radio im-
Ti - 7i ++1- 0.31 — + IC
pulses from the ether when we have current While the motion of ions through fluids
flowing through the vacuum of our radio (Pf-OH)- 02 0.398 — + LR
is one of the earliest actions of electricity
tubes, or if we reflect radio waves on the Hg- Hg ++ 0.199 — + LR
to be investigated, there are a number of
Heaviside layers of an atmosphere 100 Ag- Ag + 0.800 -- + LR
other phenomena that can be easily re-
miles above the earth? Just how does Au- Au +++ 1.3 — + LB
produced that have aided considerably
conduction take place? Au- Au + 1.36 — + IC
to increase our understanding of electrical
It is at this point that the scientist DATA MARKED LR,FROM LEWIS AND RANDALL ." THERMO-
DYNAMICS" 1LB FROM LEBLANC..LEHRBUCH DER phenomena and that have helped us to
enters the scene. In showing the common ELECTROCHEMIE"; IC FROM " INTERNATIONAL make many of the tools and machines
source in the diversification of general laws CRITICAL TABLES" necessary for our 20th century civilization.
that allow many phenomena to appear in The conduction of electricity through
different lights, he creates new variations Figure I
solids seems to be a much more simple
and discovers new effects that eventually thing than that of conduction through
become of industrial importance. It is
The Electron Theory
liquids. In solids, a current of electricity
indeed a thrilling experience to compare In the early parlance of electrical ex- is believed to be a wandering of free
the phenomena of radio and electricity of electrons, through the atoms, in a drift
perimenters it was assumed that current
today with the experiments of 100 years traveled from positive to negative; it tending to equalize the distribution of
ago, which in their various forms look so such free electrons. In other words, the
would be, perhaps, more correct to say
completely different, but which at bottom general understanding of conduction would
that current travels from a higher to a
are fundamentally identical with today's include the idea of the free electrons
lower electrical potential. However, the
technique, however varied they may appear.
flow of electric current is now believed
Figure 4
to be in the direction of the flow of the
Figure 2 electrons, as established, far instance, in
radio tube phenomena.
Figure 3
 4 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

magnetism, the principles of which are of principle involved is the same. In this
equal importance in the construction of microphone thin ribbons are suspended
huge dynamos, in the motion of the loud within the magnetic field. But "cutting"
speaker, the galvanometer or the oscillo- the lines of force in the magnetic field,
graph, in the construction of electronic and electric current is developed in these rib-
radio apparatus, and even in the trans- bons as they move, which current is con-
mission of energy through space. ducted by wires to the amplifier equipment
All these phenomena revert to the fact —giving us hundreds of thousands of times
the energy output of the original sound
that flowing electricity develops a magnetic
wave that moved the metal ribbon in the
field and that changes in a magnetic field
magnetic field.
can also generate electricity. Figure 5
shows one of the earliest experiments ever
attempted in this line. In its beautiful Electric Current Determined
simplicity and clarity, consisting of a coil
of wires, a suspended magnetic needle and By Factor of Motion
two nails as contacts, it is indeed an ex-
ample of the method of thinking and This idea of cutting magnetic lines of
experimenting fundamentally ançl of far- force by aconductor is shown in Figure 4,
reaching results even with meager means. in which the magnet is shown being in-
The galvanometer referred to is a design serted into acoil of wire. A magnet, as is
of the great American physicist, Joseph known, is surrounded by what we call a
Henry, who investigated, with this type of magnetic field, such as is shown in Figure
equipment, the phenomena of electro- mag- 2 at A and B, which at the same time
netic induction one year before Faraday show also the interaction of two magnetic
observed and published the same results. fields upon each other. The coil, connected
This suspension galvanometer was based to a milliammeter, reads up to 20 milli-
upon the fact, discovered by the physicist amperes on each side of the scale. During
Figure 5 Oersted in 1819, that a magnetic needle is the time the magnet is inserted, the milli-
influenced by acurrent of electricity. Cur- ammeter is deflected in one direction. If
rent flowing through a coil in this gal- it is then held motionless, no current flows
repelling each other and leaving locations in the milliammeter. If the magnet is
vanometer deflects the magnetic needle
in a conductor where " crowding" exists. pulled out, the milliammeter shows current
suspended on a thread above it, the needle
In other words, a generator of electricity being attracted with acertain force toward flowing in the opposite direction. The
might be considered as an electron pump quicker we move the magnet, the stronger
the magnetic meridian. It requires a
that produces a "crowd" of electrons at definite force to deflect it from its original the needle is deflected; if we move the
one of its terminals and they immediately position. This force is a function of the magnet very slowly, the deflection is mini-
drift through the conductor to the other mized.
amount of electric current flowing. It can
terminal of the generator where there is We see here that the electric current in
therefore be calibrated in amperes ( or
a scarcity of said electrons. addition to being proportionate to the
multiples or fractions thereof) and will
measure current. force of the magnetic field ( which we can
Magnetic Fields readily see by inserting a stronger magnet
It is indeed along way from this original in comparison with a weaker), is also
Another part of electrical phenomena of experiment of interaction between an elec- determined by the factor of motion. The
importance has to do with the relation of tric current and a magnetic field to the more lines of force cut per time unit, the
current flow and magnetism. This refers construction of a modern string galva- stronger is the electromotive force de-
particularly to the phenomena of electro - nometer or a velocity microphone, but the veloped in the conductor.

LESSON TWO
Vacuum Tubes

T
HE small glass tubes or bulbs with All substances known to man are either around the proton determines the type of
which most of us are familiar, due to elements or combinations of two or more atom and thereby the element. We see,
their universal use in radio sets, are elements. Some of the better known ele- therefore, that all matter is composed of
but one form of a large family of similar ments are hydrogen, oxygen, aluminum, elements or combinations of elements, ele-
devices—all having their own purpose but carbon, copper, gold, iron, and many others. ments are composed of atoms, and atoms
working on a similar principle. All va- Water, for instance, is formed by the are composed of two basic things known
cuum tubes from the tiny " peanut" tube, combination of oxygen and hydrogen. as protons and electrons. Between the
a little over an inch in height, to the When the element oxygen from the air proton and its electrons is empty space.
gigantic 200 kilowatt radio transmitting goes into union with the element iron About twenty-four centuries ago Demo-
tube standing almost six feet high, depend we have rust formed, and then we decide critus, aGreek philosopher, said, "in reality
on their operation, first, on infinitely small that a new coat of paint is needed to there is nothing but atoms and space."
particles called electrons, and second, on protect the surface. Millions of combina- Little did he know how near he came to
an empty space provided for the electrons tions of elements are possible. the facts which make up the basis of
to move through freely. Even the photo- modem science.
electric cell, the mysterious electric eye, Structure of Atoms The simplest atom known consists of a
depends upon its operation on the motion proton and one electron. This is the
of these tiny electrons. Other small tubes All of the ninety or so substances called hydrogen atom. An atom of oxygen con-
containing brilliantly colored glowing gases elements are composed of atoms of the sists of a proton with eight electrons re-
and which by an ordinary wave of the particular substance. An atom is the small- volving about it. The iron atom has
hand will set into motion tons of machinery est possible particle in which an element twenty-six electrons revolving about its
depend also on tiny electrons for their can exist. Like the age-old question, " what proton. Radium, one of the heaviest of
operation. lies beyond the universe," we may well the elements, consists of a proton with
The X-ray tube over which humans have ask, " what lies beyond the atom?" If we eighty-eight electrons revolving about it.
always marveled is also another electron could sufficiently magnify the atom to ex- These arrangements of electrons and rum-
and empty space device. Many wonderful amine its structure, we would find that all tons make up a sort of miniature solar
devices have been developed, based on the atoms are made up of but two things—a system in which the proton is the sun and
motion of electrons in aspace. tiny particle known as a proton around the electrons are the planets. The mag-
The material of the entire universe is which revolve at great speed one or more nitudes, of course, are infinitely smaller
composed of intricate combinations of less smaller particles known as electrons. The than can be viewed under any microscope.
than a hundred substances called elements. arrangement and number of electrons Something like 250,000 hydrogen atoms
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
5

passage from the cathode to the plate. If

the cathode is surrounded by atmosphere
at ordinary pressure an electron could
travel but a very very short distance from
the cathode before it would bump into an
atom of one of the gases present in the
atmosphere and thus end its flight.
As we previously read, the electrons of
an atom are continually revolving about
a proton. When the atom is heated to
high temperatures the electrons begin to
revolve faster and faster until, if the
temperature be sufficiently nigh, an electron
is flung off with great velocity. We see,
therefore, that when the cathode of the
tube is heated to a high enough tempera-
ture, electrons are discharged from its
surface or boiled off much as steam is
boiled off from a kettle of . boiling water.
Materials, such as thoriated tungsten, or
certain metallic oxides, have the property
of emitting large numbers of electrons at
comparatively low temperatures, therefore,
they are generally used for vacuum tube
cathodes. The cathode of the vacuum
Figure 6— Left; Figure 7—Right tube, then, is that element in the tube, Figure 8—Left; Figure 9—Right
sometimes in the form of afilament, which
is heated in order to discharge electrons
placed in a row would have a length of headed toward the plate back to the
from its surface.
one hundred thousandth of an inch. cathode ( Figure 8). The plate current
then is decreased, On the other hand, if
Protons and Electrons The Electron Flow electrons are taken away from the grid,
leaving it positively charged, the number
Protons and electrons, modern research The plate is a piece of metal surround- of electrons from the cathode reaching
has shown, are nothing but pure little ing the cathode, and is used to receive the the plate will be greatly increased, because
particles of electricity. They are the electrons which are witted from the the grid will then aid the plate in attract-
"building blocks" of the universe, and all cathode. When the cathode is heated ing electrons. See Figure 9.
matter is made from them. The proton high above the temperature of its sur- The grid in the vacuum tube may be
is a particle of positive electricity, while roundings, millions and millions of tiny likened to a traffic policeman on a one-
the electron is a particle of negative negative electrons are discharged into space, way street. When the policeman raises
electricity. All electrons are exactly alike. as in Figure 6. In order for the plate to his hand automobile traffic stops; when
It has been calculated that the electron is draw these electrons to itself it must have the grid becomes negative electron traffic
about one- thirteenth billionth of an inch a positive charge or a deficiency of elec- stops. When the traffic policeman gives
in diameter! trons. This is accomplished by connecting the signal to go, traffic again starts; when
When the proton has the proper number the positive terminal of a battery or other the grid becomes positive the stream of
of electrons revolving about it, the positive source of voltage to the plate in order electron traffic to the plate is resumed.
charge of the proton and the negative to pull electrons out of it. We can see, therefore, that since the
charge of the electrons neutralize each We have previously read, that when an grid element of a vacuum tube can have
other and we have a stable arrangement. electron leaves an atom it is free to go such a marked effect on the number of
Under certain conditions electrons may into combination with any nearby atom electrons that reach the plate, we can, by
leave an atom, and when they do so they which has a deficit of electrons. There- varying the grid charge or grid voltage,
are free to go into combination with any fore, when the cathode is heated and the regulate the plate current in any desired
nearby atom which has adeficit of electrons. plate is positively charged, we have a way. As electrons travel at hundreds of
stream of electrons flowing from the miles per second variations in grid voltages
cathode to the plate as in Figure 7. take instantaneous effect upon the plate
Principle of The Vacuum Tube current.
Every electron which reaches the plate
Now that we have had aglimpse of the constitutes a minute electric current, and
infinitesimal world of protons, and know when asufficient number of electrons reach The Amplification Factor
of some of their workings, let us see how the plate we have a measurable current of
electricity. This current of electrons or Depending on the relationship and struc-
the ingenuity of man has set these tiny
electricity which is shot out of the cathode ture of the elements in the tube, a change
particles or electric charges to work to
into the vacuum, reaching the plate, and of one volt of electric pressure on the grid
perform his miracles.
flowing from the plate through the battery may affect the plate current as much as a
Imagine a machine-gun such as that
and other apparatus, must be conducted ten volt change in the plate voltage. In
used in the war. It is aimed at a target
back to the cathode again in order to give other words, an electron on the grid will
at which it is firing. As the bullets strike
back to it its deficiency of electrons. It is have the power of ten electrons in the
the target they give up their energy. A
this current which is used in so many ways plate circuit. The amplifying action or
slight pressure on the trigger of the gun
to perform many modern wonders. amplification factor varies in the different
is sufficient to start a rain of shells toward
types of tubes in general use from about
the target.
three in the power tubes, to a factor of
The vacuum tube such as is used in your
Electron Policeman several hundred in the screen grid tube.
radio set or in radio broadcasting is a
The amplification factor of a tube is
device in which energy can be controlled We need now in order to complete our controlled in a great measure by the
by the application of a much smaller vacuum tube, the element for controlling mechanical construction of the tube, the
amount of energy than in the machine-gun. the number of electrons which are allowed grid-to- plate spacing, as well as the close-
In the vacuum tube we have the machine to reach the. plate. This third element, ness of the grid mesh structure. A grid
gun and target on avery small scale. Even for which de Forest is famous, is the grid composed of a great many wires, close to
the projectiles are there, but this time they and consists of a wire mesh between the the filament or cathode, provides a high
are not machine-gun bullets but our tiny cathode and plate. Every electron which amplification factor; a tube with a wide
electrons. finally reaches the plate must pass through grid structure and not so close to the fila-
the openings in this wire mesh which we ment or cathode produces a low amplifica-
Construction of A Vacuum Tube have called the grid. tion factor. This amplifying property of
These tiny electrons speeding across to the vacuum tube, in which electrical con-
A vacuum tube consists of a cathode the plate are easily influenced by the ditions in the circuit connected to the grid
for shooting out electrons, the plate for the electrical charge on the grid. If the grid of the tube are exactly reproduced and
electrons to hit, and the grid for controlling has an excess of electrons on it or in magnified many fold in the plate circuit, is
the number of electrons reaching the plate. other words anegative charge, it will repel the basis of the hundreds of important and
The air is thoroughly pumped out of the any electrons coming near it and therefore wonderful technical applications of the
tube in order to allow the electrons free send most or even all of the electrons vacuum tube.
6 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

LESSON THREE
Reception Of Radio Waves

R
ADIO stations all over the world are direction. It will return its energy to the
sending out radio waves. Just what wire as long as the reversing process is
these waves are, we do not know. We not too rapid. If the reversal occurs fre-
do know, however, that a radio wave has quently enough, or the frequency (number
the power to create an electrical pressure in of cycles or vibrations per second) becomes
any electrical conductor ( such as wire) and high enough, some of the energy in the
this electrical pressure will cause a current electro-magnetic field travels away—is rad-
to flow in the conductor. Thus the wave iated. Therefore, the name radio-frequency.
from a radio transmitter causes a minute There is no sharply defined limit of radio
electric current in any receiving antenna frequency, but generally it is assumed to be
(or other conductor) within its path. The from 25,000 cycles per second up. Fre-
strength of this current will depend on the quencies lower than this, when sent through
power of the station, the distance from the a loudspeaker, are translated in:o audible
fr ' tones hence the term "audio- frequency."
station and the length, location and direc-
tion of the receiving antenna. Each broadcasting station, when it is "on
This tiny electric current flows down to the air," is sending out a steady wave at

bek\AAIII
the receiver which must convert it back some particular radio frequency, and this is
into the original speech, morse code, music, called the carrier wave. As a performer
picture, etc., being conveyed by the radio in the broadcast studio speaks into the
waves. Note that there is no difference in microphone this carrier wave varies in am-
the transmission of telegraph, telephone plitude or strength in accordance with the
messages, music or picture. The nature of movements of the microphone diaphragm and
the wave, the transmitter or the receiver the carrier is then said to be " modulated."
is the same, it is just the translating device Figure 10 graphically portrays the carrier
(microphone, key, televisor) which differs. wave at a moment when no sound reaches
the microphone. Figure 11 shows the car-
rier wave when " modulated" by speech
Duties of the Receiver Figure 10—Top; Figure II—Center;
or other sound at the microphone.
Figure I2—Lower Center; Figure 13—Bottom
The duties of the receiver are: first, to
pick up the small electrical pressures or
Detection
conductor creates an electro- magnetic field
voltages; second, select the desired signal An exact replica of this wave will reach
around the conductor. If the conductor
excluding all others; third, translate the the radio receiver and must there be con-
is coiled up, the field can be concentrated
signal into sound ( or picture or code mes- so that the coil will attract iron, nickel or verted back into sound. The first step in
sage, but in this lesson let us consider cobalt. This electro- magnetic field repre- this conversion process is called detection.
sound only). Before the latter can be ac- sents energy. The energy was supplied by A perfect detector is nothing but a device
complished a process, called "detection" the electrical circuit and now resides in which will permit electrical current to flow
must take place. in one direction only and not in the reverse
the space surrounding the coil. When the
The natural question will be—what is direction. When the received signal passes
circuit is opened, the field disappears and
detection and why is it necessary? Why returns the energy to the circuit by creating through this detector, it may be represented
can't we connect the headphones to an- a voltage or electrical pressure in the coil. as in Figure 12. When such acurrent as
tenna and ground and listen for stations? that of Figure 12 flows through an electrical
The answer is not so simple. device which does not permit the fast var-
How A Radio Station Works iations of the individual radio frequency
It is necessary to consider briefly how
a radio station works. Most of us ere The electro-magnetic field around a con- pulses ( the headphone is such a device),
familiar with alternation current or A.C. ductor which carries alternating current, the result is an average current, as shown
Any electrical current flowing through a is constantly collapsing and reversing in in Figure 13.

LESSON FOUR
Radio Symbols And Circuits

B
EFORE the beginner in radio can tools with which he must work. what battery connections were made,
become proficient in the building of Just as the carpenter or cabinet maker whether it used transformer or resistance
receivers, and the absorbing of more must know the various special uses of the coupling, whether a screen-grid tube or
or less technical descriptions of radio particular kind of tools with which he is power tube were used, and so on. If he
apparatus or their functions it is first neces- expected to work, so too must the radio desired he could orally describe or per-
sary that he familiarize himself with the man, if he is to become successful, know haps write a lengthy description of the
how to master the use of the tools which circuit employed, but the quicker way
are necessary in the art. would be to graphically show the various
Figure 16
One of the most important tools, that pieces of apparatus employed and show
the beginner in radio must learn how to
use, is the symbol or graphical representa- Figure 15
tion of a piece of radio equipment so that
he may know how too read aradio circuit.
In radio a circuit diagram constitutes
a short-cut " language" so to speak, which
conveys an intelligent message from one
individual to another.
Supposing one engineer wanted to de-
scribe aradio receiver to another engineer:
that is, tell how many tubes were used,
how they were connected one to the other,
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
Figure 14 7

E
RADIO NEWS SYMBOL CHART
WIRES
CONNECTED

WIRES
±
I
DOUBLE
POLE-
DOUBLE
THROW
SWITCH

SINGLE
DECK
o
0-
CRYSTAL
M IC RO RH O PIE
(8,-84 me
HALF- WAVE
RECTIFI RS

FULL- WAVE
ETC)
el

NOT
CONNECTED MULTI- 0 MAGNETIC,L, RECTIFIERS

1
POINT PICKUP

e
SWITCH (BO, 25Z5 ETC)

MULTIPLE
FIXED DECK-
RESISTOR MULTI- CRYSTAL TRIODES
POINT PICKUP

el re,
SWITCH (04A,27 ETC)

VARIABLE SCREEN
AERIAL SINGLE GRID
RESISTOR mmittwo_
CELL TUBES
(22,24 ETC.)

POTENTIO
METER
DOUBLETY ir BATTERY
PENTODES
(47, 2A5, ETC.)
r e

PENTODE OR TRIPLE

7
FIXED mil GRID TUBE INDIRECT-
LOOP
CONDENSER FUSE ° Í bO LY HEATED.VVITH
SUPPREssDR GRID
PRONG.
57,58,GD6,6C6 ETC.

VARIABLE ji OPEN
CONDENSER 7 7 GROUND
CIRCUIT
JACK IL= DOUBLE DIODE
TRIODE ( 55,75 ETC)

ELECTROLYTICI+
CONDENSER PHONES DOUBLE DIODE
RECTI Fl
PENTODE
(287,697)

AIR CORE MAGNETIC awl<

INDUCTANCE SPEAKER f METERS C) PENTAGRID
TUBES
(4A6 , GA7)

COUPLED 13 8
R.F. DYNAMIC
SPEAKER r POWER TRIODE
COILS
106-01 106001 LINE PLUG:s — PENTODE
6F7

HALF-WAVE
VARIO - RECTIFI ER
COUPLER CRYSTAL DOUBLE GRID TUBE
COLD C RECTLY
SPEAKER
• CATHODE, HEATED
GASEOUS. 49,46.

CARBON FULL - WAVE

%/ARID- MICROPHONE {1
4 RECTIFIER
FULL- WAVE
COLD
METER SINGLE CLASS B
CATHODE,
BUTTON TUBES
GASEOUS
(19, 53, ETC.)
IRON CORE
COIL ( A. F. CARBON
CHOKE) M ICROPHONE ) I] NEON
AUTO- DOUBLE (GLOW) WUN DERLicH
TRANS- TU BE
FORMER BUTTON

es
TRANS.-
CONDENSER
FORMER PI LOT
MICROPHONE I LAM P TRIPLE TWIN

SINGLE POLE j,
2(36
Ful
VELOCITY
SINGLE THROW
MIKE PHOTO
SWITCH RECTIFIER-
CELL
(RIBBON) POWER- PENTODE
12A7
8 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figure 17—Left, top; Figure 18— Left, Center;

Figure 19—Left, Bottom; Figure 20—Above. Figure 21

turers, laboratories and radio engineering transformer. The circuit is completed by

societies. Another important part which the connection of the lower terminal of
is commonly used is a tuning condenser, the primary of the r.f. transformer to the
shown in the same figure. "B" battery, which has its negative end
And so we might go on indefinitely connected with the negative end of the
showing how each part used in radio would "A" battery. And so we have a complete
look in picture and in symbol. To expe- radio-frequency amplifier circuit
dite the assimilation of such knowledge, To make yourself proficient in the draw-
the Symbol Chart, showing practically all ing of circuit diagrams, it is recommended
of the more common symbolic representa- that you attempt to read and redraw the
tions of parts used, is shown in Figure 14. circuits which appear on other pages of
This chart shows the several symbols for this book.
various kinds of radio tubes, different
One of the best ways in which to
kinds of condensers, various kinds of coils
familiarize yourself with radio parts and
and so on. radio diagrams is to actually build a re-
It is suggested that, as an aid in learn-
ceiver, part by part. The lessons to follow
ing how to draw these symbols, you mem-
will show how to do just that. The con-
orize a few at a time, then draw them
struction will be by easy stages so that you
from memory and compare your work with may completely master all of the various
how they were connected to form a com- the symbol chart.
plete circuit. He might, in this graphical problems with which you will be con-
representation of the receiver, actually draw fronted.
a picture of a tube, a coil, a resistor, a A Typical Radio Circuit Readers who wish to take maximum ad-
transformer and so on, but even that vantage of these lessons will want to build
Figure 16 shows the construction of a
would be a long, drawn-out process. And most of the units to be described. If parts
typical circuit, by connecting together, in
so in radio, to make the job as simple from earlier units are again used wherever
correct relation, several symbols. The an-
as possible, we make use of symbols or possible in building subsequent units, the
tenna or "Aerial" is connected to the
characters to represent these radio parts cost can be held to a low figure.
primary coil of the r.f. transformer, RFT.
The secondary of this transformer has con- It is recommend that you study up on
Use of Symbols nected to its terminals a variable or tun- radio fundamentals as you go along. Read-
For instance, in showing how a tube is ing condenser, Cl, and then connects to ing of radio books and periodicals will
connected in a radio circuit, instead of the grid and filament of the radio-frequency help materially, or enrollment in a regular
drawing the picture of a tube we use the amplifier tube VI. This tube has connected radio school or correspondence course will
symbol as in Figure 15 which has been to its filament the "A" battery and to its result in a well rounded out training in
adopted as standard by all the manufac- plate the primary of the succeeding r.f. which are combined both theory and prac-

LESSON FIVE
A Simple Diode (or Crystal) Receiver

T
HE simplest receiver that could be
made would consist of a headphone
and adetector connected between aerial
and ground.
It is more satisfactory and more reliable
to use a vacuum tube as a detector as it
requires no adjustments of any kind, and
so the receiver described here employs a
type 30 tube.
This tube contains a filament, a grid and
a plate. When the filament is heated, elec-
trons will flow from the filament to the
plate and grid ( which is connected to the
plate externally) but not vice versa.
The tuned circuit consists of the usual
coil and condenser and in order to keep
the condenser capacity small and still cover
the required broadcast range, it is necessary
to tap the coil and use a switch to employ
any desired part of it. The next problem is

Figure 22, right, shows the circuit diagram.

34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 9

Figure 23 at right
shows a rear view
of the simple diode
receiver.

Figure 24 at left
shows the proper
location of the taps
on the coil.

to collect the signals and bring them to

the tuned circuit. This could be done by
running the received currents, on their way
from aerial to ground, through anotlye coil
on the same form as the tuning coil, as
shown in Figure 17. The combination would After all parts except the coil are In operating the receiver remember that
work as atransformer, the antenna winding mounted, as much as possible of. the wiring the right-hand switch, SW2, and the dial
being the primary and the tuned winding should be completed. A study of Figures 22 both control the frequency of the tuned
the secondary. The winding which serves and 19 and the photographs will help. The circuit. For the lowest frequency use the
as primary had better be variable, too, be- middle lug of C2 should be the grounded highest taps. The condenser in itself has
cause the smaller this part, the better the side while one of outer lugs is connected not enough range to cover the whole
ability of the tuned circuit to separate the to the moving arm of SW2. broadcast band, so it will be necessary
signals but the more turns there are in it When looking at the back of the panel to go to lower taps for higher frequency.
the louder the signals. the switches appear as in Figure 19. Connect The condenser allows you to make finer
When a crystal detector is used, the de- point 1 of SW1 to point 1 of SW2, point adjustments.
tector circuit becomes as shown in Figure 2 of SW1 to point 2 of SW2, etc. At the Switch 1 adjusts the coupling of the an-
18. same time solder a few inches of wire to tenna. The set will be more selective if the
Instead of using the three coils as in each point of SW2 except to point 11. switch is set on the lower taps On the
Figure 17, it is possible to make a single These wires will later be connected to taps other hand, the higher taps make the sta-
coil do the work of three by means of taps. on the coil. tions come in stronger. The best compromise
This system is employed in Figure 22 has to be found.
which is the diagram of the diode receiver
to be built. Locating the Taps Poets List
Cl—Aerovox mica condenser type 1467, . 00025
Constructional Details Figure 24 and the pictures show the mfd.
proper location of the taps with reference C2—Hammarlund " Star" midget variable con-
denser. 140 mmfd.
When all the parts have been procured, to the mounting brackets. First drill the SW1, SW2, Yaxley one-gang 11 point switches.
construction may proceed in the following holes for the mounting brackets at such a non- shorting, type 1211
order: distance from the lower edge that the Bud 23/ 4 inch dial
Bakelite coil form, 21 / inches in diameter. 4
2
Beginning with the panel, the centers for brackets will be level with the edge of the inches in length
the holes should be marked off. tubing. Then drill two holes for fastening / lb. magnet wire, number 24, d.s.c.
4
3

The screws for joining baseboard and the beginning of the winding. 4 Fahnestock clips, 1 inch overall
2 small angle brackets ( for mounting the coil)
panel should be g inch from the bottom When taking off a tap, twist a little baseboard, wood, 6x9x 1 / inch thick
2
edge of the panel. The hole for switch 3 loop in the wire, but be careful not to 1 panel, wood, 10x6x 3/ inch thick
4
1 pair of Acme headphones, 2000 ohms
is located 3 inches from the left edge and break the wire. The taps of the coil in
114 inches from the bottom. Drill the holes the illustration are in two vertical rows, When using tube as detector, add:
to fit the various parts. making it much easier to make connections
Eby basemount socket, 4 prong
The panel may now be screwed to the as the taps are spaced well apart. When R1-15 ohm àlament resistor
baseboard and all other parts except the the coil is finished, scrape the insulation SW3 s.p.s.t. toggle switch
coil mounted on the baseboard, as shown from the taps and tin the exposed wire 2 Fahnestock clips, 1 inch overall
2 Burgess " Little six'' dry cells
in the photographs, Figures 20, 21 and 23. loops. Mount the coil in the proper posi- 1 type 30 tube
The tube socket should be turned so as to tion and solder the wires from SW2 to
have the large holes towards the back of the proper taps. From point 1 on SW2 When using crystal detector, add:
the baseboard. to tap 1, from point 2 to tap 2, etc. I crystal with holder

LESSON SIX
Operation Of Vacuum Tubes

T
HE little receiver described in Lesson to review briefly the action of a vacuum known negatively charged particles—will be
Five employed a vacuum tube as a tube. thrown off the filament wire. The heating
diode detector. Lesson Seven will be A vacuum tube consists of a closed bulb of the filament is for no other purpose than
devoted to describing minor changes in this of glass or metal wherein several metallic to obtain a source of free electrons in this
receiver so as to employ the same tube as elements are placed. The simplest type manner.
a much more efficient detector, providing ("diode") has two such metallic elements, What happens to the electrons? When
louder signals and reception from greater a filament and a metal plate. When the enough of these negative particles leave
distances. Before proceeding it will be best filament is heated, electrons—the smallest the filament, the filament itself becomes
10 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

reducing the negative voltage applied to

the grid, will allow electrons to pass
through the grid on their way to the plate.
As long as the grid does not become posi-
tive, there will be no current in the grid
circuit and it will take no power to
control the larger power in the plate circuit.
To illustrate a tube's properties or char-
acteristics the radio man resorts to the use
of curves. One such curve showing the
plate current for differeitt grid voltages
— o + while the plate voltage is constant, is shown
GRID VOLTS in Figure 27. Note that there are two
bends in the curve. The upper bend is
present because there is amaximum "satura-
tion" current which exists when all the
electrons emitted by the filament are travel-
ling to the plate. There is a different sat-
uration current for each plate voltage and
each filament voltage, because a higher fila-
ment voltage will cause a greater emission
and a higher plate voltage will exert a
greater pull on the electrons, which is neces-
sary to overcome the "space charge,"
which is acharge of the cloud of electrons
themselves. This charge also limits the
maximum plate current.

