HUMANITIES

GAMAS,
HONEY LYN C.

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CHAPTER 1
ETHICS AND THE HUMAN ACTS

Overview

This Module explores the existence of universal human values, which are those things
or behaviours that we believe should be privileged and promoted in the lives of all
human beings. A value is one of our most important and enduring beliefs, whether that
be about a thing or a behaviour. Even though some values may be universal, they often
arise from particular religious, social and political contexts.

Objectives

1. Define ethics and how it applies to organizations

2. Explain the role of culture in shaping moral and ethical behavior.
3. Explain the role of personal values in influencing behavior in organizations.

Discussion

Ethics, its meaning

Ethics is defined as the science of the morality of human acts. And because actions
reflect the motives of the doer, Ethics is said to be the study of human motivation,
and ultimately, of human rational behavior. That aspect of the subject matter which
primarily interests Ethics is morality.

Human Acts are those actions performed by man, knowingly and freely. They are
also called deliberate or intentional actions, or, voluntary actions.

Two Ethical Systems

The Atheistic approach assumes that only matter exists and that man is
responsible only to himself since there is no God who creates and rules the universe
Atheistic theories propose the following principles:
1. Matter is the only reality
2. Man is matter and does not have spiritual dimension
3. Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of
society
4. There is no life after death
5. Man is accountable only to the State.

The Theistic approach begins with the assumption that God is the Supreme
Lawgiver. Everything must conform to God’s eternal plan of creation.
Theistic theories postulate the following truths:
1. God is the Supreme Creator and Lawgiver
2. Man is free and must use his freedom to promote his personal and social
interests along with his fellowmen
3. Man has an immortal soul which cannot die
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4. Man is accountable for his action, both good and evil

The Human Acts

Human Acts
Distinction is made between human acts and acts of man. The human acts are
those actions which man preforms knowingly, freely, and voluntarily. These actions
are the result of conscious knowledge and are subject to the control of the will. We
refer to these actions as deliberate, intentional, or voluntary.
The acts of man are those actions which happen in man. They are instinctive and
are not within the control of the will. Such actions are the biological and physiological
movements in man such as, metabolism, respiration, fear, anger, love, and jealousy.

Essential Attributes
For an act to be considered a human act, it must possess the following
characteristics:
It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he is doing and of
its consequences. Children below the age of reason, the insane, the senile - are
considered incapable of acting knowingly.
It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is, by his own volition and
powers. An action done under duress and against one's will is not entirely a free
action.
It must be performed by an agent who decides willfully to perform the act. This
willfulness is the resoIve to perform an act here and now, or in some future time.

Kinds of Human Acts

Human acts are either elicited acts or commanded acts. Elicited acts are those
performed by the Will and are not bodily externalized. Paul Glenn enumerates the
following elicited acts:
1. Wish is the tendency of will towards something, whether this be realizable or not.
The object of wishing may include the impossible, or, that which is remotely
possible, such as winning the sweepstakes.
2. Intention is the tendency of the will towards something attainable but without
necessarily committing oneself to attain it. Such is our intention to study the
lesson, to attend a party, or to spend a vacation in Baguio.
3. Consent is the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the intention.
Thus, a woman is said to show consent when she consciously attracts attention
to herself.
4. Election is the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry out
the intention. A salesman shows election when he opts to visit a client instead of
just writing him a letter.
5. Use is the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry out
the intention. It is this act of the will which moves the salesman to dress up and
take a ride to see his client.
6. Fruition is the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the thing ne
had desired earlier. The joy of the woman on being complimented for her
attractiveness, or, the satisfaction of the salesman in closing a deal with his client
- is fruition.

Commanded acts are those done either by man's mental or bodily powers under
the command or the will. Commanded acts are either internal or external actions.
Examples of internal actions are conscious, reasoning, recalling something,
encouraging oneself, controlling aroused emotions and others.
Examples of external actions are walking, eating, dancing, laughing, listening,
reading and others.

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Voluntariness
Voluntariness comes from the latin word "voluntas", referring to the Will.
Voluntariness is essential to an act. Without it, an act is a mere act of man. We
distinguish between perfect and imperfect, and conditional and simple voluntariness.