Plate Detection
Figure 25— Upper left; Figure 26— Lower left; Figure 27— Upper right; There are several ways in which a tube
Figure 28—Lower right. can be made to detect ( rectify). In Lesson
Three we said that an ideal detector would
positive. When this occurs the electrons tween plate and filament. If, on the other be adevice which is conductive only in one
tend to rush back to the filament unless a hand, the plate were made negative with direction. However, a perfect detector has
stronger attraction is provided elsewhere respect to the filament ( by reversing the not been developed to date. Nevertheless
in the tube. The entire action of avacuum battery connections), the plate would repel this rectifying action can be performed and
tube hinges on the controlled movement of the electrons and practically no current utilized even though the rectifier is not
these electrons. The presence of air ham- would flow in the plate circuit. This type perfect.
pers this movement and for that reason the of tube is called a " diode" and is a device The most simple way to use a tube as a
air is pumped out of the tube during manu- which conducts electricity in one direction rectifier or detector would seem to be to
facture, hence the name " vacuum" tube. only. give the grid a steady negative voltage ( as
The first property is utilized in the use in Figure 26) so that the operating point
The Diode Tube of such a tube as a detector ( or rectifier). is on asharp bend of the curve. Figure 28
Since it conducts in one direction only, the illustrates what happens when asignal volt-
When a metal plate is nearby, and the negative half of an alternating voltage does age is applied to the grid. While the grid
metal plate is insulated, some of the elec- not produce any current and alternating voltage varies up and down, the plate cur-
trons will settle down on the plate until currents are therefore converted into direct rent will go up and down too but it re-
it becomes negatively charged, in which current. sponds much better in one direction than
condition it will repel other electrons. If
in the other because of the bend in the
the metal plate is connected to the filament, The Triode Tube characteristic. The plate current now closely
the electrons which went to the plate will
Introduction of a third element ( making resembles the rectified current shown in
return to the filament through the wire be-
Figure 12, and this current when passing
cause the filament is positive ( lacking in the tube a " triode") opens up new possi-
bilities for the tube. When a "grid," con- through the phones will reproduce the orig-
negative electrons). Thus an electric cur-
sisting of ametal spiral or amesh of wires, inal sound which first entered into the
rent will flow from the filament, through
is placed between the plate and filament microphone at the transmitter.
the vacuum to the plate and then through
the wire back to the filament. and the plate is made positive, it is possi- The difference between the above de-
Suppose we go a step further and by in- ble to control the plate current by applying scribed system and diode detection is that
serting a battery, " B," between the plate small voltages on the grid. This works as it is much more sensitive because the tube
and filament, make the plate positive with follows: Since the grid is much closer to when used as a triode, serves as an am-
respect to the filament ( Figure 25). Then the filament than is the plate, it has a plifier as well as a detector. The increased
the electrons will be attracted to the plate greater effect on the electrons which are power is supplied by the B-battery with
and pass through the battery and back to just emerging from the filament. When the the grid acting as avalve to control it, while
the filament. The current obtained in this grid is made negative, even a few volts, it in the diode system the received signal itself
way is much larger than without a battery, may completely cancel the attracting power must supply the power for the phones. A
the amount depending on the voltage be- of the positive plate. On the other hand, triode receiver appears in Lesson 7.

LESSON SEVEN
Building A Simple Triode V. T. Receiver

T
HERE are several reasons why the a " C" battery is more practical for asimple electrons will be attracted by the grid itself
method of operation described in Les- receiver. This makes use of a grid con- and will charge the grid-condenser C3, the
son Six, ( Figure 26), is not popular denser and a grid leak. The circuit is grid side of it becoming negative. During
shown in Figure 31. The gird-leak resistor, the next half-cycle ( negative) no electrons
for small sets. In the first place it requires
R2, is connected to the positive side of the can be attracted and the grid cannot get
an extra "C' battery and it is necessary
filament, making the grid slightly positive rid of its charge except through the grid
to know the exact location of the sharpest
and as a result a considerable plate current leak R2. This takes a relatively long time
point of the bend for agiven plate voltage,
will flow when no signal is coming in. and while a current is flowing through the
so as to get most efficient detection.
When the grid is driven more positive resistor, there is a voltage drop across it
A second system which does not require by a signal ( the positive half of a cycle), making the grid negative except at the peak
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 11

Figure 29 at the left

shows a top view of
the triode receiver
with the tube re-
moved.

Figure 30 at the
right is a rear view,
showing placement
of the positive half cycle. In this way the of the various parts.
bias adjusts itself to a point where detec- Note the additional
tion takes place.
Proper proportioning of the grid con- clip, resistor and
denser and grid leak are necessary, so the mica condenser.
charge will leak off at the required rate.
Suppose, for instance, that the grid resistor
has a very high value, it will take very
long before the charge leaks off and during
that time, the grid may stay so far negative
that the tube is inoperative. On the other
hand, if the resistance is too small there
may not be enough bias and the tube will
is simple. The connections to the coil and Mals) to the grid terminal of the tube
be insensitive.
the tap switches remain the same; nearly socket. Then connect the grid leak, R2,
all changes are made at the tube socket. from the grid terminal to the positive fila-
The Revised Receiver First mount another Fahnstock clip at the ment terminal. The photographs, Figures
right-hand back corner of the baseboard. 29 and 30, will aid in making these
This circuit is used in the revised re- This will become the B plus terminal. Dis- changes.
ceiver and makes the signals much louder. connect and remove the leads to the phone When hooking up the set, note the cor-
For detection purposes a rather low plate jacks and to the plate and grid of the tube. rect polarity of the batteries and connect
voltage (" B" battery) will be satisfactory. There is a wire which runs from the them as shown in Figure 31.
It works well with only 22.5 volts. Since filament switch to tap 3 or 4 of the coil.
a standard 45-volt "B" battery is required Disconnect this wire from the coil and
for use with units to be described in other connect it to the ground wire. This con-
Additional Parts List
lessons of this series, the parts list shows nects the negative side of the filament to
such a battery rather than the 22.5- volt (for change over to triode detection)
ground.
type. There is, of course, no objection to Connect the B plus Fahnestock clip to C3—Aerovox, type 1467 mica condenser,
using a smaller capacity battery with 22.5 the nearest phone clip. The other phone .0001 mfd.
volts maximum for this receiver. clip is connected to the plate terminal of R2—IRC carbon resistor, 2 megohms.
The complete circuit of the new unit is the socket. The grid condenser, C3, is 1 Fahnestock clip
shown in Figure 31. connected from the stationary plates of the 1 Burgess standard 45-volt B- battery, tapped
Changing the old circuit to the new one tuning condenser ( one of the outside term - at 22 A
1 volts.

LESSON EIGHT
Radio And Audio-Frequency Amplification

B
ESIDES performing all the functions An amplifying stage consists of a tube while the plate voltage remains fixed. Ac-
described in the previous lessons, the and some means of coupling it to the tually the plate voltage does not remain
modern radio receiver amplifies the previous tube. First let us confine our fixed during operation because the phone
signal ( multiplies its strength or intensity) attention to the tube itself. In Figure 27 or transformer in the plate circuit has re-
many thousands of times. we showed a so-called " static character- sistance and inductance which cause a
istic," which illustrates the variation in voltage drop across it when the tube plate
Amplification can be accomplished either plate current due to changes in grid voltage current flows. This voltage drop will
before or after the detector of areceiver or
both before and after. An amplifier ahead Figure 3I—The complete circuit of the triode receiver.
of the detector must operate at the original
frequency of the incoming signal; it is
C3
called a radio-frequency amplifier. An am- .0004
plifier stage after the detector is called an M FD.
30
audio- frequency amplifier. The difference
in results obtained is that an audio-fre-
quency amplifier is intended primarily to
make received stations come in louder. If Ca
the signal from a distant station is too 2 4 5 7 6 2 440
MMFD.
C EAD -
weak to be detected, no amount of audio- 014
PHON ES
100
frequency amplification can bring it in.
01
m FD.
Radio-frequency amplification increases sen- 70
•13
07 '
45
sitivity and will add new stations. It also 60
50
06
'OHMS
05
RI
provides the opportunity for additional SW 0
04
05
5W 2 5W3
tuned circuits and therefore sharper tuning. 02
04
A+
Why is it that the same tube can work B- B+
as a detector or as an amplifier? This
le?
brings us back to the theory of tubes.
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
12

At left: Figure 32—Top; Figure 33—Center; acteristic is utilized, the plate current will
vary in exact proportion to the grid volt-
Figure 34—Bottom.
age. As soon as the grid-voltage becomes
too large so that the tube works on abend
change when the plate current changes, during a part of the cycle, the plate-cur-
which results in achange of plate voltage. rent variations no longer correspond to the
Curves which take these things into con- grid-voltage variations, in other words there
sideration are called " dynamic character- is distortion. This is illustrated in Figure
istics." These enable the radio man to de- 33. It is seen that the tops have been cut
termine the best plate and grid voltages, off the highest peaks. For this reason, it
etc., and to find the other necessary con- is essential that the applied signal voltage
stants of the circuit. However, these curves should never exceed OP or PX. In agood
do not lend themselves to an easy explana- arrangement OP should equal PX.
tion of the tube's functions. Therefore, we
are sticking to the static characteristic
which better illustrates what happens. Grid Always Negative

Used as Amplifier The second limitation is that the grid

should never be allowed to go positive.
The coupling device usually consists of As soon as this happens grid current will
atransformer or anetwork of resistors and flow and the grid current will cause a
condensers. It is important to prevent the voltage drop in the grid circuit which
plate voltage of the previous tube from usually has ahigh resistance. This voltage
reaching the grid of the next one. A drop subtracts from the signal voltage and
transformer does this, generates a signal therefore is another cause for distortion.
voltage in the secondary and gives some In practice then, it is only possible to use
amount of step-up. The voltage in the that part of the straight portion of the
secondary would be three times the voltage characteristic which is situated to the left
in the primary if a 3-1 ratio transformer of the zero line.
were used, for instance. Of course this
The fixed grid voltage or bias should
adds to the amplification.
then be chosen at the center of this straight
Figure 32 illustrates the characteristics
of a tube and shows the way it amplifies. portion.
The grid is given a fixed negative voltage The manufacturers have listed the proper
so as to bring the operating point to the grid bias for different plate voltages, so it
center of the straight portion of the curve. is not necessary to make a curve ( they are
The detector utilizes the bend of the curve, made by measurements). But this explan-
as explained in Lesson Six, but the am- ation should clarify the meaning of these
plifier must work on the straight part. The figures. It should also be clear now that if
way to make the tube do the required work the recommended grid bias is 2 volts, the
is to give it the correct fixed negative volt- peak of the signal voltage on the grid
age or " bias" also called " C-bias" because should never exceed 2 volts. This is equal
it would require athird or C- battery. So in to 1.4 volts as shown by an A.C. voltmeter
the case of Figure 32 if the fixed bias as only the peaks reach 2volts, whereas the
is equal to OP, the tube is an amplifier, if voltmeter shows an average rather than
it is equal to OQ it is a detector. peaks. If the signal is likely to exceed this
When working a tube as an amplifier, value, one must look for another tube
there are two things to look out for. The which has alarger fixed bias. Sometimes the
first one is to keep the variation of grid. same tube with a higher plate voltage will
voltage due to the signal within the limits need the larger bias and would then be
of the straight part of the "curve," and suitable, the very strongest stations could
never to let it run over a bent part. As just reach the maximum signal allowable
long as the straight portion of the char- of 1 volt peak.

LESSON NINE
A One-Stage Audio Amplifier
volts, the extra volt is lost in the resistor The illustrations, ( Figures 35 and 37),

N
OW, we will employ a 30 tube with
Ri. If we place this resistor in the nega- clearly show the layout and construction of
aplate voltage of 45 volts and build the unit. The Fahnestock clips are so ar-
an amplifier unit for the receiver de- tive leg of the filament circuit, the nega-
tive side of the battery will be 1volt nega- ranged that it is easy to connect the two
scribed in Lesson Seven. Since the plate units together, or to operate either one sep-
voltage is so low and our signal is rather tive with respect to the negative side of the
filament. All we have to do is to connect arately. It was found necessary to make a
weak, we need a grid bias of about one small change in the unit described in Lesson
volt. This can be obtained without the use the lead marked " F" of the transformer to
the negative A terminal and 1 volt bias Seven in order to have the original switch
of an extra battery. The filament requires control the filament of both tubes. This
but two volts while the battery supplies 3 results. See the circuit of Figure 34.

Figure 36—At left, the new layout for the clips. At right, the battery connections.
Figure 35
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 13

Figure 37, at right,

shows the layout of
parts in the ampli-
fier unit and the
proper connections
to the previous set.
Figure 38, at left,
shows how the am-
plifier is connected
is done by adding a Fahnestock clip and
to the crystal re-
connecting it to the negative filament term-
inal of the detector socket. The original ceiver.
A— clip is moved over towards the left
and the new one put in its place; then both
are connected as shown in Figure 36, left.

is important for obtaining tne right negative You would have to take the tube out or
Constructional Details bias on the grid. disconnect one of the filament wires to turn
off the amplifier. The remedy is to put a
The amplifier is built on a 3/2-
inch base- Operation switch on the main panel and place two
board 5inches wide and 6 inches deep ( the Fahnestock clips at the back of the base-
Connect the two units together as shown board, the connections are then as shown
same depth as the old unit). Mount the
in the top view, keeping in mind the polar- in Figure 38.
parts as shown in Figure 37. The trans-
ity of the A terminals. Then connect the
tormer has its wires marked; the side which It is possible to use this amplifier with
batteries as shown in Figure 36, right. A
has the plate ( P) and B plus wires coming the diode detector described in Lesson Five,
45-volt B battery is employed, the same one
out should be turned towards the front. but this would be rather impractical and
as used with the original set. Those who
The socket is mounted with the filament wasteful. It is therefore recommended that
wish may try higher voltages, but then a
terminals towards the back. those having the diode receiver convert it
3-volt battery should be inserted at X, ( in
The Fahnestock clips on the left edge of for triode operation as described in Lesson
Figure 34), with the negative side con-
the baseboard should be placed so that they Seven. In this way greater sensitivity and
nected to the transformer, the positive side
come exactly opposite the phone terminals to A—. The actual opera:ion and tuning output volume will be obtained. Then the
of the one- tube set. Soldering lugs should remain the same as described in Lesson one-stage audio amplifier described in the
be employed at each Fahnestock clip. You Seven, because the addition of the amplifier present lesson can be added as explained
should also use a small drill to make holes stage does not add any controls. above.
for all screws to avoid splitting the base-
board. Adding Unit To Crystal Set Parts List for Amplifier Unit
The wiring is simple. Be sure to connect
RI- 15- ohm wire- wound filament resistor
the transformer wires right. The red wire, Readers who made the crystal set de- T—United Transformer Co. interstage trans-
marked G, goes to the grid terminal of scribed in Lesson Five can also employ this former, type U31
the socket, while the one marked F should amplifier unit. The two units can be con- I Eby base mount socket, four- prong
Fahnstock clips, 1 inch overall
go to the A— Fahnestock clip, the one nected up without any further changes Baseboard, 5 inches by 6 inches by 1/2 inch thick
which has the resistor connected to it. This except that there is no filament switch. Lugs. screws, push- back wire

LESSON TEN
How Power Supply Works
For several reasons it is necessary in the the lower half of winding C is not con-

P
REVIOUS constructional lessons have
covered battery- operated equipment, case of a power supply to utilize both ducting any current.
but, from now on the equipment to be halves of the wave and to arrange two During the next half cycle, the conditions
described will be for operation from 60 diode rectifiers to provide "full-wave" recti- are reversed and Q becomes positive. Con-
cycle, 110-volt A.C. lighting lines. fication. sequently, electrons will flow from cathode
All but the most simple radio receivers to plate Q through the lower half of wind-
require direct current of several different ing C to ground and back again through
Operation of the 5Z4 Tube R6 and the chokes. The direction of the
voltages up to 300 volts and current values
so large as to make batteries impractical. electron flow through the resistor and the
In order to meet this demand, the modern Referring to Figure 39, the 5Z4 tube has chokes is the same in both cases and the
receiver includes a " power supply"—which been drawn upside down for convenience. result is 120 pulses of D.C. per second.
turns the 110-volt A.C. into higher D.C. The transformer winding, B, serves to heat If this pulsating voltage were applied to
voltage and at the same time delivers A.C. the filament of this tube. This particular the plates of the amplifier tubes, a loud
of a few volts for the tube filaments. rectifier is one of the "indirectly heated" 120-cycle hum would be heard in the
This and the next three lessons will de- type. Its cathode consists of a tiny cylinder speaker. To smooth out the pulsating volt-
scribe a general utility power supply and which is a good electron emitter when age and remove the hum, a filter must be
audio amplifier in one unit which can be heated. The filament is inside of and heats used.
used with the several tuning units to be the cathode but does not touch it—therefore
described later. This unit is also an ex- the term " indirectly heated."
The Power Supply Filter
cellent audio amplifier for phonograph re- Transformer winding C delivers 375 volts
production and it can be used with Lesson A.C. each side of the center tap. On one-
Nine's battery set to obtain high-volume half of each cycle the plate P becomes The power supply filter generally con-
loud-speaker reception. Lessons Ten and positive with respect to the ground, or sists of one or more sections, each section
Eleven will describe how the apparatus center-tap. A diode conducts only when consisting of a choke in series with the
works and the constructional details will the plate is positive; therefore, during this rectifier output and one or two condensers
be given in Lesson Thirteen. half cycle, electrons will flow from the across the output. The first condenser C4
Obtaining D.C. from A.C. is accom- cathode to plate P, through the upper part serves as a reservoir. At the peak of each
plished by means of a "rectifier"—a device of winding C to ground end from ground voltage impulse the condenser charges up
which conducts electricity in one direction through the resistor, the speaker field and to that peak, but as the voltage subsides
only and was described in Lesson Three. the choke back to the cathode. Meanwhile, the condenser discharges through the
 14 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

while the maximum signal voltage across

this primary is nearly 200 volts.

The Speaker Field

A further explanation of the speaker field

is needed. This and all other " electrody-
namic" speakers require that a current be
sent through the magnet or "field" windings.
At the same time the field can serve as a
choke in the filter, thus killing two birds
with one stone. There are, however, com-
plications to this arrangement. The field
reauires a certain minimum power to be
properly magnetized and consequently the
number of turns of the field must be just
right for the total current flowing through
it. These fields are usually specified by
their resistance as well as the power con-
sumption. When designing the power sup
ply, the designer must arrange the circuit
so that he makes best use of the field's
filtering property without losing too much
voltage in it.
More or less standard field resistances
are 1000, 1800 and 2500 ohms, which
usually require currents of 100 ma., 70
ma. and 45 ma. respectively. In our case,
the power supply unit is designed to pro-
Figure 39—Circuit diagram of the amplifier and power unit.
vide a maximum direct current of 85 ma.
and so the 1800- ohm field was most suit-
chokes and the resistor. The net result an easy path to ground for it. The D.C. able. During the employment of smaller
is a partial smoothing out of the impulses cannot, of course, pass through a condenser. tuning units with a total drain of only
as well as the raising of the average voltage. In this filter the hum has been cut down 50 ma., including the amplifier, extra cur-
The choke, CH, tends to oppose any about sixty times in the first section. In rent can be drawn through the bleeder re-
change in current and therefore helps also the next section the hum is cut down again sistor R6 by decreasing its resistance, in
in smoothing out the impulses. The func- about 200 or 300 times. These effects order to bring up the total current drain, if
tion of condenser C5 might best be ex- multiply so that the total reduction of hum this is found necessary.
plained by considering that the current in both sections is 60 x 300 or 18,000 A 5-prong socket is provided for car-
passing through the choke consists of the times. Such a reduction is more than rying the power to a tuner unit, although
desired direct current plus some undesirable enough. Measurements have shown that only 4 prongs are used. The extra prong
120-cycle A.C. It is the purpose of C5 to the hum voltage across the primary of the is to prevent the error of plugging this
remove the alternating current by providing output transformer is less than . 1 volt, cable into the 4- prong speaker socket.

LESSON ELEVEN
Operation Of An Audio Amplifier

T
HE amplifier in the circuit shown in The first tube, a 6F5, is an indirectly the result that a voltage drop is developed
Figure 39 employs two tubes, but it heated triode employing " automatic bias" across it and the cathode is positive with
really includes three stages, because or " self-bias." The plate current on its respect to ground by the amount of this
the 6B5 consists of two tubes and the way to "ground" through the cathode cir- voltage.
coupling means, all with a single bulb. cuit passes through a resistor, R3, with Since the grid is connected to ground, the

Figure 4I—The amplifier unit connected to the one-tube receiver.

 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 15

grid is thus made negative with respect to this is impractical, because the high plate _a_ .u..1....— I 1 I
the cathode. voltage at D would likewise be applied to . 5 —1 1- '—•—•
1—'-—t
MI
The cathode resistor must be "by- the 6B5 grid. C2, R4 and C6 may be con- ; ...I.S . ,
passed;" that is, an easy path for alternat- sidered in parallel with R5, with the result . -.--- —i
ing or voice currents must be provided by that the greater part of the signal voltage 8 § e
acondenser in parallel with it. If this were is also across R5. There is not much lost
, PE^UENCY

not done, the amplified signal would pass in the condenser coupling through C2 and
through the cathode resistor, causing alter- C6 if the condensers are large enough. Figure 40—The fidelity curve.
nating voltages across it. and the grid C6 is always large enough, but C2 has to
voltage would vary accordingly. This var- be chosen so that its reactance is low com- very short. In the example of Figure 39, it
iation in cathode voltage would be in such pared to the resistance of R5. The reactance will be one- twentieth of a second.
a direction as to oppose the original signal varies with frequency, so the calculation has The story of the 6B5 is much too long
and amplification would be reduced. The to be made for the lowest frequency which to be told in this lesson. The tube was
large by-pass condenser, CI, provides avery has to be amplified. chosen because it does its work well and
easy path for alternating currents and so because it requires the simplest circuit. It
On the other hand, C2 cannot be too
practically nothing will be fed back to the is best to consider that it consists of two
grid. large or a loud signal may make the grid
coupled triodes. The bias for the tubes
of the 6B5 positive for a very short time
The resistance coupling consists of the is developed automatically inside the tube.
combination R4, C2, and R5. The plate When this happens, the condenser C2 will
The power tube drives the speaker voice
current of the 6F5 passes through R4 and be charged, making the grid negative and
coil through a transformer. The voice coil
causes alternating voltages across it. Since "blocking" the tube. The charge leaks off consists of a few turns of heavy wire and
the point E is held at a fixed potential through the resistor R5. The larger C2
therefore offers a relatively low resistance.
(plus 300 volts), the voltage at D fluctu- and the larger R5, the longer it will take For efficient operation this must be matched
ates. The ideal way of coupling would be before the charge has disappeared and the to the higher output resistance of the tube.
to connect the grid of the next tube to D tube is working again. The values must be The output transformer, included in the
and the cathode to E, but unfortunately chosen so as to make the blocking time speaker, performs this function.

LESSON TWELVE
Fidelity Of Amplifiers

I
N the previous lessons the discussion on quired it can be obtained by changing C3 of the amplifier to obtain 4 watts output
the amplifier and power pack wasn't from . 01 to .05 mfd. (the maximum output for the 6B5). The
quite completed. Therefore the remain- In order to judge the performance of an signal across the output transformer prim-
der will be covered in this lesson. amplifier the radio mari makes curves ary is then 170 volts approximately.
The tone control has been added because showing the variation in output for differ- For those who wish to acquire the parts
one or more of the tuners to be described in ent frequencies while the input is held for this combination A. F. Amplifier and
later articles will be of the all- wave type. constant. This is called the " fidelity curve" Power Supply Unit, a parts list follows.
Such reception often requires that inter- and in its most perfect form it should be The drilling specifications of the chassis
fering noise be reduced and since most a straight line. Figure 40 shows the curve are given in Figure 43.
such noise consists of high-pitched sounds, of the amplifier as it was measured in the
a tone control which reduces high notes is RADIO NEWS Laboratory. It was measured Parts List
helpful. with the amplifier connected to a resistance
The ordinary type of control depends on load instead of the speaker. Therefore, it CI—Aerovox electrolytic condenser, type PR50,
10 mfd., 50 volts
the fact that a condenser offers an easy does not include the characteristics of the C2—Aerovox tubular paper condenser, type 484,
path for high frequencies and not for low speaker. .01 mfd., 400 volts.
frequencies, its " impedance" becoming The gain or amplification of the amplifier C3—Aerovox tubular paper condenser, type 484,
.01 mfd., 400 volts.
lower and lower as the frequency increases. is 77 decibels. It is not possible here to C4—Aerovox dry electrolytic condenser, type
Thus a condenser placed across the circuit go into an explanation of the decibel as a GL, 8 mfd., 525 volts
by-passes some of the audio currents, par- unit. One might think of a decibel as C5. C6—Aerovox dual dry electrolytic conden-
ser, type GGL, 8-8 mfd., 525 volts.
ticularly those of higher frequencies. A representing a change in sound level just R1—Electrad volume control, type 203, 500,000
variable resistor in series with the con- sufficient to be noticeable to the ear. In ohms
denser will regulate this action, the adjust- practical language a 77 db. gain means R2—Electrad tone control, type 242, 100,000
ohms
ment of the resistance value varying the that it takes .25 volts at the input terminals R3—IRC carbon resistor, 2500 ohms, Y2 watt
degree of tone control. When the series
resistance is large enough there will be
no tone control action. In Figure 39, the
tone control consists of C3 and R2.

The Fidelity Curve

Whenever the best quality is desired the
tone control should be adjusted for maxi-
mum resistance by turning the control R2
all the way to the left. Maximum noise
reduction, on the other hand, is obtained
with R2 turned to the opposite extreme.
If a greater degree of tone control is re-

Figure 42— Below; Figure 43— Right

TO Ci-/OrtE NO CHASSIS ,
CONNECTION

TO 8+

6V. FILAMENTS
TO VOLTAGE DIVIDER,
C6, ETC.
16 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

SOCKET FOR SOCKET FOR

SPEAKER PLUG FUSE
TUNER PLUG
CH

C4
etc 5Z4
C5 6F5
TERMINAL
STRIP
VOLTAGE
C3 DIVIDER C3
6B5
685
Ti C4
R5

Cl C2

C5,C6 TERMINAL
STRIP
R4
R3
6F5

CORD
TO
A C.LINE
SPEAKER 4'
PLUG- 1N
SOCKET
SOCKET
FOR CABLE Figure 44 at left shows a top view of the amplifier- power unit.
TO TUNER Figure 45, above, a bottom view.

R4—IRC carbon resistor, V. megohm, 1 /2 watt

I four- prong, I five -
prong, I six- prong and 2 I ¡ CA fuse mounting, type 2340
R5—IRC carbon resistor. V2 megohm, 1 /
2 watt octal wafer type sockets. Mounting centers 1 Littelfuse 2 amp. fuse
R6— Electrad yariohm, 25,000 ohms, 75 watts 11
/ inch
2
2 lug terminal strips, each having 2 terminals
TI—Thordarson power transformer, type T7062 ¡CA cadmium- plated steel chasssis 12:7:3 inches Irubber grommet for 4- inch hole
CH—Thordarson power choke, type T1607, 15 high, type 1527, blank or drilled 1 small grid- clip ( for metal tubes)
SWI—ICA toggle switch, type 1230 1 line plug and 5 feet of line cord
henries, 85 ma.
Wright-DeCoster 10- inch dynamic speaker, model 2 ICA bakelite pointer knobs, type 1155 Bolts, nuts, washers, soldering lugs, push- back
820-13 ( speaker field 1800 ohms, transformer I¡CA terminal strip marked " INPUT," type wire
2417 1 6F5 tube 1 6B5 tube 1 5Z4 tube
primary 7000 ohms)

LESSON THIRTEEN
Constructing An Amplifier-Power Unit
employed by the constructor be of the exact used. If sockets with the wider spacing

I
N selecting the parts employed in the
model discussed in this lesson, every makes and type numbers shown in the list are used the holes in the chassis should be
effort was made to keep the cost as low of parts in Lesson Twelve, but it is im- spaced accordingly.
as possible, consistent with the required portant that the quality and electrical All sockets on the chassis are to be
quality. It is not imperative that the parts values be the same if results are to equal placed with the filament terminals towards
those provided by the model. If substitu- the rear; that is, the notches in the central
Figure 46 tions are made they may in some cases re- hole of the metal tube socket should point
quire some alteration in the drilling lay- towards the rear and the large holes of the
out. middle socket should be at the rear. ( See
The first thing to do is to prepare the Figure 48). The sockets for the cables
chassis. The socket holes can be made should be placed as shown in Figure 42.
easiest with apunch such as the Livermore
Five- In- One Punch on sale at many radio Wiring Directions
stores. Holes of five different sizes can be
made with this tool. The holes for the When mounting the choke and the in-
socket mounting screws should be laid out put terminals, care should be taken to pre-
after the large holes are punched, thus al- vent short circuits. The lugs stick through
lowing for any slight error in placement the holes and no part of the lug or any
of the large holes. metal connected to it should touch the
All except the socket holes can be made chassis. This is so important that a special
with ordinary twist drills. Start the larger test is recommended. This is done by con-
holes with a small drill, then use a larger necting one terminal of a voltmeter to a
one of the required size. battery, and the other terminals of the
voltmeter and battery to the lug and the
Mounting The Sockets chassis respectively. If the meter shows a
voltage reading it indicates a short circuit.
The centers of the tube sockets mounting After all the parts have been mounted,
screw holes are shown inches apart in the terminal lug strips are mounted with
Figure 43. There are three standard spac- screws as shown in the bottom view, also
ings of these mounting centers: PA inches. the fuse holder.
1 11/16 inches and 1 27/32 inches. At In wiring it is perhaps easiest to begin
present the smallest size is the most often with the transformer connections. The
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 17

on, seeing that all the tubes light and ( with

REAR
due caution) measuring the high-voltage.
With the voltage divider in the circuit
as the only drain, there will be about 430 YELLOW LEADS 5Z4
volts. OF 00°60
TRANSFORMER
When the other tubes have been con- °0 o C'
c' s TO CHOKE
nected, the plate voltage will be dropped FILAMENT
AND CATHODE
to approximately 310 volts. esTO
RED
TRANSF
With the power turned off, the slider on
the voltage divider can be connected to the
high side and adjusted until the total cur- BROWN PLATE OF
rent is 70 ma. The slider will then be less OUTPUT SECTION
; TO P TERMINAL
than an inch from the high end. The plate TO TRANSF ON 4 PRONG
voltages will be slightly cver 300 volts. -
SOCKET ( FIGS)

Figure 47 CATHODE
685
Use of the Amplifier
GRID
wires are distinguished by their color. A TO B-I- TERMINAL
PLATE OF ON 4 PRONG
paper comes with the transformer which The input of the amp'ifier can be con- INPUT SECTION SOCKET
explains the color code; they are also nected to the two- tube receiver described
shown in Figure 39. in Lesson Nine. Remove the audio tube of
The electroylytic condensers must be con- the battery set and connect the input term- SHELL ,TO CHASSIS
nected with due regard to their polarity. inals of the amplifier across the secondary CATHODE ---

The electrolytic condenser consists of two of the transformer being sure that the ----- FILAMENT
FILAMENT--
aluminum foils separated by an electrolyte grounded side of the transformer connects
(a solution which conducts electricity and to the chassis. If the set has a tendency ---- PLATE 6F5
is decomposed by the current). The cur- to squeal it can be cured by a . 00025 mfd.
rent causes an extremely thin film to form condenser across the primary of the trans- FRONT
on one of the foils. This film being non- former. It may also be useful to ground
conductive, the whole becomes acondenser. the speaker chassis. Figure 48
Due to the fact that the film is extremely If it is desired to use aphonograph pick-
thin, the capacity can be made large in re- up of the " high- impedance" type it is sim- In the power-supply filter, thus insuring
latively small space. This type of condenser ply connected to the input terminals direct. freedom from hum and saving the cost of
will be ruined if the polarity is reversed; With a pick-up of the low- impedance type an extra choke. Also it comes equipped
they are good only in D.C. circuits, or when asuitable matching transformer is required, with a cable and plug, thus simplifying
A.C. is superimposed on D. C. as in the as shown in Figure 46a. The amplifier can the program of making connections to the
power pack. In our case, all the negative also be employed with a carbon micro- main unit.
terminals should be connected to the chassis. phone, either single button or double but- Without a baffle, which may be a flat
The condensers are marked and color coded; ton, as shown in Figures 46b and 46c. The board or a cabinet, a dynamic speaker
the colors are also shown in Figure 39. other types of microphones such as the crys- will not properly reproduce low notes be-
The proper connections to the sockets are tal, velocity, etc., are too ow in output for cause in the case of low frequencies the
shown in Figures 42 and 48. Figure 48 use with this amplifier. In all these cases sound from the back of the cone tends to
shows the sockets on the chassis as they it is important to keep the leads in the cancel that from the front. The remedy is
look from the bottom. Figure 42 gives the amplifier input circuit short. Where a to make the path from front to back
bottom views of the sockets at the rear of transformer is used with microphone input, rather long by mounting the speaker on
the chassis. etc., its case should be grounded and it a baffle. The lower the note the larger
The terminal lug strips serve as a sup- may be necessary to shield the leads from this baffle should be. In order to fully re-
port for connections which would otherwise it to the amplifier input in order to prevent produce a 50 cycle note, for example, the
hang in the air. The first one serves to instability and pick-up of hum. baffle would have to be 22 feet square. Of
support R4 while the other one is used to course, no one would care to make so
support one side of the line and the junc- The Speaker large a baffle. For practical purposes a
tion between C3 and R2 of the tone con- baffle three or four feet square gives very
trol. The Wright De Cos:er Model 820B good results. Placing the baffle on the floor,
The volume control and tone control are dynamic speaker used w:th this amplifier extends its size at least in one direction.
wired as in Figure 47. This is a view of was selected for this use because it offers When a speaker is placed in a cabinet,
the bottom of the chassis looking from the the attractive combination of good quality the sides of the cabinet constitute an ef-
rear. and low cost. Another advantage is that fective part of the baffle. A smaller baffle
The constructor might first complete the its 1800-ohm field is just right to permit or cabinet does not bring out the low notes
power pack and then test it by turning it the field to function as cne of the chokes fully but is better than none at all.

LESSON FOURTEEN
Regeneration

S
O far these lessons have explained the rapidly at the beginning. This rapid in- current cannot decrease any more. Then
action of diode and triode detectors. crease of current in coil Li induces a the induced negative voltage disappears.
There is a way, however, to make a voltage across coil L2 making the grid The plate current must then increase to
detector much more sensitive and also positive. A positive grid further increases become normal, but by increasing it in-
somewhat more selective. This is done by the plate current which causes a still more duces another positive voltage on the grid
means of Armstrong's famous principle of positive grid and a still greater plate cur- and the whole cycle of operation will be
regeneration, employing a circuit like the rent. Saturation current is reached, how- repeated indefinitely. The result is that an
one in Figure 50 in which a coil, Li, in ever, then the plate current stops increas- alternating current will flow in plate and
the plate circuit is in inductive relation ing which means that the :oil Li no longer grid circuit, the frequency being determined
with the tuned circuit L2, C connected to induces a voltage in coil L2, the grid- by the sizes of L2, Li and C. This con-
the grid. voltage is no longer positive and the plate dition is called oscillation.
current decreases. As soon as the plate
Oscillation Method current decreases, Li induces a reverse The Regenerative Detector
voltage in L2 making the grid negative.
This is what happens: As soon as the The negative grid further reduces the If a fraction of the output power of a
tube is heated, the tube plate starts to plate current which again makes the grid tube is fed back to the grid, it can keep
draw current; this current increasing increasingly negative, etc., until the plate itself in oscillation. There are various ways
18 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

C13

6%J7
-
(SEE A), o.
o

R11

PILOT R9
R2 T.
C3 c
I5 LIGHT
0 0 R3
—I Figure 50
20 05 77
-_
-

0 0 COIL SOCKET
tube is just barely oscillating.
B 6 BOTTOM VIEW
The above statements illustrate the neces-
CONTROL SCREEN sity of being able to control the regenera-
CAP = CONTROL GRID
GRID tion ( or the amount of voltage fed back).
SCREEN - SUPPRESSOR
PLATE This used to be done by arranging the
PLATE - NO CONNECTION coil LI to rotate within the coil L2, or to
SUPPRESSOR move away from L2, but that has the
FILAMENT FILANÁENT
CATI-IODE SHELL drawback of changing the tuning too. So,
SHELL — CATHODE
nowadays, we change the amplification of
BOTTOM VIEW, TUBE SOCKETS FILAMENT
— _ the tube. In a triode, this could be done
by varying the plate voltage.

Figure 49—Circuit diagram of two-tube regenerative tuner. Radiated Interference

of accomplishing this result and there are Li farther away from L2, for instance) Now it clear that for reception the tube
many different forms of oscillating circuits. oscillation will stop. When a signal is is sometimes oscillating and at such times
The energy need not be fed back by means now introduced in the system by a third it is a miniature transmitter capable of
of coils, sometimes it can be done through coil L3 ( not shown in Figure 50) the causing interference in neighboring receiv-
condensers or resistors. The main idea is signal will cause large fluctuations in the ers. In the interest of better reception,
to apply the proper amount with the proper plate circuit and these will again induce such a detector should not be coupled
timing ( or phasing). Generally there is grid voltages which build up the signal directly to the antenna. If an amplifying
so much accidental coupling that oscillation tremendously. This is called regeneration. stage is inserted ahead of the detector,
may take place when it is not wanted, this The greatest amplification of speech or there is practically no energy reaching the
is especially so in high-gain amplifiers and music is obtained when the tube is almost antenna since the tube is aone-way device.
is the main reason for shielding. at the point of oscillation. C. W. teleg- For this reason, an untuned stage was in-
When the voltage which is fed back to raphy, on the other hand, is best received cluded in the receiver described in Lesson
the grid is slightly decreased ( by moving with the feedback adjusted so that the Fifteen.

LESSON FIFTEEN
Building A Two-Tube Regenerative Tuner
"'PHIS lesson describes the construction with five elements, three of which are the a.f. currents but causes the r.f. currents
j. of a 2- tube all- wave tuner employing grids. By placing proper voltages on these to return to ground. The customary resist-
one untuned r.f. stage and a detector. grids the tube acts as an amplifier, pro- ance coupling is employed between the de-
Figure 49 shows the diagram of the viding much greater amplification than a tector and the audio unit.
nit, which is described. Metal tubes of triode. Furthermore, amplification and re- Circuits with high-gain amplifiers require
the pentode type are used as both detector generation can be controlled by varying careful isolation of the stages so that no
and amplifier in this circuit. In Lesson the voltage on the "screen" ( the second accidental voltages are fed back which
Sixteen some discussion of the pentode and grid from cathode). The third grid, called might cause undesired oscillation. The
its merits will be presented. It suffices the " suppressor" is simply connected to- shield can over the coil serves this pur-
now to explain that a pentode is a tube ground or to cathode. pose. The filters R9, C12 and R7, C11 are
The circuit of Figure 49 employs one to overcome " motorboating," a form of
of these pentodes, a 6K7, as an untuned audio- frequency oscillation occurring espe-
Figure 51 r.f. amplifier. The antenna is simply con- cially in resistance-coupled amplifiers.
nected to a 50,000 ohm resistor, no tuning Oscillation in any tube causes its plate
being done here. The second tube is a6J7, current to vary from normal. The os-
also a pentode but more suitable as a de- cillating condition can be detected by touch-
tector. ing the finger to the grid cap of the tube.
A set of three-circuit plug-in coils is If there is immediate silence, there is no
used, covering the range from 16 to 550 oscillation but if a " plop" is heard in the
meters. The detector circuit employs the loudspeaker both at the touching and re-
well-known grid- leak, and regeneration is leasing of the grid cap, the tube is oscillat-
controlled by means of the potentiometer ing. Grid- leak detectors work slightly dif-
R6, which varies the screen voltage. ferently, the finger should touch the sta-
tionary plates of the tuning condenser for
The Resistance Coupling the same test.
The first thing to do is to drill the
After the signal is rectified, the r.f, com- chassis and cabinet and mount all parts.
ponent must be filtered out, or else it will Figures 54 and 55 give the specifications of
get into the audio amplifier where it may the chassis and panel and include the extra
cause overloading and instability. The re- holes required for the changes to be made
sistor RIO and the two mica condensers in Lesson Eighteen. It should be remem-
C9 and C10 form this filter which passes bered that the chassis, when in the cabinet,
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
19

is slightly raised. Holes in the cabinet,

corresponding with those in the chassis Figure 52, at left,
should be made with this in mind. It is shows the completed
perhaps best to make the holes in the tuner with amplifier-
back of the cabinet somewhat oversize to power unit attached.
allow some leeway in this respect. Figure 53, at right,
There are two different kinds of socket a rear view of the
holes, those for the coil sockets being regenerative tuner.
larger. Mounting the coil shield over the
socket, requires a hole in its base large
enough to pass the coil form freely. These
holes may be either square or round, densers, which might otherwise hang in L—Set of Hammarlund plug-in coils, type
the air. The grounding should be done SW K-6, 6- prong, 3 circuit. If broadcast band
whichever is easier to cut. is also desired, add one Hammarlund coil
carefully. No grounds are made in the BCC- 6
chassis except at the ground post. All R1-50.000 ohms
Constructional Details other grounds are made to three bare wires R2-500 ohms
R3-75.000 ohms
which run from the terminal of the cable R4-2 megohms
When mounting the coil base, have the
to various points. This system is found R5-1,000 ohms
socket in place with a coil in it. Be sure R7-100,000 ohms
superior to using the chassis. All bypass R8-10,000 ohms
to locate the base so the coil can be readily condensers have one terminal marked "con- R9-100,000 ohms
removed. The coil socket should be
nect this side to ground." The rule should RIO- 50,000 ohms
mounted with the large holes toward the be observed as far as practical. R11-250,000 ohms
front panel, the detector socket with the All of the above are IRC carbon resistors,
The cable is to be connected last because 34 watt
key toward the panel and the r.f. tube
it must be threaded through both the R6—Yaxley volume control, type K12, 50,000
socket with the key toward the right. ohms
chassis and cabinet and, once installed
The panel requires accurate drilling limits the movements of both.
Insuline metal cabinet, type 3826, 10 x 8 x 7
inches
especially for the dial. There is a drilling
When the wiring is completed, check it Insuline metal chassis, type 1561, 9" x 7¡5^ a 3
guide with the dial and the correct di- over carefully and connect the tuner to the inches
mensions are also shown in Figure 54. The One six- prong Insulex wafer socket, type 2600
amplifier unit, antenna and ground. One National shield- coil with base, type B-30
chassis and panel are held together by One National Velvet Vernier Dial, type 8, with
two screws and the volume control shaft. Tuning illuminator and 6.3 volt pilot light
They must be separated slightly by placing Two wafer- type octal sockets, P/a-inch mount-
ing centers
a nut between the two. Tuning for weak stations should be done Two Insuline porcelain stand-off insulators,
The dial illuminator is mounted on the as follows: turn the regeneration control type 2305
two small screws but held back from the to the right until the detector is oscillating, One Insuline terminal strip, type 2418, marked
"Output"
panel by washers. Use the screws that which can be determined by the finger test 2 feet 5- wire battery cable
come with the dial. mentioned above. Then each station tuned 1 5- prong cable- plug
The ground post consists of a long 1 knob
in will cause awhistle. Tune in one of these 2 grommets for 34 inch holes
round- head machine screw with one of the whistles and reduce regeneration just below 2 grid clips for metal tubes
bushings that come with the coil sockets. the oscillating point. Stronger stations will Insulated terminal strips: two 3- terminal, one
It is found convenient to cut away a part 2- terminal, three 1- terminal
easily be found without having the detec- Miscellaneous hardware: screws, nuts, lugs,
of the flanges at the front of the cabinet tor oscillating and the volume of sound push- back wire
so that the completed chassis can be in- may be regulated by the volume control
serted or removed without disturbing the on the amplifier. Having the regeneration Figure 55
cabinet control well up will help the selectivity.
It may be useful to experiment with
Wiring Details aerials. If the antenna is too large it may
be impossible to get the tube to oscillate.
Two terminals are available, one for long
The wiring is easiest done before the
and one for short antenna: these should
chassis is attached to the panel. Insulated
take care of most conditions. The longer
terminal strips are employed to anchor
the antenna, the smaller the capacity of
joints between several resistors or con-
CIshould be. If the coils are home-made,
go through the entire dial to see whether
Figure 54 it is possible to obtain oscillation as well
as to stop it at all settings of the dial.
If this is impossible turns should be added
or taken off the tickler ( plate coil) which-
ever is required.

Parts List
CI—Cornell-Dubilier mica condenser, type 5W-
5Q5, 50 mmfd.
C7, C9. CIO—Cornell-Dubilier mica condenser,
type 5W- 5T1, 100 mmfd.
C2—Cornell-Dubilier mica condenser, type 1W-
5D1, . 001 mfd.
C3, C4, C5, C8, C13—Cornell-Dubilier tubular
paper condensers, type BA-4P1, . 1mfd., 400
volts.
C11, C12—Cornell-Dubilier dual electrolytic
condensers, type EH9808, 8-8 mfd., 450 volts.
C6—Hammarlund " Star" midget tuning con-
denser. 140 mmfd. ( same as Cl in diode re-
ceiver.)
20 34 LESSONS IN RADIO ANI) TFI.F VISION

LESSON SIXTEEN
Operation Of Pentode Tubes
TN order to fully explain the pentode, it ous that they form a cloud. This cloud These screen-grid tubes again had a
is best to follow the development of of electrons is negatively charged ( called limitation. When the electrons hit the
the vacuum tube. The first tube made the " space-charge") and therefore repels plate they may knock one or more electrons
was a diode ( two-element) which con- the electrons following them. The whole out of the plate. This is called "secondary
tained a filament and a plate only. This action reduces the maximum plate current. emission." These electrons will be at-
could be used only as a rectifier ( as a de- tracted back to the plate if the plate voltage
tector or a power rectifier). The device The Screen Grid Tube is higher than the screen voltage; other-
was invented in 1904 by J. A. Fleming, wise they may travel to the screen. A
an English physicist. Both of these limitations are overcome large signal will cause the plate voltage
The next improvement was due to Lee in the screen grid tube ( tetrode, four- to swing up and down and when it be-
de Forest. He interposed a grid between element tube). Such a tube, as its name comes lower than the screen voltage, the
plate and filament which made possible implies, has an extra grid which screens "secondary" electrons travel to the screen.
amplification and oscillation. The action or shields the plate from the grid. In The plate loses some of its current and this
of this tube, the triode, has already been actual construction the extra or screen grid causes distortion. Consequently, in screen
described. consists of two grids ( helical wires or grid tubes the screen voltage is the practi-
mesh) one inside and one outside the cal lower limit of the plate voltage swing.
Obtaining More Amplification plate. These two parts are connected to-
gether and form a shield practically sur- Suppressor Grid
After amplification had been obtained, rounding the plate. Yet, the electrons can
the next demand was, of course, more reach the plate by going through the open- In the pentode ( five- element tube) an
amplification. The triode has definite limits ings in the screen. In order that the screen additional grid has been placed between
along this line. In Lesson Fourteen it be effective, it must have a d.c. voltage the screen and the plate. This grid, which
was explained that undesired oscillations applied, yet it must be grounded, or is called the "suppressor," serves to pre-
may occur due to some coupling between rather it must have a low resistance path vent the passage of the secondary electrons
plate and grid circuits of atube. The plate to ground for the frequency to be ampli- from the plate to the screen. The suppres-
and grid together form a small condenser fied. This is accomplished by connecting sor is connected to the cathode, so when
which causes some coupling or " feedback." a condenser across the voltage supply, as the electrons are knocked out of the plate,
This coupling happens to be in the right C4 and C8 in Figure 56. the negative potential of the suppressor
phase to cause oscillations. Whether or The positive voltage on the screen neu- repels them, while the plate attracts them
not such oscillations will take place de- tralizes the space charge with the result and they have to return to the plate. It
pends on the magnitude of the voltage fed that higher power is available. When used might be thought that the suppressor would
back. This in turn, depends on the am- as a voltage amplifier, the plate to grid also prevent the passage of electrons the
plification in the tube, the frequency and capacity is reduced several hundred times other way but this is not so. An electron,
the size of the elements. The higher the and the result is agreatly reduced tendency when leaving the cathode, is attracted by
amplification and the higher the frequency, toward oscillation. Such a tube can be the plate and the screen while the control
the more feedback. Therefore, the obtain- made so as to have a large amplification grid has a retarding action. By the time
able amplification is limited. Power tubes factor but the a.c. resistance is high, which the electron has passed through the meshes
too are limited, when the electrons are on makes it hard to realize the greater part of the screen, it has attained such speed
their way to the plate, they are so numer- of the high amplification. that the suppressor does not stop it.

LESSON SEVENTEEN
Advantages Of Pentodes

T
HE advantage of the pentode as a Figure 55—Circuit diagram of tuned R. F. receiver.
power tube is that the screen voltage
can be higher and the plate-voltage can
swing below the screen voltage, in other
words more power can be delivered by a
smaller tube. As a radio-frequency ampli-
fier, the coupling between plate and grid
is still further reduced and still more am-
plification can be obtained. In some pen-
todes the connection between suppressor
and cathode is made inside the tube, while
in others the suppressor has a separate
prong. This was done to give constructors
an opportunity to use the tube in special
circuits where the third grid might be em-
ployed for another purpose.

The "Variable-Mu" Pentode

Among the voltage amplifier pentodes,
one finds the " variable- mu" pentode and
the ordinary pentode. The variable- mu
pentode, also called "super-control pen-
tode" and " remote cut-off pentode" has a
control grid which is wound helically with
the pitch of the winding gradually increas-
ing. The pitch of the winding is one of
the factors controlling the amplification
factor or " mu.". It is possible to control
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
2I

the amplification of the tube by changing

bias on this same grid. The more negative
the bias, the less the amplification. More-
over, this happens without rectification be-
cause the bend in the characteristic is so
slow and gradual that both halves of the
cycle are amplified equally.
The variable-mu pentode is used where-
ever it is desired to vary the amplification
of the stage, as is the case in most radio-
frequency amplifiers. The standard pen-
tode is employed as a detector, or when-
ever the amplification is held constantly at
maximum. In the receiver described in
Lesson Fifteen, the first tube, the 6K7 is a
variable-mu pentode, while the detector is
of the standard type. The amplification of
the r.f. stage can be varied by changing
the value of the bias resistor R2. The
value recommended is 500 ohms. More
amplification is obtained with a lower value
and less amplification with higher values
of resistance. The reader might experi-
ment to convince himself of these facts.
However, do not make the bias resistor less
than 200 ohms, for then the plate current
will rise beyond the maximum limits
recommended by the tube manufacturers.

Tube Constants

When speaking about the performance

of tubes, the following terms are commonly
employed. Figure 57— Bottom view of tuned R. F. receiver.
The "amplification factor," also called
"mu" or " u," is the ratio between small
The "mutual conductance" of a tube is it will amplify 100 times. It does mean
increases of plate voltage and grid voltage,
the ratio between a small increase in plate that one might think of the tube as a gen-
which will have the same influence on the
current and the increase in grid voltage erator with 100 times the applied grid-
plate current. For instance, if the grid-
producing it. For instance, increasing the voltage with an internal resistance equal
voltage is made . 1 volt more negative—
grid voltage by 1 volt may result in an to the a.c. plate resistance. This increased
reducing the plate current—and it takes
increase of 2 ma. in plate current. The voltage divides across the generator and
10 additional plate volts to return the plate
current to its previous value, the amplifica- .002 the plate load in proportion to their re-
mutual conductance is then — = . 002 sistance. In order to realize a great part
tion factor is
10 1 of the amplification, the plate load re-
mho. or 2000 micromhos. sistance must be very much higher than
— = 100. The oldest tubes had an ampli-
the a.c. resistance and that is not always
The three quantities are related as fol- practical. Tubes with the highest amplifi-
fication factor of only 6 or 8, but the 6J7
lows: Mutual conductance in micromhos cation factor generally have the highest
has a mu of 1500.
X plate resistance = amplification factor a.c. resistance. So, the 6J7 with a mu of
The "a.c. plate resistance" of a tube is X 1,000,000. 1500, generally cannot give a gain greater
simply the resistance of the plate circuit When a tube has an amplification factor than 200 at radio frequencies and not
for alternating currents. of 100 it does not necessarily mean that more than 100 at audio frequencies.