1. Perfect voluntariness is present in a person who fully knows and fully intends
an act. A man who, wanting to get even, takes a gun and shoots his enemy is
said to be acting with perfect voluntariness.
2. Imperfect voluntariness is present in a person who acts without fully realizing
what he means to do, or without fully intending the act. A drunken man might act
irrationally without fully realizing what he is doing or, a woman, in terror, might
jump out of a window without fully intending to kill herself.
3. Conditional voluntariness is present in a person who is forced by
circumstances beyond his control to perform an act which he would not do under
normal conditions. A child who is intimidated by his mother to study the lesson is
acting with conditional voluntariness.
4. Simple voluntariness is present in a person doing an act willfully, regardless of
whether he likes to do it or not. It is either positive or negative. It is positive when
the act requires the performance of an activity, such as polishing the floor, paying
rent, or playing tennis. It is negative when an act requires the omission of activity,
such as not taking prohibited drugs, remaining quiet, or not listening to the radio.

Types of Voluntariness
1. Direct voluntariness accompanies an act which is primarily intended by the doer,
either as an end in itself or as a means to achieve something else. Eating lunch is
carried on with direct voluntariness. The same directness accompanies many of our
daily activities such as, going to school, inviting a friend to a movie, reading a book, or
writing a note.
2. Indirect voluntariness accompanies an act or situation which is the mere result of a
directly willed act. Getting a failing mark is indirectly voluntary on the part of the student
who has willingly neglected to study.

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CHAPTER 2
THE NORMS OF MORALITY

Overview
As a child, we learn early the difference between good and bad, such as between a
truth and a lie. It could be said that everybody has a natural inclination towards morality.
Even in a primitive society, morality plays an essential role in the form of things allowed
and prohibited. Morality is a universal phenomenon. It is manifested in every person and
every society.

Discussion

The Norms of Morality

Richard M. Gula defines the norms of morality as “the criteria of judgment about the
sorts of person we ought to be and the sorts of actions we ought to perform.
Judges in a contest follow a given criterion for deciding the winner. In like manner, for
us to decide what action is good or bad, we need criteria, a set of principles from which
we may deduce a conclusion.
Natural Law – remote norm of morality
Conscience – proximate norm of morality
Eternal Law – the ultimate norm

Eternal Law
Eternal Law is the plan of God in creating the universe and in assigning to each
creature therein a specific nature. It is, according to St.Thomas Aquinas, the exemplar
of divine wisdom as directing all actions and movements. For St. Augustine, it is "the
divine reason or will of God commanding that the natural order of things be preserved
and forbidding that it be disturbed".
Eternal Law provides for the cosmic order where every creature stands different and
independent but no apart from the unified purpose or creation. There is harmony in
diversity in the universe so that the early Greeks referred to it as "cosmos, meaning,
beautiful.

Natural Law
Natural is recognized by all men regardless of creed, race, culture, or historical
circumstances.
Properties of the Natural Law
We note the following properties or characteristics of the Natural Law:
1. It is universal. Natural Law is a constitutive element of human nature. Therefore, it is
true wherever human nature manifest itself. All men are precisely equal because of
shared human nature.
2. It is obligatory. Natural law is human nature, calling for itself to be actualized, to be
lived according to its basic and essential demands.
3. It is recognizable. It is imprinted in the human nature and man has the light of
reason to know it.
4. lt is immutable or unchangeable. Natural law is human nature. It is immutable
because man's essential nature can never be lost as long as man is man.

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Name of Instructor: HONEY LYN C. GAMAS
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Contents of the Natural Law

Man discovers by the light of reason those fundamental moral principles contained in
the Natural Law.
Ethical writers distinguish between formal norms and material norms. Both are derived
from Natural Law. Formal norms are those that relate to our character, that is, to what
kind of persons we ought to be. Examples of formal norms are such truths as: "Do good
and avoid evil". Whatever you wish others to do to you, do so to them "Be honest" "Bc
chaste" or "Do not be selfish, proud, vain, or foolish". (Gula: p. 56).
Material norms relate to the sorts of actions we ought to do. Material norms are the
application of the formal norms to individual concrete action such as speech, killing,
making promises, or using contraceptives. They answer the question: “What should I
do?”

Conscience
Conscience is the proximate norm of morality. It is proximate because it is what directly
confronts an action as good or bad. Its function is to examine, to judge, and to pass a
"sentence" on all moral actions.
The word is derived from the latin "conscientia" which means "trial of oneself" both in
accusation and in defense.
Conscience is defined as an act of the practical judgment of reason deciding upon an
individual action as good and to be performed or as evil and to be avoided.