LESSON EIGHTEEN
Simple Tuned It. F. Receiver

T
HE present lesson will provide con- added parts were shown in Figures 54 and remembered that only the detector is ever
structional information on changing 55. The coil socket with its shield as well supposed to oscillate and then only when
the untuned r.f. stage of the all-wave as the tuning condenser are to be mounted receiving c.w. signals, or in searching for
tuner described in Lesson Fifteen to a as shown in the photographs. The resistor weak 'phone signals. If the first tube oscil-
tuned r.f. stage. RI is removed and the primary winding lates, no results can be obtained. One can
Figure 59 shows the untuned input sec- of the plug-in coil connected in its place. detect the condition with the finger test, as
tion of the receiver as it was shown in The grid circuit of the 6K7 is hooked up described previously. If this happens, an
Figure 49, before the transformation. Figure as shown in the diagram. The dial of the
56 shows the complete circuit after con- original diode receiver, described in Lesson
verting the r.f. stage to the tuned type. Five, can be used here. Of course, those Figure 59
All the necessary holes for mounting the who so desire may use any other kind of
dial.
Figure 58
Simple Operation

The reader may think that now he needs

three hands to tune the set, but actually
operation is very simple. The best pro-
cedure is to set the left hand dial some-
where near the point where one wishes to
tune and then concentrate on the right-
hand dial and regeneration control. After
the station has been found, readjust the
left-hand dial for best results. It should be
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figure 60, at left, the complete tuned R. F. receiver. Figure 61, at right, afop view showing the various parts.

increase in the resistance values of R2 and feet. A good ground is essential to stable denser, 140 numfd.
R3 should help. The model receiver was operation. One set of Hammarlund plug-in coils, type
SWK-4 ( covering from 16-270 meters) ( LA).
stable with the recommended values. Parts List One Hammarlund broadcast hand coil, type
The antenna can be the usual inverted (in addition to those listed in Lesson 15) BCB4 ( L1).
L type with a total length of 75 to 100 C14 Hammarlund "Star" midget variable con• One Bud 23 /4-
inch dial.

LESSON NINETEEN
Discussion Of T. R. F. And Superhets
IITIIHE earlier articles of this series ac- frequency receiver varies in selectivity over equal to the sums and differences of all the
quainted the reader with the theory of the band. Some form of compensation is frequencies applied to the mixer. The re-
operation of detectors, amplifiers and usually employed which partially offsets sult is that in the plate circuit of the
power supplies, and with the actual con- these variations. Similarly, the sensitivity mixer tube several frequencies will be pres-
struction of typical equipment. We now varies with frequency. Compensating meth- ent as follows: The original signal fre-
proceed to a study of more advanced re- ods are again employed but it is uneco- quency, the oscillator frequency and the
ceivers and an introduction to the practical nomical to try to obtain even sensitivity sum of the two and the difference of the
fundamentals of the tuned- radio- frequency and selectivity all over the range. two. Moreover, the audio-frequency signal
and superheterodyne types. Another difficulty in the design of tuned- which was already modulated on the sig-
The tuned radio- frequency receiver, also radio- frequency receivers is the avoidance nal frequency when it came in, has now
referred to as the t.r.f. type, consists of a of undesired oscillations. There is always been transferred to the sum and difference
radio- frequency amplifier, a detector and some coupling between the leads of the frequencies, also.
an audio-amplifier. The all-wave receiver, input and output circuits which results in The intermediate-frequency amplifier now
which was described in Lessons Fifteen and a tendency toward " feedback" or regenera- picks out the difference frequency and
Eighteen, was a tuned radio-frequency re- tion. This regeneration again is afunction amplifies it. After the signal has been suffi-
ceiver. However, modern t.r.f. receivers of frequency and become worse at high ciently amplified, it passes through the
usually cover the broadcast band only, sel- frequencies. The tuned- radio- frequency re- usual detector and audio amplifier.
dom employ regeneration, and include two ceiver, therefore, is limited to relatively The major amplification takes place in
or more tuned stages with all stages tuned low sensitivity ( unless unusual pains are the i.f. amplifier and, because its tuning is
by a single control knob This means that taken in the design) with a proportionate fixed, its sensitivity and selectivity also
all stages must be made sufficiently alike increase in design and production costs. remain fixed. Furthermore, since the inter-
electrically so that they will be in tune mediate frequency is generally low, the in-
with the signal and with each other at herent selectivity is greater and it is pos-
every position of the dial.
The Superheterodyne sible to obtain more amplification without
This involves some complications since running into difficulties of oscillation; also,
it requires that the condensers, coils and The superheterodyne differs from other the selectivity can be further improved by
capacities between wires be exactly alike. receivers in that it changes the signal fre- the use of more tuned circuits, all of which
There is bound to be some difference, how- quency to another frequency which is fixed can be aligned exactly in the factory.
ever, and even though there are small for that particular receiver. Thereafter, The r.f, stage, the detector and also the
trimmer condensers to compensate for such the signal is amplified in an " intermediate- oscillator must be tuned by the same con-
differences it is usually not possible to frequency amplifier" which is tuned to a trol knob and they have to be so designed
have the set exactly in line at all fre- fixed frequency and is never changed by that the oscillator is always maintained at
quencies throughout the range. Therefore, the listener. a fixed difference between its resonant fre-
at points where the circuits are not in line, This process is illustrated by the block quency and that of the incoming frequency.
the selectivity and the sensitivity will diagram in Figure 62, which is a diagram
suffer. of a typical superheterodyne receiver. The
signal comes in at the antenna and first Repeat Points—Images
Varying Selectivity passes through the t.r.f. amplifier stage
which is usually included in this type of The superheterodyne is subject to some
It is a characteristic of radio circuits receiver The reason for this stage will be special troubles, however. There are what
that the selectivity varies with the resonant explained later. Then the signal is applied are called "repeat points" or " images." As
frequency. For instance, if a circuit has to the grid of a "mixer" tube. A local an illustration, suppose the intermediate
a selectivity of 10 kc. when it is tuned to signal is generated by an oscillator and this frequency was 175 kc. and a station op-
500 kc., this selectivity is likely to be 20 signal is also applied to the same mixer erating on 1,000 kc. is tuned in. The oscil-
kc. when that same circuit is tuned to tube. The process of mixing consists of the lator will normally be tuned to 1175 kc. in
1,000 kc. So we see that a tuned-radio- creation of new frequencies which are order to receive that station. However, if
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 23

y ANTENNA

T. R.F. MIXER I. F. AUDIO

AMPLIFIER
(OPT I
ON AL)
(4 51"DEI) AMR AMR

=- GROUND LOUD SPEAKER

Figure 62—A block diagram of a tyFical superheterodyne receiver.

the oscillator is tuned to 825 kc., it will ments for high selectiviry in the r.f. cir- of tuning is the natural enemy of good
also create a beat of 175 kc. with the in- cuits. In fact, in manv cases, the t.r.f. quality reception. Therefore, abroad- tuning
coming signal. This is known as the stage is omitted when intermediate fre- set may deliver better quality and the
"image." Therefore, there are two posi- quencies of 465 kc are employed. tuned-radio-frequency type is an economical
tions of the oscillator dial which would It was stated above, that selectivity varies high-quality receiver. The sensitivity being
bring in one station. It is a function of with the frequency. Therefore, the lower dependent on the frequency, it generally
the tuned r.f. and the mixer circuits to re- the frequency, the better the selectivity in becomes impractical to employ the t.r.f.
duce the two points to one by cutting out the intermediate-frequency amplifier. Fur- type as an all-wave receiver especially so
one of them. For instance, in the above thermore, the selectivity of the whole re- if a switch has to be employed for more
example, the signal-frequency circuits will ceiver will be the same throughout its tun- than three circuits.
be tuned to 1,000 kc. when the oscillator ing range.
is tuned to 1175 kc., since they are ganged Another point to keep in mind when The superheterodyne can be made much
on the same tuning control shaft. When choosing the intermediate frequency is that more sensitive, partly due to the fact that
adjusting the oscillator to 825 kc., how- it should not be within the band to be the amplification is divided into two am-
ever, the radio-frequency circuits will be covered by the receiver and it should not plifiers at different frequencies, and partly
tuned to 650 kc. Now it all depends on be a frequency where a powerful station that the intermediate frequency is low and
how selective these r.f. circuits are. If the is working. For instance, if the interme- it is easier to obtain more gain at low
1,000 kc. signal is very strong and the r.f. diate frequency is 456 E. and a local sta- frequencies. The selectivity will be high
circuits are insufficiently selective, it may tion ( commercial code stations are some- even in the smaller receivers. At the pres-
be that the 1,000 kc station will pass times encountered around these frequen- ent time, superheterodynes have advanced
through the r.f. amplifier. If it reaches the cies) were to transmit on this frequency, so far that they are available with vari-
mixer tube, it will interfere with another its signal might pass through the r.f. stages able selectivity so that high selectivity can
station working on 650 kc. It is for this even though these were not tuned for that be used for distant stations and relatively
reason that a good sharp tuned- radio- signal and when it reaches the mixer stage, broad tuning for local high-quality recep-
frequency stage is almost essential. it will keep on traveling through the inter- tion. The same could be done with the
There are also possibilities that har- mediate- frequency amplifier, mixing with tuned- radio-frequency receiver but it would
monics of the oscillator will fall in the any signals present in this amplifier and be much more difficult. Since the inter-
broadcast band or may be equal to the causing " birdie" whistles. It is thus seen mediate-frequency amplifier provides nearly
fundamental or harmonic of the signal that the choice of an intermediate frequency all the sensitivity and selectivity, such a
frequency. In both cases, this may restet is a compromise and there are now several receiver lends itself readily for use as an
in a squeal or " birdie" at a critical point standard frequencies employed which have all-wave receiver.
of the dial. The remedy is, of course, to been found to be satisfactory; 175 kc., 262
shield the oscillator so well that there will The drawbacks of superheterodynes con-
kc. and 456 kc. are some of the most
be no opportunity for the oscillator fre- popular ones. sist in the possibility of the presence of re-
quency to enter the antenna circuit. peat points, and some birdies and whistles
which are due to the presence of oscillator
Advantages and Limitations harmonics and signal harmonics. Im-
Reducing "Image" Effects properly designed superheterodynes also
The advantages and limitations of each may cause interference in your neighbor's
From the standpoint of reducing " image" type of circuit can be summed up as fol- receiver. In such cases, the oscillator fre-
effects, it is best to make the intermediate lows: the tuned-radio- frequency receiver is quency is being radiated and may inter-
frequency fairly high. For instance, if in simpler in construction and therefore more fere with the reception of another receiver
the above example, the intermediate fre- economical to make than a super. On the in the house which is tuned to the same
quency had not been 175 kc. but 465 kc., other hand, it is limited both in sensitivity frequency as that on which the oscillator
the 1000 kc. image would be outside of the and selectivity with the result that it will is working. In general, however, none of
broadcast band. The choice of a high in- generally not be a long-distance receiver. these troubles is likely to be present in the
termediate frequency reduces the require- This has its advantages because sharpness best supers.

LESSON TWENTY
High-Quality Broadcast Receiver

T
HE t.r.f. tuner described here, the cir- fier described in Lesson Thirteen, pro- towards later changing it into a super.
cuit of which appears in Figure 69, vides reception of excellent quality from Therefore, the chassis is not only drilled
when used in conjunction with the local and medium-distant stations. The for the present layout but also for this
universal power pack and audio ampli- tuner has been constructed with a view later use. Also, the change-over to a super
24 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figure 63, left, shows It is a biased detector with the load re-
the layout of parts on sistance in the cathode ircuit, combining
the top of the chassis. good fidelity with sensitivity, yet permit-
Figure 64, right, shows ting the circuit L3- C3 to remain in tune
the new tuner with the with L2- C2. In fact, the circuits lined up
power supply-amplifier. so well that it was decided to omit the
usual trimmers, since good enough results
were obtained without them. The con-
has been worked out so as to employ the The condition may be helped by placing structor may add these if he so desires.
present parts and require the minimum of a small series condenser in the antenna The use of variable-mu pentodes for
new ones. circuit. To obtain the best value for the tuned radio- frequency stages is already
For the sake of stable operation, it was antenna used it is well to experiment with familiar to the reader. Resistance-capacity
thought inadvisable to use more than two filters are placed in all screen and plate
sizes between . 001 and . 0001 mid.
r.f. stages. On the other hand, sufficient leads to prevent instability.
Inasmuch as the antenna circuit is prob-
selectivity had to be obtained. So the coils ably not going to track throughout the The filter C12-R9 is included to prevent
are of the " low- impedance" type, which range, we must be sure that the third cir- any tendency toward motorboating. The
means that they have primaries of only cuit, L3- C3, is not going to be out of line. sensitivity control is in the cathode circuit
a few turns, increasing the selectivity. The This brings us to the choice of detector to adjust the sensitivity according to re-
detector circuit is tuned, too, making, in circuits. From the standpoint of best re- quirements; this is not a volume control.
all, three tuned circuits. production, the diode detector is preferred. Best results will usually be obtained with
In such cases one must be very careful But the diode detector, when connected the sensitivity control at the lower set-
to obtain the greatest benefit from the across L3- C3 in the normal manner, as in tings in order not to overload the tubes.
tuned circuits. Besides the variable con- Figure 68, would result in added capacity
denser in the secondary, the tuning is across C3 and this would tend to un- Construction
affected by the primary circuit and also by balance the alignment. Furthermore, the
the tube following the transformer. For relatively low diode resistance makes tun- The tuner is constructed on a chassis
instance, the coil L2 ( Figure 69) has its ing broad. To avoid these drawbacks it is which will fit the Insuline type 3828 cab-
secondary tuned by C2, but there is also an advantage to use a type of detector inet. This cabinet has dimensions 12 x
the slight capacity between grid and cath- which does not " load" the circuit; one 8 st 7 inches. The chassis used in this
ode of the second 6K7, and the primary which does not draw any current from the lesson can also be obtained from the same
adds its influence which depends on the tuned circuit. The only type which will company with the large holes already
tube's plate resistance. Coil Li is con- do that is the " biased detector." drilled, or it can be had without holes.
nected to the antenna, which may react After completing all the holes in the
on the circuit in such a way as to bring New Detector Circuit chassis and panel according to Figures 65
this circuit out of tune. and 66, mount the coils, the sockets and
No matter how much trimming is done, The one employed here ( see the 6C5 the terminal strips. First make all the
it is usually impossible to get this first circuit in Figure 69) is a relatively new connections to the coils; the antenna coil
circuit in exact line all over the range. circuit, suggested by engineers of Sylvania. can be distinguished from the others by

Figure 65, below, chassis drilling plans; Figure 66, upper right, panel drilling plans; Figure 67, lower right, below the deck.
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 25

DIODE

]F&
1 I
EQUIVALENT TO THE ABOVE CIRCUIT

Figure 68

the type number and it is also marked Figure 69—The circuit diagram.
.'antenna coil." The terminals are identified
by referring to Figure 69. Before mount- cable, sensitivity control ard pilot light and Parts List
ing the coils, solder long enough leads mount the dial. The dial, most of the by-
to the terminals and bend the lugs so as pass condensers and some other parts can RI—Electrad, type 280, potentiometer, 25,000
to prevent them from touching the chassis. be salvaged from the previous construction ohms.
All wires from the coils should be run job. R2, R3-500 ohms
R4, R5-100,000 ohms I I.R.C. carbon resistors,
close against the chassis. Before trying out the unit, plug the cable R6, R7-1,000 ohms r34 watt.
into the power pack and measure the re- RS, R9-34 megohm
Cl, C2, C3—Meissner, 3- gang variable conden-
Mounting Tuning Condenser sistance from B+ ( at the cable terminal
ser type, 15122, . 00035 mfd.
in the tuner) to ground. This should be C4, C5, C6, C7, CS, C9, CIO—Cornell-Dubilier,
Now solder leads to all the rotor lugs about 22,000 ohms. If it is found to be type BA- 4P1 tubular paper condensers, . 1
of the condenser gang and another lead zero there is an error in the connections to mfd., 400 volts.
C11—Cornell-Dubilier, type 2W- 5T25 mica con-
to the front stator lug ( on the bottom). the plug. denser, .00025 mfd.
Thread the leads through the holes, place C12—Cornell-Dubilier, type BB-4P25 tubular
the condenser and bring up the grid leads paper condenser, . 25 mfd., 400 volts.
Testing The 7uner LI—Meissner, type 1085 low impedance antenna
from the coils through the proper holes, coil.
then cut these leads to correct length and When it is established that there can be 1.2. L3—Meissner, type 1084 low impedance r.f.
solder them to the remaining stator lugs. no short circuit, complete the connections coil.
I —National, type C., dual- range velvet- vernier
The condenser can now be bolted down. between the units and connect the antenna. dial with illuminator and 6.3 volt pilot light.
The leads from the rotors should be sol- In case there is no response, check the 3—octal sockets, wafer type, mounting centers
dered to the chassis close to the hole tuner stage by stage. Connect a condenser spaced 134 inch.
1—I.C.A. chassis, type 1531, cadmium plated
through which they pass. It is very impor- of . 00025 mfd. to the antenna and touch steel, 11x234 x254 , with large holes punched.
tant to individually ground each of the the free end of the condenser to the stator 1—alumiuum panel, 4 x6 inches, 1/16- inch
three sections. Depending on the frame of C3. If there is no station coming in, thick.
1 — 1.C.A. terminal strip, type 2419, marked " A.
of the condenser for a ground causes a the defect is in the detector stage. After & G."
common path to be used in all three cir- obtaining results there, move the antenna 1-1.C.A. terminal strip, type 2418, marked
cuits and oscillation may result. to the stator of C2 and sc. on. The defect "output."
4—insulated terminal strips, two terminals each.
Next mount the insulated terminal strips can thus be isolated. Watch for shorts be- I —insulated terminal strip, three terminals.
and finish all wiring possible without put- tween leads and chassis at places where the 1—shaft reducer, 34 inch hole, 4 inch shaft.
ting in any resistors and condensers. Then leads pass through holes. You should be 2—angle brackets.
2 feet 5 wire battery cable.
connect the resistors in place and finally able to receive all the local stations and 1—five- prong plug.
the condensers. Doing the last job, the many distant ones. The original model 1—grommet for Yi inch hole.
grounded foil should always be connected brought in stations in Philadelphia in the 1—knob for sensitivity control.
2—grid clips for metal tubes.
to the ground side and the leads kept as daytime without any difficulty and that 2-6K7 tubes.
short as possible. Finally connect the was in a noisy New York City location. 1-6C5 tube.

LESSON TWENTY-ONE
Automatic Volume Control
ITIHIS lesson is devoted to an explanation matic volume control" would still not give this is being done manually in the receiver
of automatic volume control circuits equal volume on all stations at all times, described in Lesson 20. It can be done
and the newly acquired knowledge is even if the manual volume control were automatically when a detector is employed
put to work at once by changing the t.r.f, not moved, because the station may send which develops a negative voltage ( d.c.)
receiver of Lesson Twenty so as to include out loud or soft audio signals, and the with respect to the chassis when a signal
this new feature. average may vary between stations. We cpmes in. This negative voltage should be
The so-called "automatic volume con- would not want to eliminate these volume proportional to the strength of the signal.
trol" circuit is a scheme for obtaining variations, since they are a part of the
approximately the same carrier amplitude program. Therefore " automatic volume Choice of Detector
at the detector tube on all signals, weak control" is not really the correct name; it
and strong. In other words, the strength should be " automatic sensitivity control." The detector of Lesson Twenty is not
of the signal when it is unmodulated is However, the wrong name has caught the suitable for the purpose, but the diode de-
kept approximately the same. The actual public's fancy and it is row too late for tector will do the work nicely. Figure 71
volume coming from the loudspeaker de- a change. shows the diode detector circuit with the
pends on the audio amplification after the It has been explained in Lesson Sixteen a.v.c. circuit incorporated in the t.r.f. re-
detector, the setting of the manual volume that the sensitivity of aradio-frequency am- ceiver. The same tube is used as a diode
control and the percentage of modulation plifier stage can be reduced in the case of a by connecting plate and grid together. Dur-
at the transmitter. variable- mu tube by increasing the nega- ing the positive half of each cycle, the
A receiver equipped with perfect " auto- tive voltage at the contrcl grid. In fact, plate and grid become positive and some
26 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

the sensitivity but cannot increase it.

Therefore on weak signals there is nearly
no a.v.c. action.
In large receivers when many stages can
Figure 70 shows how be controlled it is actually possible to regu-
A.V.C. is added to late the signal strength at the detector very
closely. The t.r.f. circuit is usually not so
the receiver. A half well adapted to it because it is hard to
get enough control. The model used in the
hour's work and the Radio News laboratory worked well
enough to prevent overloading of the r.f.
t.r.f, receiver is pro- stages and to make adjustment of the sen-
vided with automatic sitivity control unnecessary.
It was pointed out in Lesson Twenty
volume ( sensitivity) that the use of a diode detector will
broaden the last circuit and less selectivity
control. will be obtained. On the other hand the
quality should be better.

Tuning Meter
One important by-product of a.v.c. cir-
cuits is the tuning meter. If a milliam-
current flows through the circuit in the stant." This is the time in seconds it meter is placed in the plate circuit of one
direction indicated by the arrows. This is would take to charge the condenser com- 6K7 tube ( range 0-10 ma.) or in series
pulsating d.c. and it is of such a direction pletely if it kept on charging at the initial with the plate circuits of both tubes ( range
as to make point A negative with respect rate. The rate varies and the condenser 0-15 ma.), the correct point of resonance
to the chassis. Across resistor R8, then, charges to 63 percent of its full charge can be easily determined. The meter will
there are several voltages: d.c., radio fre- in the time indicated. The time constant show about 7 ma. per tube with no signal.
quency and audio frequency. The radio- in seconds is equal to the product of R As a signal is tuned in the meter reading
frequency current is by-passed by the con- in megohms and C in microfarads. In goes down and the correct dial setting is
denser C11 and the audio- frequency current this case, where there are several sections, indicated by the minimum meter reading.
is fed to the audio amplifier through do. we must first take the sum of the resistors The meter reading is also an indication of
The negative voltage at A must now be and the sum of the capacitances. The total the signal strength of the station and the
fed back to the grid returns of the ampli- capacity of C13 + C14 C15 = .04 merit of your antenna. The lower the
fier stages, but we must take care that the mfd. and the sum of the resistors RIO+ meter reads on a given station the better
audio- frequency fluctuations are filtered out R11±R12=1.2 megohm. Thus the time it is coming in.
because they would cause distortion. Pre- constant is 0.04 X1.2=0.048 seconds Automatic volume control has peculiari-
cautions should also be taken to insure (approximately 1/20 of a second). ties which are common to all receivers in
against feedback between stages, as this which it is employed. For instance, when
would cause oscillation. The network of How A.V.C. Works the receiver is suddenly tuned from a
resistors and condensers fulfills all these strong station to a weak one, the back-
requirements. The condensers C14 and C15 also serve ground noise appears to increase. The
the purpose of closing the tuned grid cir- reason for this is that the sensitivity is
Special Filters cuits of the amplifier tubes. They are in brought up to maximum as soon as one
series with the tuning condenser. tunes off a carrier, and this brings in all
As soon as a negative voltage appears The automatic volume control now the noise. The manual sensitivity control
across the diode load resistor R8, the con- works as follows. When no station is com- may be used to limit the maximum sensi-
denser C13 is charged through the re- ing in there is no voltage across R8 and tivity and the maximum noise level.
sistor RIO; it takes considerable time the grids of the 6K7 tubes are at ground For convenience, the circuit of Figure 71
to charge this condenser, because the re- potential. The tubes then have the bias shows the wiring changes in heavy lines.
sistor limits the rate of charge. After C13 determined by the resistors R2, R3 and Rl. First the detector circuit is to be changed
is charged, the condensers C14 and C15 When a strong signal comes in, the point from the biased detector to the diode type.
are charged through the other resistors. A will become negative and this negative A special diode tube for this purpose is the
This delays the action still more. The re- voltage is applied to the grids, reducing 6H6 but the 6C5 will do the work as well
sult is that the current is too slow to the sensitivity. The circuit immediately if the grid and plate are joined. This
follow the audio-frequency variations at A adjusts itself for any change in signal makes the purchase of a new tube un-
and the steady voltage across C14 and C15 strength, cutting down the strongest sig- necessary.
which is applied to the grids is free from nals. It should not be expected that the Locate the grid return or grounded ter-
audio-frequency variations. action is perfect. Theoretically it can never minal of the secondary in all three coils.
The speed of such resistance-capacity be made so but aclose approach is possible. Disconnect it from the chassis, mount the
filters is indicated by their " time con- Note also that the circuit can only reduce terminal strips and wire as shown in the
diagram. The wires should be kept as
short as possible, especially those running
Figure 7I—The revised circuit diagram. from C14 and C15 to the chassis and to
the coil.
A test to show that the automatic volume
control circuit is working can be made
by connecting a milliammeter in the plate
circuit of a 6K7 tube. The current should
decrease when a strong signal is tuned in.

Parts List
The following additional parts are re-
quired.
C13—Cornell Dubilier, type DT-4S2 tubular
paper condenser, . 02 mfd., 400 volts.
C14, C15—Cornell Dubilier, type DT-4S1 tubu-
lar paper condensers, .01 mfd., 400 volts.
RIO—! RC carbon resistor, 1 megohm. Y. watt.
R11. R12—IRC carbon resistors, 0.1 megohm.
y, watt.
2 insulated terminal strips; one 2- terminal, one
3- terminal.
For further lessons on the construction
of modern radio receivers read the
supplement on Page 47 of this book and
"The Radio Beginner" in the July 1937
and subsequent issues of RADIO NEWS.
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 27

LESSON TWENTY-TWO
Facts About Antennas

A N aerial or antenna is a wire or a

system of wires, elevated some dis-
tance above ground and suspended
an exception. Indoor aerials sometimes give
good results in rural districts. But in such
cases, an outdoor antenna is easily erected,
in different forms, so that it is insulated and advantage should be taken of the
or free from surrounding objects. A sim- superior results accompanying an open in-
ple, easily erected antenna is the inverted stallation.)
"L" type shown in Figure 72. Indoor antennas are unsatisfactory from
No matter what type of antenna is used the point of view of noise. This is because
its purpose is the same—to intercept a the entire system is located within a noise
small amount of the radio-frequency power area. These noises are caused by radiations
radiated through the ether from the broad- from vacuum cleaners, violet ray machines,
casting stations. The antenna used at the elevators, electrical refrigeration, incinera-
broadcast transmitting station must send tors, oil furnaces, dial telephones, etc. Such
out through the ether thousands of watts appliances need not necessarily be used in
of power—the antenna connected to your Figure 72
the apartment or home where the short-
receiver must intercept but microwatts of wave set is installed. The interference they
power. A broadcasting station antenna to some particular frequen:y or wavelength. cause is often conducted, like "wired wire-
might transmit, for example, say 25,000 And the frequency or wavelength to which less," by telephone and electric light wires,
watts and the antenna on the set intercepts an antenna naturally tunca is known as its and radiated all along the route. Noise
but millionths of a watt of power! The fundamental wavelength—just as for a200- interference is much more noticeable on
broadcast station antenna is suspended by meter wave greatest current will flow short waves, due to the fact that the dis-
means of insulators, and when the station through them if we tune tne coil-condensed turbance is of a very high frequency. The
is "on the air" the voltage across these in- circuits in a receiver to 200 meters. broadcast receiver does not tune down to it
sulators may be 10,000 or 50,000 volts. efficiently.
The voltage across the insulators of the Antenna Problems Using a broadcast antenna for short-
receiving antenna is only millionths of a wave reception, the background noise can
volt. These figures give some idea of the In no instance can one take full ad- be reduced somewhat by lengthening the
differences between antennas for transmit- vantage of the possibilities inherent in any aerial. Always assuming that the antenna
ting and receiving. In this lesson let us receiver—from the elementary types to the is out of the noise area, this will increase
consider some of the characteristics of the elaborate multi- tube super- heterodynes— your signal pick-up more than the noise
receiving antenna. unless the antenna is pretty well what it pick-up. Adding more feet to the aerial
should be. will of course, increase the capacity be-
Electrical Characteristics In the case of the simple receiver—the tween aerial and ground. This capacity
one- and two- tube affairs—a great deal acts as a small condenser across the an-
As we look at an antenna it appears necessarily depends on the character of the tenna primary in the receiver which may
to be a simple sort of thing—just a long signal input, which in turn is an antenna boost its natural wavelength to an unde-
piece of wire—but electrically it is far problem. And the greater efficiency en- sirable degree. In such cases it is necessary
more complicated. Electrically the antenna gineered into complicated receivers, as the to put a small condenser in the lead-in,
can be represented as in Figure 73. Here number of tubes increases, cannot be close to the set. This should be preferably
we see a number of coils, all marked L, a touched unless the signal well overrides of the variable air-dielectric type—the so-
number of condensers, all marked C, and the noise pick- up—which again is a func- called midget or trimming condenser—
a number of resistances, all marked R. tion of the aerial system. having a maximum capacity of from 35
These coils, condensers and resistances are A good broadcast antenna will, in many to 90 microfarads. If the complaint of
the same as the coils, condensers and re- instances, give entirely satisfactory operation poor reception on the broadcast antenna is
sistances we use in a receiver—although with a short-wave set. Such an aerial, other than noise, the trouble probably is
their values may of course be quite however, will almost invariably be a rea- with the short-wave set itself—not the an-
different. sonably long outside antenna-75 to 150 tenna. However, if background noise is
The effect of the coils, L, is produced feet—swung high and clear, well insulated, excessive, the only cure is recourse to a
by the fact that any piece of wire has soldered joints—a clean job from tip noise-reduction antenna system.
the property known as " inductance." This through lead-in. If you believe your an-
is why we sometimes refer to the r.f. tenna falls into this class—or that such an
Increasing Signal -to -Noise Ratio
transformers in a set as having an induct- aerial can be easily erected—by all means
ance of so many henries or millihenries— try it before experimenting with the some- What we really mean by noise reduction
the henry being the unit inductance, and what more complicated types. An exception is the increase in the signal-to-noise ratio.
the millihenry being equal to one- thou- to this advice is in apartment houses, As implied above, this can be accomplished
sandth of a henry. The effect of the cony where, regardless of how well the lead-in in either one or acombination of two ways
densers, C, is produced by the fact that the may be installed, it will be practically cer- —by increasing the signal pick-up and by
antenna wire and the ground under the tain to run through anoise- infested area. decreasing the noise pick-up. This may
antenna act like two plates of a condenser. Some broadcast antennas will not give be illustrated by an ideal problem.
The effect of the resistances, R, is due good short-wave results, such as those em- We assume that our antenna picks up
to a number of factors, including the re- ploying noise- reduction systems designed only signal and the lead-in picks up both
sistance of the wire, the resistance of the for operation between 200 and 600 meters signal and noise. ( The ordinary lead-in
ground and what might be called the and, in most cases, indoor aerials. ( Again, picks up quite abit of signal.) If we sub-
"useful resistance," because the antenna
must pick up energy from the ether and Figure 73—Electrical characteristics of an antenna.
transfer it to the set. The power actually
transmitted to the set can be represented
by a resistance and a technical term for
this useful resistance is "radiation re-
sistance."

The Fundamental Wavelength

When we tune a receiver what we do
actually is to adjust the capacity of the
tuning condenser so that the circuit will
be in " tune" with the desired signal. Now
since the antenna has all the characteristics
of a coil-condenser combination in a re-
ceiver it follows that the antenna will tune
28 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

much louder than the signal, and recep- ilar course and be heard in the receiver.
tion is impossible. We now install a If the antenna is well located, the noise
lead-in which picks up practically no noise, impulses will be very weak in comparison
nor signal, and the result is we have a with the signal. In other words, we have
signal-to-noise ratio of fifteen to one. If a high signal-to-noise ratio.
we wish, we may lengthen the aerial, com- The very powerful noise impulses in the
pensating the loss in signal pick-up by the section indicated as " noise area," through
lead- in—probably without material change which the lead-in passes, will take the
in the signal-to-noise ratio. However, if same direction, in both lead-ins, as indi-
the aerial is extended toward a noise area, cated by the dotted arrows. Meeting in
the signal-to-noise ratio will naturally be the antenna primary, they neutralize ( buck
lowered, and if away from a noise area, each other) and become non-existent as far
the ratio will be increased. as the receiver is concerned. Similarly, any
The transmission line provides a form signals picked up by the lead-ins will have
of lead-in which picks up neither signal no effect on reception.
nor noise, which is economical, easy to The parallel leads are placed close to-
Figure 74 install and widely used for short- and all- gether so that they receive impulses of
wave reception. Its noise-reduction quali- identical strength. If one wire were to
ties are effective as high as 600 meters. pick-up a stronger impulse than the other,
stitute a lead-in which picks up nothing at it would force itself through the primary
all, we shall have increased our signal-to- against the bucking action of the weaker
noise ratio enormously! Of course we shall A "Doublet" Antenna impulse picked up by the other wire, and
have lost a bit of signal strength, due to noise would be heard. The leads must
the elimination of lead-in pick-ups, but Inspection of Figure 74, will indicate not be placed too close together, or the
the volume control can now be turned up the manner in which the transmission line capacity will be increased to the extent
to compensate this. However, if the sen- functions. This illustrates the " doublet" where losses will occur, as mentioned in
sitivity of the set is insufficient to make up antenna—so named because of the two the case of long wave noise reduction sys-
for this loss, we can increase the length equal stretches of aerial on each side of tems used for high frequency work. The
of the antenna—which is usually a good the double lead-in. We shall assume that leads are usually spaced about three inches.
idea, unless a particular length is desired. at a given instant a signal current is in- In practice, parallel lead-in wires must
As predicated, the problem just con- duced in the antenna which follows the be separated by spacing insulators ( one
sidered is an ideal one. In actual practice direction of the arrows drawn in solid about every 18 inches) in order to keep
the situation is as follows: The antenna lines. This current goes down one lead- the feeders the proper distance apart.
pick-up on a given signal may have a sig- in, through the antenna primary of the There is no ground used with the trans-
nal-to-noise ratio of say fifteen to one, receiver, and up the other lead-in, follow- mission line but this should not be aprob-
while the lead-in has anoise-to-signal ratio ing along its original direction on the lef t- lem with the new sets, as their antenna
of perhaps thirty to one. The combina- hand portion of the horizontal wire. Noise input circuit is generally designed for use
tion may well result in the noise being pick-up by the antenna will follow a sim- with noise reducing antenna systems.

LESSON TWENTY-THREE
Photocells
811HE wide technical application of light- What does this wonder tool of the elec- zinc. So, for isolating this phenomenon,
j. sensitive devices in the fields of radio, tronic magician of today consist of? The Hallwachs put apolished zinc sphere upon
television, sound film, for controlling theory of all types of light-sensitive de- a sensitive gold- leaf electroscope which he
industrial processes and chemical actions vices—and there are today quite a num- charged negatively. The leaves, ordinarily
and finally the creation of electric ber of widely different types—goes back showing a wide divergence, under these
energy directly from light, have brought to the common source: the photo- electric circumstances touched each other almost
about the development of many forms of effect. Under the influence of electro- instantly when the electroscope was irradi-
photo-sensitive apparatus. When Heinrich magnetic radiation, preferably of a fre- ated with an arc-light. The negative charge
Hertz, as early as 1887, discovered that quency which can be seen with the human had disappeared, or a positive charge had
the length of electrical discharges as pro- eye, certain reactions take place in the ir- been acquired, thus neutralizing the sys-
duced by an electrical inductor could be radiated material. This law, however, tem. See Figure 75.
increased when the electrodes between is more general than just for the range In Stoletow's experiment a polished zinc
which the spark passed were illuminated af human visibility. plate Z ( see Figure 77) was exposed to
by the light of a mercury interrupter, he an intensive light source which included
probably did not dream of the wide in-
Photo -electric Effect
dustrial and scientific possibilities opened Figure 76
by his discovery and the modern light-
Light and other electromagnetic waves
sensitive cells which are several hundred
beyond the range of light have an effect
times more efficient than the crude de-
upon almost everything in the universe.
vice in which he recognized the physical
Light colors the leaves of the trees green,
fundamentals of the photo-electric effect.
by developing chlorophyll particles in
them; it influences the emulsions of our
Figure 75 photographic films.
It was William Hallwachs who took
the essential parts of Hertz's arrangements
CHARGE LOST
OR NEUTRAUZEO and simplified his experimental set-up so
far that he was able, in 1888, to clarify
the problem of photo-electric reaction. This
was the thought of Hallwachs: if the
light of the mercury interrupter, shining
upon the electrodes, could seemingly ef-
fect the distance between the electrodes,
then probably something was going out
from the electrodes which reduced the re-
sistance of the space between them. From
where could this something originate, if
not from the electrodes themselves?
Electrodes, at that time, were made of
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 29

the shorter wavelengths. Outgoing nega- neglected for some time, but their im-
tive charges were collected upon a grid proved types are now meet promising.
G, thus diminishing the space resistance 5. Crystal Photo-cells (effects between
between Z and G and allowing a small minerals, as, for instance, argentite, and
current to pass through the sensitive gal- their metal contacts.)
vanometer G under the influence of the In this lesson special attention is given
electromotive force delivered by the bat- to the types of dry and wet photo-voltaic
tery. cells.
Photo-voltaic cells are found in nature.
Early Experiments Every leaf, if irradiated, indicates minute
voltage changes. These, however, are too Figure 77
This circuit of Stoletow actually dis- low to be measured without special am-
closed the principles used in many modern plification. But certain chemical compounds
photo-electric circuits. However, the have been developed with which it is pos- developing a current of about 30 milliam-
energy output of his polished zinc plate, sible to make a photo-voltaic cell ( Bec- peres. This amplifier uses the Loftin-
with relation to the light falling upon it, White principle. All of the voltage di-
querel cell) for a few cents.
was a small one and inconstant. viding equipment has been abandoned and
Elster and Geitel used, instead of the "hum-balancing" resistors have been elim-
How to Make Photo- Voltaic Cells inated. The only condenser shown in the
pure zinc, an amalgamation of zinc and
alkaline compounds. Their sodium amal- diagram is not really essential, but seems
Figure 76 shows a diagrammatic sketch to eliminate any tendency on the part of
gam, which was enclosed in a glass vessel of such a light- battery. A beaker of clear
to prevent oxidation, may be considered the relay to chatter when acting at high
glass is filled with a solution of lead ni- speeds.
as the first photo-cell in use, although it trate. In this lead solution is immersed a
tarnished badly and had to be cleaned by A " B" power unit capable of supplying
copper plate which has been uniformly
a magnetic scraper. Finally, by discovering 300 volts was used in place of the bat-
coated with cuprous oxide. At the front teries shown in the diagram. The filament
that colloidal suspension of the cathode
of the beaker a lead plate is hung into return from the -45 and lower end of the
increased the sensitivity by two decimal
the solution. The lead plate has a hole 10,000-ohm resistor in the - 27 plate cir-
points, they were able to build a cell
in the middle through which the light cuit were returned to the 180- volt tap.
which in many ways, has not been changed can enter the cell. The outside of the
considerably in its fundamentals until re- This is not a very critical adjustment, as
cell is covered with black paper or coated any voltage from 150 to 200 will give
cently. The increase of sensitivity was
with a dark lacquer with the exception of good results. The only control necessary
produced mainly by passing a glow dis-
a hole at the same place where the hole for the operation of this amplifier is the
charge in a photo-cell filled with hydrogen in the lead plate is. The cell is protected
gas, to evacuate the cell after the sensibili- resistance, R. which controls the grid bias
at all sides from light with the exception on the first tube and hence the current
zation and to fill it with an inert gas as
of that one opening. through this tube. This in turn controls
argon or helium of low pressure. If the copper disc is irradiated through
the grid bias of the second stage and the
this hole, a voltage difference is produced current through the -45.
Types of Light-Sensitive Devices between the lead and the copper electrode.
If the two poles are connected in an elec-
tric circuit, currents as high as several
How It Works
There are today widely different types
of light-sensitive devices which, though milliamperes can be produced when the In operation, a value of light slightly
they go back to the same fundamental cell is exposed to daylight or sufficient below the maximum is allowed to fall on
principles, are widely different in their artificial illumination is brought into the the photo-cell. This increases the current
action and appearance. From the various cell, for instance, by concentrating the through the first tube and increases the
developments along the lines of light. light of an incandescent lamp by a lens grid bias of the second stage until the
sensitive cells, the following are of practi- before the hole. The amount of current current through the relay becomes a mini-
cal interest: output for a given intensity of light de- mum. The resistance, R, is adjusted until
1. Photo-electronic Cells. These are pends to a large extent upon the electrode the relay almost trips. The light source
the cells most widely used, although for surface, larger surfaces giving stronger is then cut off and the effect noted on
many purposes other types of cells seem currents. the relay. This should allow the relay
to be promising. Dry disc cells have also been developed current to return to normal and close the
2. Wet Photo- voltaic Cells, using the in the Westinghouse laboratories. They relay. If it does not, the adjustment should
Becquerel effect, who discovered ( in 1839) use a copper-oxide disc about the size of be repeated with a stronger light.
that a potential difference is created be- a silver dollar. Another disc cell is pro- A resistance of 200 ohms for R will
tween two electrodes in an electrolyte from duced by the Weston Company. Its out-
generally be sufficient to allow for any
which one was irradiated and the other put is sufficient to operate a highly sen- adjustments which may have to be made.
kept in the dark for aperiod of time. sitive relay of the contact-galvanometer It is to be understood that this amplifier
3. Dry Photo- voltaic Cells (" Light bat- type or to read on a microammeter. By was intended to produce large currents
teries," disc cells with copper oxide, silver calibrating this ammeter in light intensity, in the power stage.
selenide, etc.) it is possible to read illumination ( in foot Another photocell application that offers
4. Photo-conductive Cells (selenium candles) directly. extensive possibilities is found in using a
bridges, for instance). These have been photo-electric cell to operate a light switch
Photo-Cell Applications to automatically turn on lights at sundown
Figure 79 and turn them off again at sunrise.
Some of the most interesting applications Equipment of this nature can be readily
are those where the cell is used as watch- constructed by following the circuit of
dog. Ordinary burglar alarms, consisting Figure 79.
of wires along doors and windows do the The photo-electric cell, PE, is the Weston
job only half-way. A photo-electric cell Model 594 Photronic Cell, and works
can be set up in aroom with alight source
shining upon it. If desired this light is Figure 78
made invisible ( infra- red or ultra-violet).
Any person interrupting the light beam
will then set off the alarm, unknown to
himself.
Thè work can be done still better than
this, however. If a cell is set up so as to
detect anyone entering a door or passing
through a narrow passageway, a camera
cap be focused at that point. The relay
is then arranged to open the shutter and
ignite a flashlight, taking a picture of the
intruder.

2-Stage P. E. Amplifier
The following circuit, Figure 78, shows
a photocell two-stage amplifier, capable of
30 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

into aWeston Model 634 relay ( RI). This to be fully exposed to daylight, yet pro- is reversed, thus turning off the lamp. If it
relay is of the very sensitive type required tected from the light of the lamp it is to is desired to turn off the lamp manually
to operate directly out of the cell. The control. While the day remains bright the at any time it is accomplished by simply
relay, R2, is of the power type and is coil of RI is energized, holding the circuit opening switch SW. Or the lamp can be
capable of breaking a one-ampere circuit, open. But when dusk falls the cell becomes turned on by throwing this switch to the
thus permitting the control of electric lamps inactive, the coil of RI is no longer en- right.
totaling up to 100 watts in power ( L). ergized, and the armature is released, al-
The switch, SW, may be an ordinary lowing the circuit to close. This energizes When the system is first put into opera-
double pole, double throw knife switch. the coil of R2, closing the a.c. circuit tion, the relay RI is adjusted at dusk so
With this equipment, wired as shown, through the armature and causing the lamp that the arm just makes positive contact
the cell is placed in such a position as to light. At the break of day the action and the lamp lights.

LESSON TWENTY-FOUR
Breaking Into The Amateur Game

T
HERE are very few young men who purely accidental that the art of receiving unknowingly we separate the dots from the
at some time during their life have not the signal by sound was discovered. Some dashes, we break into its component parts
been fascinated by the mysterious dots of the old-time operators, after watching a character that should be thought of as a
and dashes of the telegraph code. And it is the recording for many years, found that whole. Forget the dots and dashes, and in
far from the mark that only boys are in- they could read the signals by the sound their place think of dits and dahs; think of
terested in code. Many of our wealthiest of the electromagnet. That was the begin- the sound of each character as one complete
men, holding enormously responsible posi- ning of " reading" by sound. unit—a, for instance, becomes dit dah.
tions, have their own radio shacks where In radio, the sound is somewhat different Each letter of the alphabet has aseparate
they spend many fascinating hours commu- from the signals over the land- line, since and distinct sound of its own. Very good
nicating with ordinary " hams" in all parts the receiving operator hears a sustained code can be produced by whistling, or on
of the globe. But it is equally true that musical tone which has the duration of any wind instrument of the orchestra. As a
every growing boy, and especially the Boy the dots and dashes. In the land- line sys- novelty, it is often the practice at radio
Scout, should learn the code; it may be tem there is a click at the beginning and operators' conventions to pass out wooden
useful and even save life at some time in end of each dot or dash. whistles with which it is possible to blow
the future. good code, readable blocks away. So, with
In the beginning, Morse signals were this simple music lesson we start out to
sent over the land-line and recorded by em-
Code Offers Entertainment learn the code.
bossing them on a strip of paper. It was The International Morse code shown
Those of us who possess short-wave herewith is the accepted radio code. Now,
or dual-wave receivers are missing many we'll make acopy of the code, but instead
Figure 80 an evening of good solid entertainment if of putting down dot-dash for a well draw
we do not know the International Morse two little tents, one short and one long
code. There are new and recurrent thrills;
N<xE<c-i0LomoztrxL-Iollimono»

• eine
(Figure 81) ; and every time we see this
MD • • •
radio signals from merchant and naval ves- group in our future study of the code, we'll
•1•11 • ale •
MD • • sels in all parts of the world, weather think of its as dit dale, repeating it in our
• bulletins, news flashes, time signals and minds and verbally droning the signal out
• • Ole • oceanic services competing with the world's on our lips. A sharp staccato dit is fol-
OM «MID •
• • • •
cable system; there are the thousands and lowed by a longer dah ( about 3 times as
• • thousands of amateur radio operators to long as the dit), These sounds can be
• whom most of the credit must be given made distinctly with the tongue and lips,
II» • for developing and opening up the shorter
• IBM • • and hummed over a few times it doesn't
waves. All of these stations communicate
«MI take long for us to know without a doubt
- • by Morse code. Messages, some bearing that the familiar little tune of dit dah can
fan Ina on world affairs, tragedy and comedy, love be nothing but the letter a.
• IMO •
and simple fellowship are buzzing out Next comes b, which we put on paper
MI MI •
• «MI •
from radio stations all over the world; as one long tent and three short ones,
• • • they are there for those of us who know dahhh-dit-dit-dit. The writing of the char-
IBM the code. Though we are bound to se- acters as short and long tents help to
• • NM
• • • II»
crecy in what we intercept ( it is a serious prevent us from learning the groups as
• a» gm offense and there are severe penalities for dots and dashes; instead, it gives us the
IMP • • II» divulging the contents of radio messages) impression of sound.
- • «MI MI we are at liberty to "eavesdrop" all we Each character follows with equal ease
IMO «a • •
want.
and simplicity. Practice each letter from
"But," you say, " it takes a lot of study
O Oto VO (I1 4 Ud 11)›.

• an 4/19 OMB A to Z just as you like; let the numerals

• • 111•111 MI IMP and it's hard to learn the code. I could
go until you have mastered the alphabet.
• • • II» « lb
never do it." And that is where you are
• • • Mil Hand the printed dit dahs over to some
• • • • •
wrong. During the war, Great Britain fellow sufferer and have him skip around
a= • • • • turned out high-speed operators in less
and call out characters for you to respond
MI IMO • • • than a month's training. There is a right
to in song. It's pleasant, like doing across-
OM • •
and wrong way, apleasant and an unpleas- word puzzle, and you'll find yourself re-
MI MI SIB KIM •
41111, IBM
ant way, to learn the code. peating the signals over and over, whether
DISTRESS SIGNAL • • • IM KM • • • you be president of Amalgamated Mush-
PERIOD • • • • • • Easy Instruction Method rooms or Johnny Clerk; and you both can
COMMA • • I» • KM>
INTERROGATION • • QM • •
expect and get just as much ultimate pleas-
QUOTATION MARK • II» • • II» • Most of us make the mistake of thinking ure out of knowing the code as the rest
EXCLAMATION dIM/ • • am en of the code in terms of " dots and dashes"; of us.
COLON alb a» • • •
SEMICOLON CM • OM • MI •
PARENTHESIS lale • «II 11M • I» Figure 81—A pictorial representation of dit delis.
FRACTION BAR MD • • 4M11 •
VVAIT SIGN • OM • • •
DOUBLE DASH ( BREAK) MU • • • an A B C D E

1
11- 1 FMI-11-1 77T1F-7/-\ F-11-1F\
ERROR (ERASE) SION
END OF MESSAGE • KM • Mr •
-
010 OF TRANSMI SSION • 55 Mil • MI
34 LBSSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 31

other than a notary fee of 25c for attesting to

Start Todcryl the validity of answers on a station and opera-
4—Q. Is there any branch of the govern-
ment which trains young men for work in
tor's application blank. Licenses are issued by radio in exchange for labor? Is it possible
You don't have to have telegraph keys, the Federal Communications Commission, which to secure ordinary work in any of the large
buzzers, oscillators and batteries to learn the has branch offices in the principal cities of the broadcasting stations and thereby come in
country. Licenses are issued for a period of three contact with the mechanism and be able to
code. Start today and make your voice the years. After an examination is taken and passed, learn a great deal about radio?
buzzer and your lips and tongue the key. no further examination is necessary providing the A. The military branches of the government
In this manner the characters, dits and dahs, station is kept in operation. Lack of activity train enlisted men in radio communication. It
after a license expires makes it necessary to take
are more quickly and lastingly impressed a new examination unless it can be shown to the
usually is necessary to have some knowledge of
on the brain and the sound is conveyed radio before obtaining a position with a broad-
satisfaction of the examining authority that the casting station. If in the operating division, a
with directness and realism to the ears. failure to apply for renewal was due to some- commercial operator's license is required which
thing beyond the control of the applicant. Infor-
Later on if you like, you can equip yourself mation contained in examinations is available in
of course, requires more advanced training than
an amateur's license.
with a telegraph key and buzzer or oscil- several handbooks published for the amateur.
lator. If you use the dot- and- dash method Most radio storeb keep these in stock. 5—Q. Is the amateur field filled or are
there still more needed?
you'll find yourself counting the number of 2—Q. What is the very cheapest station A. There is no fixed limit to the number of
dots and dashes to make the characters, one would be able to build and which would amateurs that may be licensed.
be able to compete with other amateurs? Do
and if you have to hesitate, see it in your these stations operate on 60-cycle a.c. cur-
mind's eye, take your mental pencil and rent? What is the cost of upkeep per hour? Time Needed For Preparation
point out each dot and dash, you'll find Must one operate them daily or may they
use them only about three times weekly? 6—Q. About how much preparation and
yourself greatly hampered and soon you'll A. The cost of an amateur station varies tre- how many hours of study are necessary be-
give up in disgust at your slow progress. mendously. However, it should be possible to fore one may operate a station?
construct an efficient telegraph transmitter for
Perhaps by now you are settling down between twenty and thirty dollars. Telephone A. The amount of time necessary for prepara-
tion to pass an amateur examination depends en-
to copy all the code you hear. All right, equipment costs considerably more as expensive
tirely upon the ability of the individual. Some
good, but tune until you can find some slow speech equipment is necessary to supplement the
apparatus normally used for telegraph transmis- persons have been known to start from
signal. They're there, especially between sion. Practically all amateur stations are oper- 'scratch" and qualify for license within three
months. The most difficult part of obtaining
8000 and 9000 kilocycles on your receiver ated from 60 cycle alternating current, as this
type of power is available in more than 90 pet a license is learning the telegraph code. A.
dial. Just listen without trying to put any- cent of the homes in the United States. Some copying speed of thirteen words a minute ( corn-
thing on paper. After a moment you'll sections of the country have 25 and 40 cycle a.c. p_ited on the basis of five letters to the average
word) is required.
single out individual characters. Try listen- and direct current, which it is possible to use
ing for some predetermined letter and con- providing the apparatus is designed for such 7—Q. Do you know of any amateurs who
mains. An amateur may operate his station at would be willing to work with a newcomer
fine your efforts to recognition of that any time he chooses. There are no operating to the field in this territory?
particular sound. You'll find that in a requirements other than the station must have A. We suggest you consult a call book for
had communication with at least three other the location of amateurs in your vicinity. You
remarkably short time you can recognize amateur stations within ninety days before the will find most of them willing to help a
that selected character without any trouble expiration of term of license in order to qualify newcomer.
at all. Just watch the individual charac- for renewal of license at the end of the three-
year period without having to take another 8—Q. Is the amateur's work of any bene-
ters; never mind the words and sentences, examination. fit to the radio world in general? Will his
they'll come later. work as an amateur aid him in getting into
It's not work, it's fun; get a group Space Needed For Station ocher fields of radio? Will it be of any assist-
ance to him in the field of television?
together—father, son, and all the young- 3—Q. About how much space is needed A. Amateurs have contributed a tremendous
sters and oldsters in the neighborhood, a for an amateur station? Are two separate amount to the development of radio. To cover
their achievements would fill a large volume.
boy scout troop—it doesn't matter, but do units necessary; one for sending and one for
One of their achievements was the development
receiving?
get in line for the fun you can get out A. Space needed for an amateur transmitter of short-wave communication which today is
of such little and pleasant effort. is governed entirely by the facilities available and the backbone of international radio communica-
the operator who constructs it. It is possible to tion. Most of the prominent radio inventors
mount a complete station in a secretary type of and engineers are, or were at some time or an-
Getting An Amateur License desk with a transmitter consuming no more other, amateurs. The prestige of being an
space than the average size receiving set. On the amateur usually is helpful in obtaining em-
For the benefit of those who wish to other hand some amateurs have a whole room ployment in the radio industry. The knowledge
for their radio equipment. A separate unit is gleaned by being an amateur undoubtedly will
build a transmitter and actually go on the be helpful in understanding the intricacies of
necessary for transmitting as a transmitter al-
air, here are some of the questions asked ways functions independent of the receiving set. ti- e television of the future.
by prospective " hams." The answers are Any receiving set that is capable of tuning the 9—Q. Is it necessary to learn code to be
amateur frequencies may be used. Practically
brief but contain pertinent information. all all- wave sets fulfill this requirement. Amateur
an operator?
A. It is necessary to learn the code to be-
1—Q. Is there any charge for the license frequencies are: 1715 to 2000 kc.: 3500 to 4000
and where are the examinations held? Must come an amateur. A receiving speed of thirteen
kc.; 7000 to 7300; 14000 to 14400 kc., and in words a minute is required. ( See answer to 6.)
these examinations be taken every so often addition channels in the vicinity of 28000 kc.,
ox are they for an unlimited time? Where 56000 kilocycles and other higher frequencies. 10—Q. Is amateur radio usually followed as
would one get the information asked for in For frequencies above 14000 it is necessary to as hobby or do many people give their full
the examinations? use a specially designed receiver, designed for time to it?
A. There is no charge for an amateur license ultra- high frequencies. A. Amateur radio is essentially a hobby.

LESSON TWENTY-FIVE
Homemade Code Practice Oscillators

H
ERE is a simple code test set with we show, to the left, the actual circuit simplified because then, after each has
which you can tap out messages or arrangement, while to its right is apicture memorized the code by hearing the sounds,
have a friend do the sending while diagram of the connections. All that the the wires which connect the key to the
you receive the message he transmits. device consists of is a high-pitched buzzer circuit may be lengthened, say, to 30 or
In Figure 82 is shown an arrangement (B), a key ( K) and a battery ( C). By 50 feet, with the key in one room and the
of the apparatus which is employed in code pressing the key the electric circuit is buzzer in another.
instruction. Note that in this diagram closed, making the current from the battery
operate the buzzer so as to produce ahigh-
pitched buzzing noise. As the key contacts Figure 83
Figure 82 are opened and closed to form the code
characters conforming to the letters which
STATION STATION
are being transmitted, the operator is able NO 4 NO 2
to listen to the buzzes and read the sig-
nals as they are sent.
At first, it is well to memorize the code
characters by repeatedly tapping them out
1 with the key.
When two radio beginners get together
to learn the code the job is somewhat
32 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figure 84—right; Figure 85—left.

In this way the effect of nearness of the This variable tone is an advantage for The rheostat is therefore inserted primar-
fellow who's doing the t:ansmitting is dis- two reasons. It permits the listener to ob- ily for the purpose of tone variation. The
pelled and you really have the feel of listen- tain a pitch that is pleasing to him and it plate return is made to the plus 4-volt
ing in on regular code reception. permis the use of almost any type of tap of the battery. This voltage is ade-
After this stunt has been tried, each of audio coupling transformer. Normally a quate for the plate supply and will pro-
the operators alternating at the key, a large transformer is likely to result in a vide a good loud signal in the head-
second key and buzzer may be added to the very low pitch whereas the small, cheaper phones.
circuit as shown in Figure 83. transformers provide a high pitch. With The pilot light is an almost essential
With such an arrangement you can ac- the circuit employed in the oscillator shown feature of a gadget of this type, because
tually transmit and receive messages as here a transformer which is normally un- without one it is the easiest matter in the
you would do if you were operating a suitable for this work will be found to world to forget to turn the oscillator off
regular radio transmitter and receiver. function very satisfactorily. when practice is finished with the result
The circuit and construction is so simple that battery mortality runs high. With the
A Vacuum Tube Oscillator that a detailed description is unnecessary. pilot light to act as a reminder to turn the
The illustrations make the construction of oscillator off when not in use, the single
The little code practice oscillator shown this particular model quite clear, although 4%-volt C battery should last from one
in Figures 84 and 83, has several features there is, of course, no necessity for follow- to three months, depending on the amount
that recommend it to the attention of the ing this particular layout. of use.
code student. First of all, the parts are The variable pitch is obtained by vary- This little oscillator is also excellent for
few, simple and standard and most of them ing the filament voltage and therefore the i.c.w. when used in conjunction with a
will probably be found in the proverbial emission of the type 30 tube. It will be transmitter operating on the 5-meter band.
"junk box." Second, the only battery used noted that the tube is connected in series The oscillator can be coupled direct to the
is a standard 4%-volt C battery. Third, with the rheostat and a pilot light. But grid of the first speech- amplifier tube by
the pitch or tone of the oscillator can be the full volts could be applied across simply connecting a . 1 mfd. condenser be-
continuously varied over a wide range by this circuit without seriously overloading tween the oscillator plate and the grid of
rotating the rheostat knob. the filaments even with a fresh battery. this speech amplifier tube.

LESSON TWENTY-SIX
History Of Television

T
HE first practical electrical picture- current was cut off until the wire again electrical resistance in accordance with the
transmitting system, strange as it may touched the unvarnished tinfoil. amount of light falling upon it. When the
seem to us, was actually set up and At the receivers, asimilar cylinder rotated Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electri•
transmitting recognizable facsimiles between in synchronism with that at the transmitter. cians met at Paris in 1881, Shelford Bid-
Brighton and London ( a distance of fifty The receiving cylinder, however, was well, another Englishman, read before it a
miles) before the middle of the nineteenth wrapped with paper soaked in a chemical paper on some " apparatus ... merely of an
century! This system, strikingly similar in solution. On this paper pressed another experimental nature." Bidwell's receiving
principle to those which flash news photo- steel wire connected to the line, staining apparatus was exactly like Bakewell's, ex-
graphs about the world today, was invented the paper under it blue whenever line cur- cept for a considerably smaller cylinder
by Frederick C. Bakewell, an English teach- rent was flowing. The blank tinfoil at the giving a picture about two inches square.
er of electricity, in 1847. "The copying transmitter was therefore reproduced as a
telegraph," wrote Bakewell, "transmits blue background at the receiver, on which Bidwell's Transmitter
copies of the handwriting of correspondents. appeared white lines corresponding exactly
. . . Every letter and mark made with the to the varnish lines on the tinfoil. The transmitter, however, as shown in
pen are transferred exactly to the other in- Keeping the two cylinders exactly in step Figure 87, was radically different. The
strument, however distant." was of course aproblem. Bakewell used the picture or scene to be transmitted was pro-
The invention, as shown in Figure 86, principle of the pendulum in some of his jected upon a ground-glass screen, behind
included two metal cylinders about six experiments, but he also devised an electro- which aselenium cell moved slowly up and
inches in diameter, one at the transmitter magnetic method, similar in principle to quickly down, gathering light through a
and the other at the receiver. The message those used in modern television, which pinhole from successive portions of the pic-
(or the picture) to be transmitted was made use of a separate wire to transmit ture in turn. For each upward motion, the
drawn on asheet of tinfoil with insulating synchronizing impulses simultaneously to selenium cell moved across the image 1/64
varnish, the tinfoil being wrapped on the both the transmitting and receiving cylin- of an inch, and on the receiving cylinder
transmitting cylinder. As the cylinder ro- ders. In fact, so complete and well de- a screw thread moved the platinum record-
tated, a steel wire bore against its surface signed was his apparatus that one can ing point across an equal traverse at each
and was moved along by ascrew. The sur- scarcely believe it was actually demonstrated revolution. Bidwell pointed out that " the
face of the cylinder was therefore "scanned" long before the outbreak of the Civil War. pictures to be transmitted are not mere arti-
by one continuous spiral line. When the The next forward step in television ( or ficial drawings upon tinfoil or some other
steel wire touched a part of the picture re- its slowed-down beginnings) had to wait substance, but the projected images of actual
presented by insulating varnish, the line on the discovery that selenium changed its objects. . . ." The system thus might be
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
33

-TRANSMITTER - -RECEIVER- -TRANSMITTER- -RECEIVER-

SCREW THREAD LINE LENS PROJECTING SCREEN ON WHICH PAPER SOAKED
STEEL
WIRE IMAGE -IMAGE IS PROJECTED IN ELECTROLYTE

METAL
CYLINDERS LINE

STEEL ;
WIRE I PLATINUM -
CYLINDER
TINFOIL SYNCHRONIZING
WIRE SCANNING PLATINUM
7- k PATH OF SELENIUM
CELL POINT
PINHOLE. -vi
BATTERIE PAPER SOAKED 64 LINES
IN ELECTROLYTE BATT. BATTERY
PER INCH

Figure 86—Bakewell's Facsimile System. Figure 87—Bidwell's " Still" Television.

termed " still television," as the subject Among other things, Nipkow proposed drawing by radio, using one metal plate at
would have to hold a given pose several stereoscopic television and the employment the spark transmitter, and at the receiver a
minutes before a picture could be formed of infra-red rays at the transmitter. Both second plate, covered with lampblack, on
at the receiver. of these ideas were put into practice in which the drawing was scratched by a co-
England a few years ago, the latter attain- herer relay.
The Nipkow System ing world-wide prominence as Baird's"noc- Not until after the World War did Nip-
tovision." No greater compliment can be kow's television principle bear actual fruit
Undoubtedly one of the greatest names paid the great pioneer Nipkow than this in the work of C. Francis Jenkins in Amer-
so far recorded in television history is that simple truth: the method of his invention ica and John L. Baird in England. Even so,
of Paul Nipkow, a German. In 1884 the still remains, nearly fifty years later, the at first the images were very crude; they
German Patent Office issued to him Deut- basic method of mechanical scanning, and appeared only as outlines, showing no de-
schesreichspatent No. 30105, setting forth all practically all of his various devices are tail. In April, 1925, Baird transmitted
the details of acomplete and workable tele- used in one or other of the systems of vision of this sort over the distance of afew
vision system. Figure 88 is based on one today. feet before the patrons of aLondon depart-
of his drawings. At the transmitter and re- Nevertheless, full practical exploitation ment store. The subject was aventriloquist's
ceiver are two disks, perforated with small of Nipkow's suggestions had to wait on doll. In most of Baird's laboratory work
holes along similar spiral curves, which three developments in other fields of a similar doll sat before the transmitter.
rotate in synchronism. The small holes, science. The selenium cell follows light Progress continued. One cloudy Saturday
sweeping by the picture along successive changes too slowly for efficient television in June, 1925, a distinguished group of
horizontal lines, vertically displaced, trace use. Something quite inertialess was Washingtonians, assembled in the Jenkins
each element of the picture in turn, or needed, and it appeared as the photo- laboratory on Connecticut Avenue, watched
"scan" it. This scanning disk was the electric cell of Elster and Geitel in 1890. the flickering image of a toy windmill
heart of Nipkow's system in 1884, and it Similarly, the weak picture currents at the which was seen to revolve. The windmill
was the heart of most television transmitters receiving end balked the early experi- itself was turning in Anacostia, five miles
and receivers until recently. menters. This difficulty was removed by away, and radio was bridging the visual
At the transmitter an image of the sub- De Forest's invention, in 1907, of the triode gap. During the following January, Baird
ject was focused directly on the disk. There amplifier. demonstrated an improved television system
followed acondensing lens which converged before members of the Royal Institution as-
the rays from this image on a selenium sembled in London. They saw recognizable
Later Progress
cell, the output of which was led over wires faces and were much impressed. Single
to the receiver. faces have been prominent in many tele-
In the meantime there occurred other vision experiments since that time, because
At the receiver an arc light passed events, removed from the main current of they reproduce satisfactorily where a larger
through a condensing lens and through a television progress but nevertheless notable
polarizer. Next the polarized light passed or more comprehensive scene would be
because they paved the way for modern de- hopelessly blurred.
through sulphureted carbon gas or some velopments. In 1891 Amstutz, an Ameri- In 1927 television in the grand manner
substance which would modulate the light can, sent the first half- tone picture over a
was demonstrated in New York by the Bell
in accordance with the magnetic field twenty-five mile line, using celluloid sheets Laboratories. This great research organiza-
changes caused by the changing "picture" etched in relief. In 1898 Szczepanik pro- tion quite naturally eclipsed the best efforts
currents in the coil. The modulated light posed color television, later staged as a of the two pioneers. The Bell screen was
then passed through the receiving disk practical demonstration. In 1902 Korn sent about two feet square; the faces and speech
which, in order to save light, was viewed the first photograph by wire, using at the came in twenty miles by radio and three
directly by the eye. This electric modulation transmitter a powerful Nernst lamp as the hundred by wire. The hundreds of able
of polarized light, proposed by Nipkow in source of a narrow beam of light, which men who planned and built the Bell equip-
1884 was applied ( as widely heralded Kerr was directed through successive elements of ment made vast improvements in existing
cell) to the theatre television projection of the " negative" to a compensated selenium technique, but they discovered no new
several years ago. cell. In 1909 Knudsen sent the first line principles.

LESSON TWENTY-SEVEN
Application Of The Kerr Cell

T
HE problem of transmitti ng t elev i
sion
how many instruments are used. This would lead us to the conclusion that
images successfully, can be resolved This is not the case with the reproduc- numerous transmitting systems are necessary
into several separate and dintinct prob- tion of images. An image, when in motion, for just one image.
lems. In the transmission of sound, we represents amyriad of points which vary in The solution is to divide the image into
have always been very fortunate in that a brilliance. In normal vision, an exact rep- small squares and to telegraph the brilli-
single fluctuating current and a single lica of this picture is projected on the retina ance of each little square in turn. The
vibrating diaphram can be made to repro- of the eye, and numerous light-sensitive squares must be "sent over" in a definite
duce sound of any complexity, no matter nerves carry the impression to the brain. order and put together again at the other
34 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

SUBJECT SELENIUM CELL ,

BATTERY

CONDENSING
LENS 'TO FOCUS LENS
IMAGE ON DISC
-TRAN SM ITTER-

COIL PRODUCING
MAGNETIC FIELD

o- 1
7'
EYE VIEWS
POLARIZER IMAGE DIRECTLY Figure 88, left, shows
ANALYZER ON DISC Nipkow's disk television beam of light, there is not only motion
SULPHURETED system; Figure 89, right, in the direction of projection, but a com-
CARBON GAS -RECEIVER - ponent of transverse motion.
illustrates the optical
system employed in the Passing light through acrystal of proper
scanning section of the construction, it is possible to divert the
televisor. transverse component in aray separate from
that moving forward as a plane. A Nicol
end, and this must be done so fast that The apparatus, which was built under the prism is a crystal device of special con-
the eye will receive the impression of a direction of Dr. E. F. W. Alexanderson, struction which completely isolates the
steady picture. was expected to be as effective in handling component of transverse motion from that
The light of each section in turn is made television signals having frequencies up to of forward motion, producing a beam of
to fall on a photocell, which translates it a million cycles as it proved to be with polarized light.
into an electric current of varying strength. light changes with a maximum rate of Crystal structure comprises a rigid ar-
At the receiving end, this electric current change of atwenty thousandth of asecond, rangement of electrons. Their orbits of
has to find a light source which is power- involved in 48- line television. motion are restricted to very definitely
ful enough and can follow the fast fluctua- A principle long known to science is ap- limited directions. The atoms of crystals
tions of light required in television. plied in this light valve. It is the dis- are arranged in perfectly orderly array so
covery of a Scotchman, John Kerr, whose that the entire crystal structure has the
The Neon Tube interest in physics was developed as astud- characteristics of a single crystal atom.
ent and protegé of William Thomson, the When a source of energy, such as a light
Heretofore the only practical method of beam, is projected through a crystal, only
great English physicist. Kerr observed that
converting television signals to light de- that component of energy coinciding with
the direction of polarization of a beam of
pended upon bringing ararified atmosphere the crystal structure is successfully pro-
polarized light can be altered by passing
of neon gas to luminosity by means of the jected through it.
it through an electrostatic field. Faraday
two-element neon tube, the invention of The sun, rising upon a city of tall
had previously observed a similar phenom-
Dr. D. McFarland Moore. The neon tube buildings, projects light through it only
enon in connection with intense magnetic
is amazingly rapid in its action and fully in the proportion that the light energy
fields and the pioneer, Nipkow, who
capable of handling picture signals repre- coincides with the direction of the streets.
evolved the working fundamentals still used
sentative of great detail. At the two-way Obviously slight alterations in the direc-
in present-day television systems, suggested
wire television demonstration conducted by tion of a ray of light projected through a
the use of that phenomenon for projecting
the Bell System in New York, using 72- street will make significant differences in
television. Kerr's electrostatic bending of
line scanning ( double the number of pic- the amount of light reaching the other end.
polarized light was embodied in apractical
ture elements of 48-line scanning), the re-
light control device by Dr. August Karolus
production was an optically enlarged view
of Leipsig, Germany. The General Electric Application of the Kerr Effect
of a reproduction about two inches square.
To produce this image, a somewhat larger Company obtained American rights to Dr.
Karolus' inventions, which Dr. Alexander. The light of the arc passed through the
neon tube than had been used heretofore Karolus projector is first formed into
son built into a practical television pro-
was developed, capable of handling 200 parallel rays by means of a lens system.
milliamperes. It was necessary to employ jector.
It then passes through aNicol prism, which
water cooling, so large was the energy dis- disposes of all of the transverse energy
sipated in heat. Yet this was still " peep
The Nature of Polarized Light
in the light ray, leaving only a plane
hole" television, limited to a single ob- It is difficult for the layman to under- polarized ray to be projected through the
server. Hence, when we consider the re- stand the difference between a beam of light valve. The polarized ray then passes
quirements of projection on the screen with polarized light and an ordinary ray. The through a transparent nitrobenzol solution
the neon tube, it rises to the impractical distinction is indeed subtle, but worth which forms the di-electric of a condenser.
proportions of apower device. understanding, because polarized light ex- The television signal is impressed on the
If aneon tube could be made to produce hibits properties of great prospective im- plates of the condenser, rotating the polar-
a maximum light as intense as the arc, it portance in television. A beam of polarized ized ray according to the intensity of the
would be asimple matter to project its ray light can be deflected by magnetic and elec- television signal which, in turn, corresponds
upon a screen through a scanning disc by trostatic fields in the same way that a to the light value being scanned at each
merely reversing the scanning process at the stream of electrons in a vacuum can be instant. This rotating is only a minute
transmitter. But such apowerful neon tube controlled. Small changes in the direction angle, but is sufficient to produce a sub-
has not appeared. of the beam of polarized light projected stantial effect upon the total light passing
through certain crystals produces great • beyond a second Nicol prism, to which it
The G. E. Light Valve
changes in their intensity. The angle of is then directed. Thus we obtain a power-
General Electric has developed a light maximum projection is determined by the ful ray of light varying in proportion tc
valve controlling a powerful illumination structure of the crystal. By rotating the the television signal.
source from a radio signal. Projection is crystal about the angle of maximum light The rest of the projection process is
accomplished by passing an intensely power- projection, that is, the axis of the crystal, easy to visualize. ( see Figure 89.) The in-
ful beam of a standard 175- ampere motion or by varying the direction of the beam tensely powerful ray is projected to the
picture arc through a high- frequency light itself in relation to that angle, the inten- screen through a scanning disc revolving
valve through a scanning disc to a trans- sity of the resulting light projected be- in synchrony with the transmitting disc.
lucent screen to the eyes of the observers. yond the crystal is readily controlled. It covers the entire surface of the screen
The operation of the light valve is analo- If we project a powerful light beam with sufficient rapidity so that the eye,
gous to that of the grid of the vacuum through a shutter with only a pinhole through its property of persistance of
tube by means of which a small incoming aperture, a tiny spot of light can be pro- visions, collates the separate impressions
impulse controls a relatively large space jected to a screen. The spot, however, is into a single picture. A new revised
current obtained from a local plate battery. not perfect. There is always slight diffu- scene is flashed on the screen in so short
The light valve, like the grid, has no ap- sion. The cut-off from black to white is an interval that motion is blended smooth-
parent inertia and can handle picture not as sharp as might be expected. Ap- ly, without the jumpy action of the early
signals of any conceivable frequency. parently, in the motion of an ordinary moving picture films.
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 35

LESSON TWENTY-EIGHT
Television With The Scanning Disk

S
CANNING is the process of dividing spiral 3 scanned the last third of the adjustments on the scanning rays.
the picture into a large number of surface, until the fifteenth hole swept across The side of the disc facing the reflect-
strips, which are to be transmitted as the very bottom limit. ing mirror was fitted with arevolving turret
a continuously varying light source. At At the receiving or reprcducing end the carrying four different lenses. The operator
the receiving end, asimilar device puts the process was the same, the scanning disc re- selected the best lens for the particular
picture together again. creating the image in the same manner subject being televised.
The Nipkow disk was one of the first that it was broken down. The photo- electric cells were about the
scanning devices. Figure 88 shows its ap- Since all three scannings took place in same size as ordinary receiving tubes, but
plication in the simplest form. The disk the total time of 1/15 of a second, they they were given a formidable appearance
is made of paper, bakelite or metal. In impressed the eye as a single composite by the highly polished reflectors in which
this particular application, lenses are ar- action. The eye's well-known characteristic they were mounted. The active sides of the
ranged so that an image falls on the disk of persistence of vision made this possible. cells did not face the subject, as most
and the light passing through the holes of people seem to think, but were turned in-
the disk can fall upon the photocell. The Transmitter ward and were placed at the exact foci
By close examination of the diagram, it of the reflectors. Thus the scanning rays
The successful operation of the Sanabria from the arc and the disc fell upon the
will be seen that the upper hole of the
system, as demonstrated on the stage, was subject, were reflected in varying degrees,
disk first passes over the picture and lets
the light from the top of the image reach due to the precision of the mechanical there was no radio transmission problem,
members, and also to the sensitivity and and the images were free of the phantom
the photocell, yet only one point at a
power, respectively, of the photo-electric snowstorms and other ghostly effects pro-
time. As soon as this hole has moved
beyond the limits of the picture, the second cells and the projector lamp. The arc duced by stray bits of radio interference.
light and disc mechanism of the transmitter A frequency band about 50 kilocycles
hole traces a second strip immediately be-
were set up on a massive cast-iron stand wide was covered by the transmission.
low the first strip. So the entire picture is
about four feet high. The base was fitted
"scanned" in one complete revolution of
with leveling and locking screws so that The Projector
the disk. The more holes in the disk, the
the whole unit would stay put in any de-
finer the lines and the greater the detail
sired position. The transmitting disc was The projector was a piece of machinery
that can be transmitted. It is seen that the
small, being only about sixteen inches in worth seeing. The disc was three and ahalf
disk soon becomes unwieldy, so that high
diameter. The rays of scanning light that feet in diameter, and was driven by a five.
definition is hard to obtain.
came through it were not thrown directly horsepower synchronous motor. It was
The process can also be reversed, instead
on the subject, but came reflected by a fully enclosed for the protection of every-
of placing the photocell back of the disk
45-degree mirror through a square opening one concerned. Instead of having mere
the light source is located there. The sub-
in a seven- foot-high frame holding eight holes, it was fitted with 45 lenses, each
ject is then shut off from the light except
photo-electric cells. TIrs arrangement two inches in diameter. Directly behind
for the beams passing through the holes,
was very convenient for the operator, as the disc was aTaylor projector lamp. The
which illuminate the subject point by point.
it allowed him to see the subject at all exact construction of this lamp was some-
The photocells are thus focussed directly
times and to make any ne.:essary focusing thing of a secret, but it was known to
on the image.
Such a system was used by Sanabria in Figure 90—The scanning disk.
a theatre in New York City in October,
1931. He was able to throw the pictures
on the motion picture screen, but the
brilliance of the image was low.
The Sanabria system was unique in its
method of scanning. The disc had only 45
holes, but these were arranged in three
spirals of 15 each, each spiral covering 120
degrees of the disc, as shown in Figure 90.
The first hole of spiral 1 swept across the
very top of the subject, and the fifteenth
swept across the bottom, not the very
bottom, but a distance above it equal
to the height of two holes. The con-
centric scanning sweeps did not overlap
exactly, as in ordinary disc scanning, but
were separated a distance again equal to
the height of two scanning holes. Thus
one-third of the entire surface of the sub-
ject was scanned in one-third of a revolu-
tion of the disc, which rotated at 900
r.p.m. This was really an early example of
"interlaced" scanning.

Scanning System

As the disc continued to rotate, the first

hole of spiral 2 traveled across the sub-
ject, starting directly under the arc traversed
by the first hole of spiral 1. The second
hole of spiral 2 started just under the
second hole of spiral 1, and so on down the
surface of the subject until the fifteenth
hole of spiral 2 had passed under the path
cut by the fifteenth hole of spiral 1. Two-
thirds of the subject's area had now been
covered.
The first hole of spiral 3 then scanned
the remaining space left blank between the
first and second holes of spiral 1. Pro-
gressively down the subject the holes of
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

CATHODE ANODE SCREEN.,

wimuniiiiniti .
Himuloninn.
11111:iqI
FILAMENT

ELECTRON 111'1110)f +

Figure 91, left, shows the Campbell-Swinton cathode-ray receiver.

Figure 92, right, shows the earliest type of cathode-ray tube.

contain a mixture of helium and carbon scanner, and several arrangements involv- one at the receiving station) synchronously
dioxied and drew an energizing current of ing rotating mirrors and lenses. deflected by the varying fields of two elec-
one ampere at 100 volts from the audio With the limitations of Nipkow's disk tromagnets placed at right angles to one
amplifier. and other mechanical scanning methods ever another and energised by two alternating
The whole projector unit stood about more apparent, it was not strange that some- currents of widely different frequencies so
six feet high and was raised on a wooden one should have thought of using, in pref- that the moving extremities of the two
image on the back of a translucent glass erence to mechanically directed light rays, beams are caused to sweep synchronously
platform so that it projected an even the inertialess electron beam of a Braun over the whole of the required surfaces
screen ten feet square. The distance be- cathode-ray oscillograph tube. Here again within the one- tenth of a second necessary
tween projector and screen was about the idea roots in the past. It was familiar to take advantage of visual persistence. In-
eighteen feet. The projector was not visible to the Germans Lux and Dieckmann in deed, so far as the receiving apparatus is
to the audience, although the flickering 1906, and came to the attention of the concerned, the moving cathode beam has
light of the lamp could be discerned English-speaking world in 1908 through a only to be impinged on a sufficiently sen-
faintly through the screen. letter to Nature. In June of that year Mr. sitive fluorescent screen, and given suitable
Besides using a disk, other workers in Campbell- Swinton wrote: " ... may Ipoint variations in its intensity, to obtain the de-
television have used mechanical systems out that . . . this part of the problem of sired result." ( See Figure 91). Cathode-ray
which would make a concentrated beam distant electric vision can probably be receivers, now widely hailed as the last
of light pass over the picture in hori- solved by the employment of two beams of word in television, are thus in principle
zontal lines. Such devices were the drum cathode rays ( one at the transmitting and over twenty years old.

LESSON TWENTY-NINE
Cathode Ray Tubes

C
ATHODE-ray tubes are essentially by a small hole. Some of the electrons, would be blurred. And in addition, gas
devices indicating by means of the now moving with high velocity, would would cause the screen material to be-
movement of a spot of light on a pass through this hole and impinge upon come "burnt" or darkened if a high in-
screen, the value of a voltage or current the glass wall ( screen) of the tube, where tensity spot were kept too long in one
applied to the proper terminals. Unlike a fluorescent light was produced. It was place.
the usual meter, the only moving part is found that the electrons moved in straight
a beam of electrons, which has such little lines unless deflected by a magnetic or The Rogowski Tube
inertia that there is practically no time electric field.
lag between application of a voltage and Rogowski of Germany was the next
Until recently, in almost all cathode-
the movement of the spot of light. The to improve the tube. He added a second
ray tubes the electron beam was focused
power consumed in moving the beam is anode; a truncated cone the apex of which
to a spot on the screen by introducing a
practically negligible. pointed toward the cathode. For the first
small amount of an inert gas into the
The cathode-ray tube may also be used tube. Heavy positive ions would be time the beam could be focused electro-
as an ammeter by causing the unknown formed and collect along the beam, neu- statically in a high vacuum. The voltages
current to flow through coils, and apply- tralizing the space charge of the electrons on the two anodes had to be in a definite
ing the resulting magnetic field to the and condensing the beam into a thin line. ratio, which suggested the probability of
cathode-ray tube; the power required to This method had many objections. To a general theory of optics for electrons,
move the spot of light will then be of focus the spot, the gas pressure had to be paralleling light optics.
about the same value as that required by regulated by varying the cathode tempera- After much research work had been
the ordinary ammeter, but unlike the ordi- ture; and as the tube became older carried on, charts were made from which
nary instrument, a change in the flow of some of the gas would become absorbed one may determine the voltages and
current will be indicated instanteously by so that the cathode temperature had to spacing for lenses of any desired focal
the movement of the spot. be raised to dangerous limits, shorten- length.
These characteristic features have made ing its life. Positive ion bombardment
cathode-ray tubes exceedingly useful for of the cathode also cut short its life.
many purposes, and now that relatively Static Focusing
inexpensive tubes which give very good When deflecting plates were inserted
performance are commercially available, in the tube, to which a voltage could be All good camera objectives as well as
the use of this instrument by all persons connected so that the electron beam would microscope and projection lenses consist
interested in electrical measurements is be sent in proportion to the voltage, the of a series of lenses of different shapes
increasing rapidly. ionized gas would cause leakage currents and different kinds of glass, the combina-
to flow between the plates so that the tion resulting effectively in a simple lens
instrument could not be used as a very of one focal strength with most of the
Early Types high resistance voltmeter. Also, the gas errors of the corresponding single lens
caused non- linearity, that is, the deflec- corrected. The same is true in the design
The electrode structure of the first tion was not proportional to the applied of electron lenses. A four- lens combina-
cathode-ray tubes was similar to that il- voltage. If high frequencies were ap- tion was the result of much work along
lustrated in Figure 92. In these tubes, plied, the heavy positive ions along the this line and proved, from the viewpoint
the electrons were attracted from the beam could not move rapidly enough to of simplicity as regards mathematical cal-
cathode to the anode, which was pierced keep the beam focused, and the spot culation and focusing potentials to be
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
37

Figure 93, at left, the inside parts of a cathode-ray tube. Figure 94, right, power- pack circuits.

the most effective. This arrangement, in- which is coated over the inside of the dfferent sizes, with screen diameters of
corporated in atube, is shown in Figure 93. glass.
The electrons fall upon a fluorescent 3 inches, 5 inches, and 9 inches. Special
Cathode-ray tubes of this type have been
screen and cause a greenish or bluish available for some time and are used for television tubes are made at the present
light. This screen is a coating of "wille- observing wave patterns of alternating time, some having a screen diameter of
mite" or some other luminescent material voltages or currents. They are made in 12 inches.

LESSON THIRTY
The Sweep Circuit And Power Supply
IITIIHE cathode-ray tube requires a special supply need not be built or much power, of the cathode-ray tube. A controllable
power pack to deliver the necessary and a small filter will be sufficient. constant current is sent through the con-
voltages to its elements. Certain In studying wave forms of periodic denser, charging it so that the voltage is
power pack assemblies are particularly voltages or currents, the wave form stud- proportional to the time; the plate current
recommended, such as the half wave rec- ied is connected so as to move the spot of screen grid or pentode tubes is quite
tifier and the voltage doubler types, illus- of light vertically, while some additional constant over a wide voltage range and
trated in Figure 94. The former is simple means should be provided for moving it may be used for this purpose. A thyra-
and effective, and the latter is better for across the screen horizontally at a constant tron, which is nothing but a hot-cathode,
obtaining high voltages without using rate of speed. If this is done, the wave mercury-vapor rectifier with a control grid,
special transformers and condensers. Volt- form of the voltage or current as a func- is connected across the condenser, and
age doublers have the drawback that two tion of time will be obtained; but if the when the voltage reaches a certain value,
rectifier tubes must be used with a sep- horizontal movement is not at a constant the thyratron discharges the condenser
arate filament winding for each tube. The speed, the wave form will be distorted; almost instantly, allowing the cycle to
current drawn from the power supply is for example, the peaks of a sine wave repeat itself. The voltage at which the
so small that little filtering is required. might be too close together on one end thyratron discharges is controlled by the
of the screen and too far apart on the grid bias of the thyratron. Such a circuit
Operating Cathode-Ray Tubes other. Also, in order to have the wave is shown in Figure 95.
pattern stand still on the screen, it is This circuit is really a sort of oscillator,
In operating these cathode-ray tubes, necessary to have the horizontal move- in which the voltage across the condenser
the maximum voltage recommended may ment snap back to the start always at las a "saw-tooth" wave form as shown
be as high as 2,000 volts or more, to be the same part of a cycle of the wave in Figure 96. The amplitude of the
applied between cathode and anode. A form. voltage can be controlled by the thyratron
lower voltage, as specified by the manu- grid bias, since a negative bias will not
facturers, should be applied between the The "Sweep" Circuit permit the condenser to discharge until a
cathode and the focusing electrode, and high voltage is reached. Increasing the
this should be variable in order to obtain Such a " linear time axis" can be pro- amplitude in this way will also decrease
exact focusing. Since some purposes re- vided by means of a "sweep" circuit in the frequency, since the condenser will
quire great brilliance but not much volt- which the voltage across a condenser is take more time to accumulate enough
age sensitivity, and other purposes de- applied to the horizontal deflecting plates Noltage to discharge through the thyratron.
mand much sensitivity but not much bril-
liance, it should be possible to change
the anode voltage and focusing voltage
simultaneously over a sufficient range to
meet both purposes. Also, in a power
supply for the tube, there should be pro-
vision for supplying the heater current. Figure 95, at right,
shows a highly ef-
Since the current drawn by the anode
and focusing electrode is a fraction of a fective sweep circuit.
milliampere, the components of the power Figure 96 at left,
the " saw-tooth" wave
form of the sweep.

TIM(
38 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

curve produced is seen on the screen.

The tube V2 is apentode, such as a - 57
or - 58, for which the plate current is al-
most constant regardless of plate voltage.
This constant current flows through con-
denser C, charging it so that its voltage
is proportional to time. This voltage is
then impressed on plates P3- P4, where
the time deflection is produced.
When condenser C reaches a certain
voltage, the Thyratron V1 ionizes and
discharges the condenser instandy. The
condenser can then charge again and re-
peat the cycle of sweeping out the time
axis. The voltage at which the Thyratron
discharges is controlled by its grid bias.
The transformer T is also in series with
the grid bias, and delivers voltage corre-
sponding to the voltage being observed.
This causes the Thyratron to discharge
the condenser when the voltage observed
is at its peak value, so that the discharge
always occurs at the same part of the
cycle of the observed voltage, and the
image seen is apparently asolid, stationary
curve.
Figure 98 illustrates a complete cir-
cuit for the power supply and a sweep
Figure 97—An elementary cathode-ray circuit. circuit.
Great caution is necessary with the high-
The frequency can be controlled inde- form to the transformer primary. Such voltage circuits. It should be made im-
pendently, though, by changing the con- a circuit is shown in elementary form, in possible to come in contact with the high
stant current or the capacity of the con- Figure 97. voltage, which is dangerous to life. This
denser. A smaller condenser will charge is especially important in regard to con-
faster and increase the frequency; a larger How It Works nections coming directly from the high-
current will charge the condenser faster voltage transformer. The positive high
and increase the frequency. For best re- The electron gun structure in the cath- voltage terminal should be grounded as
sults, all three controls should be used ode-ray tube shoots a narrow beam of elec- shown, and if this is done the connections
in the " linear time axis" or "sweep cir- trons from the anode to the fluorescent to the deflecting plates will be near ground
cuit." A transformer with the secondary screen. On passing through plates Pi- P2 potential and can be touched without re-
in series with the thyratron grid should it is deflected vertically according to the ceiving the high voltage. The heater and
be used to permit synchronizing the saw- voltage being observed. On passing through cathode connections will be at high voltage
tooth frequency with the wave form being plates P3- P4 it is deflected horizontally with respect to ground and should not be
observed, by connecting the observed wave in proportion to the time. The wave- form touched with the high voltage on.

LESSON THIRTY-ONE
Application Of Cathode-Ray Tubes To Television

C ATHODE-ray tube reception of tele-

vision pictures will become impor-
tant in the future, because they can
spot vertically about 20 times a second.
The combination of the two linear deflec-
tions causes the spot to trace out scanning
sidered here. In reception, use of cathode-
ray tubes has eliminated many difficulties,
but there are still four main difficulties
be made suitable for pictures of any num- patterns of about 120 lines. The pattern found in television reception but not in
ber of lines and degree of definition, up will be repeated 20 times a second, which sound reception. The first is that of ob-
up to 400 lines at least. It is difficult to will not give much flicker. Figure 98 taining high picture frequency amplifica-
make mechanical scanners to handle such shows a diagram of a power supply with tion without loss of details. ( The term
high scanning speeds, but there are no a double sweep circuit. "picture frequency" is used here in the
moving parts in the cathode-ray tube and The general light intensity level of same way that " audio frequency" is used
no limit as to its scanning speed. The the picture can be regulated by varying in speaking of sound reception.) By us-
degree of detail in pictures that can be the grid bias voltage with potentiometer ing low gain per stage and many stages,
obtained, depends upon the size of the P5 of Figure 98. This should have an it is possible to make picture frequency
spot of light produced on the screen as insulating shaft, and it and other apparatus amplifiers of high gain that will handle
compared to the size of the screen. Apart connected to the grid should not be the details of pictures at any number of
from this, picture detail in cathode-ray touched, because such points are at high lines likely to be used.
television is limited more by the apparatus d.c. potential with respect to ground. The A second difficulty is that of making a
associated with the tube than by the tube degree of contrast in the picture can then detector circuit which will detect the high
itself. be regulated by varying the volume con- frequency modulation components as well
Confining ourselves to the receiver, the trol of the amplifier. If the largest pos- as the low frequency ones. The radio-
alternating voltages of the received signal sible output is small, the light intensity frequency carrier is modulated by frequen-
are applied to the modulating grid of will have to be reduced by potentiometer cies of over 200 kilocycles in the case of
the cathode-ray tube, while the spot is P5 to obtain good contrast. In any case, a 120 line picture. In order not to dis-
made to travel across the screen by volt- the average light intensity should not be criminate against the higher modulation
ages applied to the deflecting plates. made over half the maximum possible frequencies, all coupling resistors in the
The power supply and sweep circuit value, so that it can increase when a posi- detector, which couple the picture fre-
can be similar to that shown in Figures tive voltage is applied to the grid from quency to any circuit in any way, must
94 and 97. Instead of one sweep circuit, the television signal. be small compared to the impedances of
however, two must be used, one for de- In television by radio, certain problems the capacitances by-passing them. Simple
flecting the spot of light horizontally are met that do not enter into trans- grid leak and condenser detection is im-
across the screen about 2400 times a mission by wire. At the transmitter there possible because of the large by-pass con-
second, and the other for deflecting the are many difficulties that will not be con- denser across the grid leak, which acts as
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 39

Figure 98—" Sweep" circuit end power supply.

a sort of coupling resistor. Plate detectors, Scanning Synchronization fae combination in series with the trans-
duo-diode detectors, and simple rectifier fDrmer primary to which locking voltage
detectors are satisfactory if the coupling The fourth problem, and one which is is applied, if this is an ordinary audio
resistors for the picture frequency and particularly important in cathode-ray tube transformer. This synchronizing system
the capacitance across them are kept small, reception, is that of scanning synchroniza- is simple, but is suitable only where send-
for instance 30,000 ohms and 20 mmfd. tion at the receiver and transmitter. Where ing and receiving equipment are served
For example, Figure 99 shows a suitable the receiver and transmitter are operated by the same power system and even then
plate detector circuit and its coupling to on the same a.c. power system, it is pos- requires much manipulation and frequent
the following amplifier. sible to use two sweep circuits, one for readjustment if reception is mainly through
In detectors for sound reception, simple vertical scanning and one for horizontal reflection from the Heavyside layer.
filters are often used to prevent radio- scanning, and synchronize both circuits by A better method of synchronizing is to
frequency detector output from being fed "locking" the frequencies in step with a obtain synchronizing frequencies from the
into the audio amplifier. These must be multiple or sub- multiple of the power received signal itself. There are several
made very small or omitted entirely for line frequency. For example, if the number methods of doing this, but some of them
television reception, because they by-pass of pictures per second is 20, the number require receiving apparatus made only for
too much of the higher picture frequencies. of lines 60, and the power line frequency special types of transmission and will not
A third difficulty is that of making a 60 cycles, one sweep can be locked at one be discussed here. The system shown in
high-gain radio-frequency amplifier that third of the 60 cycle frequency, and the Figures 98 and 100, is not as good as
does not cut off the higher side-band other at twenty times this frequency. If some of these special methods, but works
frequencies. To preserve the details of a the a.c. locking voltage is fed into the quite well on any television signal. Prac-
120 line picture the radio-frequency am- grid of the gas- filled discharge- tube or tically all television pictures are sent with
plifier must pass a band width of about "thyratron" in the sweep circuit simply "frame lines," black borders on the edges
450 kilocycles. The simplest way to ob- through a transformer, locking will be of the picture. These lines give strong
tain such broad tuning is to use ordinary successful but the picture obtained may
tuned, coupled circuits with resistance in appear in the wrong position on the
series or parallel to broaden the tuning. screen. This may be coriected by shifting
Unfortunately, this reduces the amplifi- the phase of the a.c. locking voltage,
cation per stage greatly. The solution to which is easily done by shunting a con-
this problem probably lies in the use of denser of about .05 mfd. with a 250,000
some sort of band pass filter circuits. ohm variable resistance, and connecting
Figure 99—right; Figure 100—below.
40 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figure 10I—A television receiver circuit.

frequency components in the resulting sig- quencies and used for locking the two gram form in Figure 100, and the com-
nal, of 20 and 1200 cycles in the case of sweep circuits at 20 and 1200 cycles. The plete circuit in Figure 98. This circuit is
a 20 frame, 60 line picture. By means phase of the locking voltage can be ad- intended to show the principles discussed
of filter circuits, these frequencies can be justed to give correct framing. and is not to be interpreted as a "how
picked out of the combined picture fre- Such a system, is shown in block dia- to build" diagram.

LESSON THIRTY-TWO
Principles Of Television Receiver Design

S
INCE many are not familiar with the the radio-frequency tuning must be much parts of the picture, but if it does the oppo-
radio receiver proper as used in tele- broader, the " audio" frequency amplifier site, the phase of the cathode-ray tube
vision either for cathode-ray tube re- must have a much flatter frequency re- grid voltage at the receiver must be re-
ception or mechanical scanning methods, it sponse curve, and the detector must have versed or a negative picture will result.
was thought desirable to add a lesson on much better output for high modulation This reversal is best accomplished by
that subject. frequencies than in the case of a broadcast adding an extra resistance-coupled audio
An ordinary broadcast receiver has three receiver. stage with little or no amplification; for
main functions. One is to convert modu- instance, a - 56 or a - 57 tube with a 1000-
lated radio-frequency current into direct A Typical Circuit ohm coupling resistor.
current, varying in accordance with the The circuit diagram of Figure 101 shows Any type of detector can be used, but
sound picked up by the microphone at a receiver that fulfills these conditions. resistors across which audio-frequency
the transmitting station; this is the process This circuit does not differ at first glance voltage is to be developed must not be
of detection. The second is to provide from that of a tuned r.f. broadcast re- by-passed seriously by any capacitance, or
enough amplification so that the small if they are, the resistance must be re-
ceiver using a resistance-coupled audio
amount of energy picked up by the aerial duced accordingly. The product of resist-
amplifier. The difference lies in the choice
can operate a loudspeaker. The third is to of values for the circuit elements. In the ance in ohms and capacitance in mfds.
provide radio- frequency selectivity such should be kept under one-half. For grid
audio amplifier, for example, the coupling
that the desired signal can be separated resistances are much smaller than usual, leak and condenser detection, the grid
from others. The loudspeaker then serves leak must be so small that this method
to reduce the relative effect of the stray
a fourth function of converting electrical is not very practical. Plate detection may
capacities by-passing the coupling re-
energy into a reproduction of the original sistors. This makes the frequency response be used, with plate circuit resistance values
sound. similar to those used in the audio am-
flat to very high modulation frequencies,
This is not much different from the at the cost of reduced gain per tube. The plifier. Diode or duo- diode detection is
process in television reception. There the audio amplifier shown uses two type - 57 also good, if the condenser by-passing the
loudspeaker is replaced by apparatus which tubes for voltage amplification and a 2A5 diode load resistor is under 20 mmfd. and
converts electrical variations into light power tube. the resistor about 25,000 ohms. Inciden-
variations, together with scanning appara- The 2A5 power tube is used, not be- tally, if grid leak or duo- diode- triode, etc.,
tus which makes a point of light trace out cause of the power delivered, but because detection is used instead of plate detection,
a whole picture. For cathode-ray tube re- the small load resistance required reduces the phase of the " audio" voltage is re-
ception, this apparatus was described in the by-passing effect of the stray capacity versed. Plate detection was chosen for the
previous lessons. of the lead to the cathode-ray tube grid, diagram given, because it is simple and
which may therefore be moderately long. reliable. No radio-frequency filters are used
Functions of the Receiver This lead should not run through a cable, in the detector output, because they by-
but as much in the open as possible, and pass the higher modulation frequencies too
The television receiver proper has the should not be over five feet long. If the badly.
same functions as a broadcast receiver: cathode-ray tube is to be used far from
namely, detection, amplification, and fre- the receiver, it would be better to use a The R. F. Amplifier
quency selection. The difference between 2A3 instead of a 2A5, and use a load
the two classes of receivers lies in the resistance in its plate circuit of 2500 The most striking difference between a
fact that a broadcast receiver must cover ohms instead of 7000 ohms. television receiver and a sound receiver
a range of modulation frequencies from With three audio stages and a plate lies in the radio- frequency amplifier. Mod-
20 to 5000 cycles, and separate stations detector, an increase in radio- frequency ulation frequencies up to 100,000 cycles
10 kc. apart in frequency; but a television input will cause the ungrounded output must be passed, requiring a radio- fre-
receiver must cover a range of modulation terminal to become more positive. If this quency bandwidth of 200 kc. for good 60-
frequencies from a fraction of a cycle to terminal is used to apply voltage to the line pictures.
100,000 cycles or so, and separate stations modulating grid of a cathode-ray tube, a For the modern 441 line pictures, aband
over 200 kc. apart in frequency, for good positive picture will result for most tele- width of 2 megacycles is required. In the
60-line pictures. vision signals. The transmitting station diagram of Figure 101 such a wide band
This means that in television receivers generally increases its output on the bright is obtained by means of tuned, coupled
 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION
41

m L1
/
2
* Mt
i4V—F0-
L
L1
/
2
RI R C C , M • . 701 Mt
M NriF
-R• 2.12 411
---M•Mg

-M. 4.225 Mt
---R• 1.225 Rç
M• 2.121 Mt •

-- R • . 707 R1 e
ee
ri
«g
ee i.., . I•1 içi1,11
F
Figure 102 -7 -4 -5 - 4-3-2-1042345
FREQUENCY OFT RE50 ,JANCE
6" 7

(c.p.e. X 137 CR)

circuits which act much like band-pass Figure 104

filters.
The theory of the effects obtained from )11111 111.11
-6 - 5 - 4 -3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 • % 6 the tuning condenser in use ( assuming 10
coupled circuits is as follows: When two FREQUENCY OFF RESONANCE
(c.p.• X 814CRI) . mmfd. stray capacity). Make the coup-
tuned circuits without resistance are coupled ling coefficient . 191, and M . 031 millihenry.
together as the coupling agent between Figure 103 R should be 6000 ohms. The gain per
two tubes, the voltage delivered is not a stage will be about 14 times.
maximum at resonance, but instead the For the intermediate frequency amplifier
resonance curve shows two large peaks, that is, if the tuned coupled circuits are
designed for band-pass operation at one of asuperheterodyne operating at 6000 kc.,
occurring at frequencies on each side of
carrier frequency, the resonance curve will use 20 mmfd. adjustable condensers for
the resonant frequency, separated from the permanent tuning. Make L . 035 milli-
it by a frequency proportional to the de- not be very good when a different carrier
frequency is to be tuned in. It would there- henry, the coupling coefficient . 094, and
gree of coupling and to the resonant fre-
quency. fore be advisable to use a superheterodyne M . 0032 millihenry. R should be 10,000
instead of a t.r.f. receiver, because the ohms and the gain per stage about 17
Figure 102 illustrates such a case. That times.
is to say, the ratio of frequency separation band-pass action could then be confined
between the two peaks to the average fre- chiefly to the intermediate-frequency am-
quency is proportional to the coupling co- plifier, which could be adjusted carefully Dynatron Test Oscillator
efficient. The separation will in a way for best results and left alone. The super-
heterodyne also has the advantage that A good way of measuring the values of
determine the band width obtained; the
with a coil-switching arrangement it could L and M, so that they may be adjusted by
ratio above is small for a broadcast re-
be made suitable for either the 1500 to the cut-and- try method, is to use a dyna-
ceiver and the coupling is loose, but it is
3000 kc. television signals or the experi- tron oscillator, a calibrated broadcast re-
larger for television work and rather tight
coupling is used. mental transmissions sent on something ceiver, and an accurately known capaci-
like 60,000 kc. However, those readers tance. The dynatron oscillator circuit is
It is clear, of course, that such a sharp, who are sufficiently familiar with receiver given in Figure 105. The potentiometer P
double-peaked resonance curve would be construction to make a successful superhe- is adjusted for maximum oscillation. The
totally unsuited for band-pass action, which terodyne will probably be able to apply capacitance C can be a 150 or 250 mfd.
in the ideal case would give constant out- the principles involved in the t.r.f. receiver variable or fixed condenser for which the
put over a 400 kc. range and zero at all to the superheterodyne. capacity is fairly accurately known. The
other frequencies. ( When a 400 kc. band
No new problem is involved, except frequency determined by Lx and C can
width is used in a receiver, it should give that the oscillator and first detector should be found by turning the dial of the broad-
good pictures of 60 lines.) However, when be suitable for use where the carrier fre- cast receiver, with the dynatron in its
resistance is added to the circuit—for ex- quency and oscillator frequency are widely vicinity and the aerial disconnected. A
ample, by the shunt resistors R in the separated. A pentagrid converter ( 2A7, hum will be heard at one or more points
diagram—the resonance curve is changed. for example) would be quite satisfactory. on the dial, unless the coil Lx is too small
The peaks are greatly reduced in size, but A good choice of intermediate frequency to give an oscillation frequency below 1500
the response at the resonant frequency is would be 6000 kc. For the signals between kc. The frequencies at which the hum
not much reduced, so that the resonance 1500 and 3000 kc., the oscillator frequency is heard will be the fundamental frequency
curve can be made such as to give an al- could be 7500 to 9000 kc. and for the or that frequency multiplied by an inte-
most constant output over the desired fre- signals around 60,000 kc. the oscillator gral number. Note all frequencies at which
quency range. The value of shunt resistance frequency can be about 54,000 kc. the hum is heard; the average frequency
that will accomplish this becomes smaller separation between them will be the fun-
as the desired frequency range and the damental frequency, or if only one point
coupling are made larger. It also becomes The Circuit Constants occurs, it should be the fundamental, ex-
smaller as the tuning capacity is made cept where between 1100 and 1000 kc.,
larger.- Since the amplification will depend Suitable values of the circuit constants
for a carrier frequency of 2800 kc., with in which case it may be a second har-
largely on the size of this resistance, much monic. For example, 375 kc. oscillations
more amplification can be obtained if the the t.r.f. receiver shown in Figure 101,
are as follows: All tuning condensers would be heard at 750, 1125 and 1500 kc.,
tuning capacity is kept small and the and 800 kc. oscillations would be heard
shunt resistor made correspondingly large. are to be of 100 mmfd. capacity, ganged,
It can be seen that the gain per stage with small trimmers. The inductances L
must be reduced as the modulation-fre- should tune to 2800 kc. with about 10 Figure 105
quency range is made greater, which was mmfd. of the condenser capacity in use.
also the case for the audio amplifier. Assuming 10 mmfd. of s:ray capacity or
Figure 103 shows the effect of varying a total of 20 mmfd., L should be . 16
the shunt resistance on the shape of the millihenry. The coupling coefficient should
resonance curve; Figure 104 shows the be . 143, and M . 023 millihenry. R should
effect of changing the coupling. be 10,000 ohms. Amplification per stage
will be about 24 times. The band width
should be 400 kc. The circuit will tune
Good Receiver Design to about 1500 kc. minimum, but the reso-
nance curve will be rather badly peaked
The tuned radio-frequency receiver on the lower carrier frequencies.
shown was selected for this lesson because To cover the same range of carrier fre-
it is simple and yet illustrates the essen- quencies, but with best operation on 2100
tial points in good television receiver de- kc., make L . 16 millihenry as before, to
sign. It suffers from one notable defect; tune to 2100 kc. with about 26 mfd. of
42 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

only at 800 kc. on the usual broadcast re- by the following formulas: Antenna Coupling System
ceiver. The value of Lx in millihenries is ( 1 1 )
25,300,000
given by One other matter worth mentioning is
L= — —

(
4C f
22 f
12 the antenna coupling system. The method
25,300,000 ) shown in Figure 101 allows ganging of all
tuning condensers without having too much
faxc 25,300,000 detuning effect from the aerial, and the
where fis the frequency in kc. and C the shunt resistance ( 2R) can be made accu-
4C f
i2 rately twice the value of that used on
capacity in micromicrofarads.
To measure L, M and the coupling co- the double tuned circuits, which will give
efficient k most easily, connect the two proper results. Since damping is intro-
k fl — f2
coils of the r.f. or i.f, transformer in series, =2 approximately. duced artificially by the shunt resistance,
first in opposition and then so as to aid fl+f2 the same damping effect and more output
each other, using the combination as Lx could be obtained by using more antenna
in the dynatron oscillator. Lx will then The formula for the coefficient of coupling coupling and omitting the resistor. This
be first 2(L—M) and then 2(L-1-M). does not require knowledge of the con- is not recommended, because the damping
Measure the frequencies obtained; call denser capacity. The inductance values and tuning will change whenever the
them f, and f 2.Then the values of L, M above are in millihenries when C is in aerial used is changed, and ganged tuning
and the coupling coefficient kwill be given mmfd. and frequency kilocycles. will not be possible.

LESSON THIRTY-THREE
Present-Day Television In The U. S.
cially acceptable. There was abit of inter- ond set of scanning lines falls between
rrIRANSMISSION of television signals
ference, but at no time did it materially the first scanning lines. This arrangement
in the United States is now exclusively
mar the program. In all, the forty-minute reduces flicker.
on the ultra-short waves, the 3000-2800
kc. band is now being used for other pur- program was satisfactory enough for com-
poses. Also, the number of lines used in mercial home reception!
A long line of television receivers
THE FARNSWORTH SYSTEM
scanning now varies from 300 to 441 while
some are employing interlaced scanning. were installed on the sixty-second floor The Farnsworth transmitting and re-
of the RCA Building for the press de- ceiving systems depend entirely on the
monstration. The programs, originating in cathode-ray method. Two types of tubes
THE RCA SYSTEM the television studios in the NBC section of most in use at the Philadelphia Laboratories
the structure, were conveyed by coaxial include a 15-inch diameter tube, yielding
A series of RCA television demonstra- cable to the transmitter atop the Empire
tions have already been given to various a 10 by 12 picture, and a 9-inch tube
State Building—about three-quarters of a with a 6 by 7 image. Electro- magnetic
branches of the industry. They revealed mile away—and received through the air. focussing is employed exclusively, with the
several important features. A press show- Definition of 343 lines was used in the
ing was the first under practical working coils outside the tube.
test. This, however, has since been
conditions. It included acomplete program stepped up to 441 lines. Image size of 12 by 14 is considered
built for entertainment value as well as a The programs are transmitted to the ideal for home reception, but the Farns-
demonstration of transmission. It also fea- Empire State tower either by cable or by worth technicians declare that, for home
tured the initial exhibition of a new 12- ultra- short-waves on a frequency of 177 use, a small type high intensity, cathode-
inch cathode-ray tube yielding a 7A 1 by megacycles. The " band- width" employed in ray tube must be used in conjunction with
10- inch screen—claimed by RCA to be this transmission is 3 mc. optical projection. This method, has already
the largest yet employed which is capable The signals are then retransmitted by the been completed. The new Farnsworth
of commercializing. equipment ( shown in Figure 106) in the transmitter also uses over 400-line scan-
The program embraced a balanced as- Empire State tower. The frequency for ning.
sortment of live and filmed subjects. One the picture signal is 49.75 mc. and for Figure 108 gives the basic schematic
highlight was a tour of the television stu- the sound 52 mc. outline of the Farnsworth television trans-
dios and the Empire State Building trans- Interlaced scanning is being used, em- mitter and receiver circuits, virtually iden-
mitter by the transmission of a film espe- ploying a picture frequency of 30 per tical to the apparatus employed at the
cially made for the occasion. Lenox R. second and a " frame- frequency" of 60 per Philadelphia press demonstrations. The
Rohr, president of NBC, and Mr. Sarnoff second. This means that the scanning is pick-up of the transmitter, designated on
were also seen and heard over the sight- arranged so that the vertical scanning the diagram as A has been dubbed the
and-sound transmitter. takes place twice per picture and therefore, "image dissector." The light intensities of
since the number of lines is odd, the sec- an image focused upon its photo-sensitive
The images were clear and commer-

Figure 106, left, the RCA television transmitting room; Figure 107, right ,the motion picture pick-up.
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figure I08—The Farnsworth dissector and recreator.

surface is converted by the dissector into methods depends on material utilized to

fluctuations of an electric current. The produce the fluorescence of the cathode-ray
Figure 109— Farnsworth receiver.
scanning system also embraces its envelop- tube screen. In the Farnsworth tests, pic-
ing coil assembly ( B) and the scanning tures with a greenish tone were obtained
oscillators ( C) and (D). Their joint through the use of a zinc orthosilicate teurs or experimenters who are thinking
duty is to analyze the area of an image screen. To reproduce images in black- of building experimental types of tele-
into a regular succession of space elements and-white, a combination of substances, in- vision receivers and are trying to learn
and convert them into corresponding signal cluding calcium tungstate, is employed. the fundamentals on which future broad-
currents adequate for routing over but one casts will be based. The electrical speci-
fications for this system are as follows:
signal channel. The Transmitting Equipment
Current impulses are amplified by an The carrier frequency of the picture trans-
electron multiplier ( E) which is an inte- At Farnsworth's test transmitting point mitter is 51 megacycles. The carrier fre-
gral part of the valve, and by vacuum tube (for both wire and radio), the apparatus quency fo- the sound transmission is
amplifiers ( F and G) to produce signal includes his cathode-ray "camera," or " dis- 54.25 mc. This makes a spacing, between
voltages great enough to modulate a radio sector," an amplifier for the minute im- the two carrier centers of 3.25 mc. approx-
carrier. The connections ( H and K) be- pulses and an ultra-short-wave transmitting imately. The total space taken up in the
tween the scanning circuits and the ampli. outfit. Figure 110 shows the transmitting ultra-short-wave spectrum is 6 mc. The
fier, provide signal impulses which auto- room. And, as noted, the receiver also number of scanning lines was 345, but
matically synchronize reproducers tuned to embodies the cathode-ray tube and its allied this has now been changed to conform to
the transmitter. equipment. the R.M.A. recommendations of 440-
Experiments have reached the stage 450 lines. The number of pictures- per-
where home model receivers have been second transmitted is 60, 30 of them
The Scanning System designed in attractive cabinets. The fea- being interlaced. By " interlacing" is
tured model seen at the Philadelphia meant that the lines of each consecutive
The cathode-ray tube ( M) is the heart frame show in between the lines of the
demonstration for the RADIO NEWS staff
of the reproducer. It converts the received preceding one. This reduces the rather
has the screen end of the cathode-ray
electric impulses into corresponding light striped appearance of earlier methods. The
tube framed neatly at eye level from a
variations and arranges them in orderly polarity of the transmission is negative.
sitting posture ( Figure 109).
space-sequence to reproduce the image at The aspect ratio is 4.3. The percentage
One of the chief things to be ironed out
the receiver. This is done with the of television signal devoted to the syn-
in television is "standardization." This
use of the scanning system comprised of chronizing signal is 20 percent. The
must precede commercialization. Philco
the coils ( N- N), the associated oscillators wave-form of the synchronizing signal is
already is sanctioned to make Farnsworth-
(0-0) and the tube ( M) itself. Once narrow and vertical.
type receivers while Hen:z and Kaufman
more the scanning oscillators are joined to
has permission to make visual transmitters.
the signal channel as shown by P to make
possible automatic control from the trans-
Although the Farnsworth demonstrations The Television Camera
were warmly received by the press, com-
mitter. Amplification compensates for the The focussing device for picking up the
pany engineers are already at work on
inefficiencies of the translation and trans-
improvements. Instead of the 24- frame-per- televisior. signal actually looks somewhat
mission while the series of processes is lâce acamera on wheels. ( See Figure 113).
second image used at the demonstrations,
completed by propagation of the signal. It contains alarge tube, operating on photo-
a speed of 48-frames-per-second is now
The focused electron image in the dis-
used, although this is actually an inter- electric and cathode-ray principles combined.
sector is scanned by displacing it in its
lacing of two 24s. This tube generates, by an electrical scan-
own plane by means of transverse magnetic ning method, voltages corresponding to the
fields which sweep the image across a light and shade of the television picture
fixed aperture, thus allowing a small area THE PHILCO SYSTEM
which is focussed by the lens onto the
of the picture element to produce acurrent
Here are some of the details of the signal plate of the tube. A special ampli-
in an electrical circuit where it may be fier in the control room strengthens these
Philco television system. Some of this in-
amplified and transmitted over wire lines
formation will be important to those ama- varying voltages about 10,000 times, to
or by radio. A resultant field which is
inclined to the axis of the tube is obtained
by the addition of a transverse magnetic
field to the focussing field. Electrons start
ing from given points on the cathode travel
in spiral paths directed along the resultant
magnetic field and come to focus at a
point displaced by the transverse field. Figure 110 — The
Farnsworth transmit-
Black and White Pictures
ter panels installed
The pictures at the receiving end could
be black-and-white, a fluorescent green and in the new television
black or possibly other colors. It seems
transmitter house at
that there is a public objective toward
black- and-white pictures. It is not because Wyndmoor, Pa.
black-and- white images are more natural,
but rather on account of the fact that the
public has learned to accept black- and-
white as natural through constant attend-
ance at motion-picture shows. The color
of the picture through the Farnsworth
4t 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

those of the amateur constructor of broad-

casting's earlier days. Sufficient technical
information to allow a moderately well-
skilled person to construct a television re-
ceiver to receive the programs of W6XAO
are given in the following paragraphs,"
Figure III — An said Mr. Lubcke as he handed them to our
actual television pic- technical staff on a recent visit to the
Editorial Offices.
ture " snapped" at "The Don Lee television transmitter
arecent Philco tele- W6XAO operates on the ultra high.
frequency of 45,000 kilocycles ( 6 2/3
vision demonstra- meters) daily except Sunday and holidays,
tion. It really suffers from 3:00 to 5:00 p.m. and from 6:30
to 8:30 p.m. Voice announcements
by being a photo- concerning the broadcast are made at
graph and also in the beginning and end of each trans-
mission.
being made into e "For receiving the voice announcements
cut for reproduction of W6XAO and for preliminary experi-
ments, any type of ultra short-wave receiver
on this page, but which will tune to 62/3 meters may be
at least it does give used. Receivers designed for 5- meter ama-
teur work are suitable when provided with
an idea of the larger coils. Install coils with 50 percent
smooth and natural more turns and remove one turn at a
time while tuning for W6XAO. A simple
pictures that were line-image of constant intensity is broadcast
seen. for a short period of each schedule, and
an appreciable change in its strength after
a change in the circuit or operation of
a receiver is a direct measure of the
effect of the change.
"The image broadcast is a 300-line
sequentially-scanned picture, with a frame
frequency of 24 per second. Fos receiving
modulate the ultra- high- frequency trans- This picture was actually photographed, these images the receiver must tune very
mitter. Also mixed with this television during a recent Phiico demonstration, with broadly and should be one of the super-
signal, as it is transmitted, are the syn- a small hand camera directly from the heterodyne type, with band-pass intermedi-
chronizing and blanking impulses. These screen of the television receiver, after ate-frequency transformers arranged to oper-
impulses when received by the receiving set the image had been sent through the air, ate on an intermediate frequency of approxi-
control the movement of the electron beam by ultra-short-wave radio, a distance of mately 8,000 kilocycles. The RCA 954 or
in the receiving cathode tube which re- 7%2 miles. Do you think it good enough 955 "acorn" tubes are recommended for
builds the picture. for commercial broadcasting? use in circuits carrying ultra high- fre-
In the studio there are, of course, ac- quency radio energy, except for the first
companying the picture transmitting ap- THE DON LEE SYSTEM detector of a superheterodyne receiver,
paratus, microphones and audio- frequency where the metal tube 6L7 is recommended.
Below are given the salient technical
amplifiers and another radio transmitter "The receiver ' audio' channel must be
features of the system of cathode-ray tele-
for sending the sounds to the receiving resistance-coupled and capable of substan-
vision now in use at the Don Lee experi-
location. tially uniform response over a range of
mental television station W6XAO, Los from 24 cycles to 800 kilocycles, in order
A separate pick-up device consisting of
Angeles. This is a system perfected by to reproduce faithfully the high- definition
a specially built projector, is used for
Harry R. Lubcke, Director of the Tele- picture that is broadcast. A cathode-ray
transmitting the motion picture part of the
vision Division of the Don Lee System.
program. This apparatus energizes the same tube must be used as the image reproduc-
radio transmitters that are used for tele- Figure 115 shows the Don Lee television tion device, since it is practically impos-
transmitter and Figure 116 shows the sible to construct a scanning disc of suffi-
vising the actual scenes.
type of image now being received daily.
Front and rear views of the Philco re- cient accuracy. Data on cathode-ray tubes,
Public demonstrations where experimenters
ceiver are shown in Figure 113 and 114. and a gas triode for producing saw- tooth
can see and ask questions about the re- scanning waves are given in the booklet,
Figure 111 shows the clarity of the pic-
ceiver, which is of the self-synchronized
tures now being received. "Cathode Ray Tubes and Allied Types,"
cathode-ray tube type, are being held daily,
except Sundays and holidays, in the after-
noons and evenings. Mr. Lubcke, who is Figure I14— Inside the receiver.
Figure II2—The Philco receiver.
interested in having experimenters build
home-made television receivers for the re-
ception of these television broadcasts, has
furnished the following details to encourage
the skilled amateur and to give him the
essential information that will enable him
to build such a receiver.
"The advantages of the television en-
thusiast today are far greater than were

Figure II3—The Philco "camera."

 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 43

Technical Series TS- 2, obtainable from the

RCA Radiotron Company, 415 South Fifth
Street, Harrison, New Jersey, and at large
radio stores.
Figure 115 — The
Don Lee television
The Scanning Source
transmitter, station
"The high-frequency receiver scanning W6XAO in Los An-
source should produce a saw- tooth wave-
shape of a frequency of 7,200 cycles. This geles. Programs are
is applied to the pair of deflection plates, transmitted daily,
in the cathode-ray tube, which produce a
horizontal deflection. The low-frequency except Sundays and
scanning source should also produce a holidays.
saw- tooth wave-shape, and of a frequency
of 24 cycles. This is applied to the pair of
deflection plates which produce a vertical
deflection. If the image appears upside-
down, reverse the connections to the low.
frequency deflection plates; if printing
reads backwards, to the high-frequency de-
flection plates. Institute of Radio Engineers. West '
M I
"A negative image is radiated from the Street, New York City.
transmitter. In the particular receiver con-
structed, if the image shown on the
Reception Reports Wanted
cathode-ray tube is a negative' ( white ob-
-Reports on reception results are re-
jects reproduced black, and vice-versa) one
more or less, stage of audio' frequency am- quested. Please give the date, time, signal
plification ( following the second detector) clarity and strength, amount and naturc
of interference, your address, location of
will give the proper 'positive'.
nearby hills and large buildirgs. type of
"Synchronizing pulses are transmitted at
receiving antenna and, its height above
the end of each line and at the end of
each complete image for keeping the re- ground, type of receiver, and your sig.
ceiver scanning sources in step at the 7200- nature. Standardized reception report
and 24-cycle frequencies, respectively. A forms may be had from the Television Di-
;mall amount of the image signal should vision of the Don Lee Broadcasting Sys-
)e supplied to the grids of the gas triode tem, Seventh and Bikel Streets, Los An-
Jibes to synchronize the sources. geles, upon the receipt of a stamped self-
"Extensive data on television reception addressed envelope."
is given in the December 1933, November Complete constructional details for a
1934 and March 1936, issues of the ' The Figure 1I
6—A television picture.
-Don Lee" Television Receiver appear in
Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engi- the May 1937 issue of RADIO NEWS. information necessary to build a receiver
neers'. This publication can be consulted This article includes a complete circuit with which you can tune in present day
at public libraries or obtained from the diagram, list of parts, and all of the other television broadcasts.

LESSON THIRTY-FOUR
Television Abroad

T London can be seen from the antenna site

HE television studio and transmissio n
signals and voice transmissions
set-up of the British Broadcasting Com- —an important point where ultra-short There are alternate transmissions using,
pany is installed in the Alexandra Palace waves are concerned. With the combina- respectively, apparatus of the Baird Tee-
from which transmissions are now on the tion of mast and tower height, the summit vision Company and the Marconi-E.M.I.
air. Let's see what a tour of the Palace of the aerials is actually more than 60C Television Company. The installations are
discloses: The television station is on a feet above sea level. Directly below is a separate. The sound transmitting equip-
hill 306 feet above sea level. Nearly all separate antenna for the synchronized sound ment was supplied by Marconi's Wireless

Figure 117, left, a British television receiver; Figure 118, center, schematic circuit; Figure 119, right, inside view.
46 34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION

Figures 120, 121 and 122— Highlights o; the new British equipment.

Telegraph Company according to specifica- Just like the theatre, each dressing room marked how television- minded the nation
tions of the BBC. Such refinements as is equipped with a call buzzer. has become. A new era of industry pros-
dressing rooms for artists, a restaurant, The Alexandra Palace Theatre has also perity is seen ahead in the introduction of
store rooms for scenery and props, and been acquired by B. B. C., but the im- ,risual transmissions.
cinema projection, editing and cutting mediate use of the auditorium is planned Figures 117 and 119 show front and in-
rooms are also provided. for rehearsals and experiments. There is side views of a television receiv made by
The transmitters are all on the ground a separate band- room—the counterpart of the General Electric Company of England,
floor. This level also houses the pro- an orchestra pit where accompanying with a screen and loudspeake centered
jection theatre, restaurant and scenery pro- music will originate. vertically and the controls for sight and
ductions shop. A large area has been All prominent radio manufacturers of sound at right and left. Figure 118 is a
set aside for televising such large ob- the British Isles were quick to fall in schematic representation of the vrious ele-
jects as motor cars and animals which line with receivers for the public demand. ments in the receiver.
cannot be brought into the studio. Tackle As anticipated, the cost of initial equip- Figure 120 shows the two 244Iine Tele-
and hoists for handling scenery can ac- ment is high, the average model costing cine scanners in operation for the Alex-
commodate scenery weighing a ton. about $ 500. andra Palace, Figure 121, the Baird control
The television camera can travel down Marconiphone, Bush, Philips, Baird, H. disk and amplifiers, and Figure 1122 Baird
a ramp to a concrete " apron" on the M. V., General Electric, Pye, Ecko and "cathovisor" cathode-ray tubes now being
terrace for picking up outdoor programs. other eminent brand names appeared on used, showing the various size icreens, in
The main studins are on the upper story. the lines immediately available to the comparison to a small cathode-ray tube
Marconi-E.M.I. pick-ups are made from public. held by William Taynton, whose face was
a studio 30 by 70 feet in area and 25 An additional move of manufacturers the first televised in England in 1926.
feet high. Two stages have been built in was to include the television band ( 7 ro
this room with equipment for rapid inter- 16 meters) in standard sound receivers.
changing. A steel lighting bridge runs permitting possible future adaptation of ITALIAN TELEVISION
across the center of the studio, pro- the instruments for television reception.
viding variable illumination for both stages. As in the American sets demonstrated pri- Considerable activity and developmental
Adjoining are the production and " tele. vately to the press, most Biitish models improvement in Italy, in the " video" art,
cine" rooms housing the production staff use the cathode-ray tube mounted verti- is now apparent after an examination of
and television cameras. Incidentally, the cally with the picture reflected on tilted their latest television instruments. The
British television cameras are built along mirror- lined lids. Receivers use an aver- manufacturer in that country producing this
virtually the same lines as those of RCA, age of 25 tubes. SAFAR organization, which is, the only
PhiIco, Farnsworth, etc., of the U. S. A. Scophony has supplemented cathode-ray kind of equipment, has recently demon-
The Baird studio is the counterpart in receivers with opto- mechanical instruments strated a new 15- tube television receiver
size of the Marconi-E.M.I. studio. There projecting images of 12 by 16 inches, using a huge cathode-ray tube that gives
are two stages here, too, but they are in for home use, to 9 by 12 feet for theatres. high-definition television reception in actual
different positions than the neighboring Virtually all models on the market func- black- and-white images. ( See Figures 123,
ones. tion on both 240 lines, at 25 frames per 124 and 125.) The system used is that of
Five dressing rooms for men and five second, and 405 lines, at 50 frames per Arturo Castellani, head of the Italian
for women are dose by, each suite hav- second. Initial transmissions were kept in Laboratory for Television Researches. The
ing its own bath. Forty artists can be the neighborhood of 6 to 8 meters. development of this new receiver and of
accommodated in a large chorus room. Visitors returning from London have re- the transmitting appartus, which uses wave-

Figures 123, 124 and 125, from left to right,

show the external and internal appearances
of the new Italian receiver that projects
images in black and white.
34 LESSONS IN RADIO AND TELEVISION 47

lengths between 5 and 7 meters, follows

a course somewhat parallel with those of
Farnsworth, RCA and PhiIto in America,
and Baird in England, Telefunken in Ger-
many and other developments in France,
Russia and Japan. The apparatus, however,
has been worked out with such a regard to
fidelity in reception and fineness of manu-
facture that it should be brought to the
attention of television enthusiasts every-
where. This is evident from the illustra-
tions accompanying this lesson.
SAFAR first started its television activ-
ities in 1930 and its first successful tests
were carried out at Milan at the National
Radio Show of that year. The first trans-
missions and receptions employed Nipkow
disks with a synchronization system using
impulses transmitted along with the signal.
These first images were of 60 line and 25
frames per second.
In 1931 the company instigated the
establishment of experimental laboratories
for the development of luminous gas lamps
and other types of tubes for television. In
1932 a new disk receiver with a mercury-
vapor lamp was demonstrated and a rather
successful experimental service was main-
tained through the period the show was
held. This included an ultra-short-wave Figure 126—The Berlin television transmitter.
television transmitter working on 7 meters
with 100 watts power.
After that a 1 kw. transmitter was de- dimensioned picture of 240 by 220 milli- portion contains the power apparatus and
veloped and installed and tests were made meters using 375 lines and 25 frames per the sweep circuits, etc., and the other con-
with various early types of cathode-ray second in a perfectly black- and- white pic- tains the r.f, receiving circuits. This latest
tubes, including a whole series of experi- ture. The system transmits and receives job uses a total of 15 tubes. The price
ments with different kinds of fluorescent the television signals on 7 meters with of the complete receiver runs somewhere
substances. The first public demonstration the sound accompaniment on 6.7 meters. between $ 450 and $ 500 at the present rate
of cathode-ray television in Italy was made In the newest receivers the large cathode- of exchange. The cathode-ray tubes are
with 130 and 240 line transmissions util- ray tube is mounted, as can be seen in the priced at about $ 60 and are guaranteed to
izing frequencies from 25 to 1,000,000 illustrations, on a rigid metal frame ( du- give 2500 hours of operation. The whole
cycles wide. During 1933 and 1934 the ralumin) into which it sets, with the fluo- receiving apparatus weighs slightly over
researches were advanced and a 13- tube rescent screen at the top. A 45- degree 120 pounds.
system was developed utilizing the SAFAR mirror projects this image so that it can Further experimentation and development
"Televisode" cathode-ray tube, with an be seen through an opening in the upper- is being carried on with the idea of
image of 180 by 210 millimeters. In 1935 front portion of the cabinet. There are establishing a chain of television stations
the development progressed to a point three controls used in this system, which employing the Castellani system through-
utilizing similar but improved equipment, are shown in the illustrations. The loud- out the length of the Italian Peninsula, pos-
with 240 lines and 25 frames per second. speaker is also mounted on this frame. sibly connected by a coaxial cable, for
This development was continued through The receiver itself is made in two pasts, transmission of both sight and sound pro-
1936 and resulted in the present apparatus which are hinged so as to be easily ser- grams. According to present plans, each
which transmits and receives scenes, in viced, each part folding down into one- station will have a practical working range
artificial or ordinary daylight and gives a half of the receiver chais proper. One of approximately 20 to 25 miles.

Special Supplement
LESSON 21-A
Oscillators And Mixers
T
B
EFORE going over to the actual con- HIS supplement has been added to lators, so beginners wi!1 find it worth while
struction of the superheterodyne, it the original edition of " 34 Lessons In to learn as much as possible about them.
is necessary to understand the function Radio And Television" so that readers It was explained in previous lessons how
of two devices which are new to followers will have all installments of "The Radio amplification of a tube can be increased by
of these lessons. Beginner" which appeared in RADIO means of feedback. Now when the amount
NEWS from May 193(., to June 1937 of feedback is above a critical value, the
A superheterodyne receiver consists
inclusive. The lessons continue in the tube goes into oscillation. In Figure 132,
usually of one or more radio- frequency
July 1937 and subsequent issues of a typical oscillator is shown. When the
amplifier stages, an oscillator, a mixer, one
RADIO NEWS. plate coil ( the " tickler") is large enough
or more intermediate- frequency amplifier
and brought close enough to the grid coil,
stages, a detector, and an audio amplifier.
the tube will " oscillate"; that is, it will
Since the i.f, amplifier works on the same function of these two deices is to change generate an alternating current at a fre-
principle as the r.f, amplifier, all parts but the frequency of the incoming signal by quency determined by the size of the con-
the mixer and oscillator have been ex- the creation of beats between its carrier denser C and the coil L. By changing the
plained. and a locally generated signal. coil and condenser, an oscillator can be
It was stated in Lesson 19 that the Radio men find frequent use for oscil- made to generate currents of any frequency.
48 i4 LESSONS IN RADIO ANI) TELEVISION

RFC

8+

Figure 127 Figure 128 Figure 129 Figure 130 Figure 131

There are several different ways of ob- differences are wanted, as in the mixer of a in addition to the electron coupling. This
taining the necessary feedback to make a superheterodyne receiver, it should be is caused by the small capacity between
tube oscillate and each has its advantages. operated on the curved portion of its the grids.
It is not within the scope of this lesson to characteristic; that is, as adetector. This is
discuss the merits of all of them, but the why the name "first detector" is often The Pentagrid Tube
most important types are shown in Figures applied to the mixer. Any of the usual
detector circuits can be employed. In recent years a special tube has been
127 to 131. Most oscillator circuits are
called by the name of aradio engineer who developed to perform the functions of both
Coupling the Mixer and oscillator and mixer and provides electron
contributed to its development. Figure 127
shows the "Harley" circuit, which is gen- Oscillator coupling between the two circuits. At the
erally recognized by the tapped coil. The same time it has a screen between the
It is necessary to apply the signal of the
location of the taps here regulates the respective grids so as to minimize capacity
oscillator and the incoming signal to the coupling; furthermore, the designer does
feedback. A variation of this circuit, also grid of the mixer tube. Both of these sig-
known as the Dow circuit, is shown in not have to worry about the strength of
nals are supplied by tuned circuits and so
Figure 128. The only difference is the the oscillator signal.
we have the problem of coupling the two
ground connection, which has been moved circuits without making the tuning of one This tube contains five grids; therefore
to the plate tap. Figures 129 and 130 circuit affect the tuning of the other. Figure the name "pentagrid." Its action is best
show the Meissner oscillator and the Col- 133 shows the simplest arrangement, which understood by first considering the cathode
pitts oscillator, respectively. used to be employed. The coils of the and the first two grids as a regular
There is no particular reason why the tuned circuits are in inductive relation. triode. They can be made to oscillate by
tuned circuit cannot be in the plate circuit There is considerable interaction between any of the usual oscillator circuits. When
and the tickler to the grid. Whenever con- the circuits if this arrangement is used and this is done, the combination of cathode
siderable power is required, as in trans- it has, therefore, been abandoned. The next and two grids, acts as a cathode emitting
mitters, this procedure is followed. Figure improvement was to make the coupling less an interrupted or modulated electron
131 shows a typical oscillator of this type, and therefore the interaction less by placing stream.
the so-called TNT oscillator. There is a small coupling coil in the cathode lead The third and fifth grids form the electro-
usually enough coupling between the grid of the mixer and coupling this to the static screen, while the fourth grid serves
and plate coil to keep the tube oscillating. oscillator; or, there might be a small con- as "control grid" for the incoming signal.
denser between the oscillator plate and the The circuit is shown in Figure 134. This
Besides getting a tube to oscillate, it is is the arrangement to be used in the con-
mixer grid. There are, however, more
usually important to keep it working at struction of the superheterodyne in this
improved ways.
the same frequency as long as the values of series.
L and C are not changed by the operator. Electron Coupling The above described circuit works well,
This means that the coil and condenser but at very high frequencies there is still
When a multi- element tube is used as
should be well constructed so as not to some slight interaction. Therefore a new
mixer, the incoming signal can be applied
vary, and also that the tube voltages should tube has been developed which does away
to the control grid and the oscillator to
be kept constant, since they too cause slight with this objection. This is ahexode ( six-
some other element such as the screen or
variations of the frequency. element tube), it is purely a mixer tube,
suppressor grid. If this is done, the only
link between the two circuits is the elec- therefore a separate oscillator is required.
The Mixer tron stream. In this condition, they do It has two control grids, shielded from
not influence each other's tuning. If the each other by screen grids; there is also a
A tube, working as an amplifier, should bias is correct and the oscillator voltage suppressor grid. This makes the whole
not generate sums and differences of the is large enough, the sums and difference tube equivalent to a pentode which can
frequencies applied to its grid. This is a frequencies will be obtained in the plate amplify and mix two signals without
form of distortion which radio men try to circuit. In this connection there is still a interaction between the respective tuned
avoid. Consequently, when the sums and small capacity coupling between the circuits circuits.
Figure 132 Figure 133 Figure 134