Kinds of Conscience

1. Correct or True Conscience judges what is good as good and what is evil as evil. It
is correct conscience which tells that getting the property of another without consent
is stealing. It is also correct conscience which judges that we ought to pay our debts.

2. Erroneous or False Conscience judges incorrectly that what is good is evil and
what is evil is good. It is erroneous conscience which tells the husband to have a
mistress, since it is the macho thing to do.
An erroneous conscience whose error is not willfully intended is called
inculpable conscience. It is inculpable conscience operating in a person who unaware
of it, pays for grocery with "bogus" money.
An erroneous conscience whose error is due to neglect, or malice, is called
culpable conscience. It is culpable conscience which believes that cheating is good
since it helps us pass the exam and everybody does it anyway. The difference between
culpable and inculpable conscience lies in the distinction between a voluntary error and
an involuntary error. It is culpable precisely because the error is voluntary on the part of
the person. It is inculpable because the error is involuntary, an "honest mistake".

3. Certain Conscience is a subjective assurance of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of a

certain act. This implies that the person is sure of his decision.
It is possible however to be sure of something as good when in fact it is just the
opposite, and vice-versa It is possible for a policeman to be sure that killing the suspect
is the best alternative under the principle of self-defense, whereas such killing is in fact
unnecessary.

4. Doubtful Conscience is a vacillating conscience, unable to form a definite

judgement on a certain action. A doubtful conscience must first be allowed to settle its
doubts before an action is performed.

5. Scrupulous Conscience is a rigorous conscience, extremely afraid of committing

evil. A scrupulous conscience is meticulous and wants incontrovertible proofs before it
acts.
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6. Lax Conscience is one which refuses to be bothered about the distinction of good
and evil. It rushes on and is quick to justify itself. Many Filipinos who act on the impulse
of "bahala na" on matters of morals are acting with lax conscience

Human Values and Theories

Human values are ideas, actions, habits, or experiences that contribute to the promotion
of human Iife. Since values are not equal in their worth, the conduct of a person
depends largely on his wise choice of values.
Value
Man is not only an animal; he is a person. No other corporeal substance is a person.
Only man is. Man is a person because he has the gift of insight (intellect) and volition
(will). We often refer to a person as self, or ego. There is no basic difference between
these two terms. Both imply the self-sufficiency of the person. Both imply worth or value.
The self is the first and most fundamental of the values. All others are such in relation to
the sublime dignity of the person. Actions, for example, are values because they are the
result of intellect and will, motivated towards something desirable: another value.

Kinds of Values
Values are classified according to the level of human life to which they correspond:
1.Biological Values. These are necessary to the physical survival of man as an
organism:
a) life and Health
b) Food and Shelter
c) Work
2. Social Values. These are necessary to the sensual needs and fulfillment
a) Leisure and Sex
b) Marriage
c) Family and Home
d) Parental Authority
e) Education
3. Rational Values. Those are necessary to the functions and fulfillment of intellect and
will:
a) Understanding and Control of Nature
b) Guide and Control of Oneself
c) Solidarity with Fellowmen
d) Religion

Ethical Theories

Values are related to the purpose of human life. We summarize below a few of the most
significant
ethical theories.
1. Plato. Plato believed that man is free. Thus, man deserves to be
punished for the "sins" he freely commits. Happiness is not found in the things that
merely serve man's use, nor in the pleasures of earthly life, but in making the soul like to
God by the contemplation of the Idea of the Good and by the exercise of virtues.

2. Aristotle. Man has threefold nature: vegetal, animal, and rational. Man must realize
his nature by cultivating all his natural tendencies. The highest good correspond to the
tendency of the soul. But man needs likewise to fulfill his basic biological and sensual
needs, guided by temperance. The happiness of man consists in the contemplation of
truth made possible by the practice of virtues.
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3. St. Thomas Aquinas. The Highest Good, or, Summum Bonum consists in "beatific
vision'" of God. No earthly good can fully satisfy human desires. Man, because of his
rational appetites of intellect and freewill, can only be completely happy in God Himself.
This happiness is possible only with God's help through the infusion of supernatural
grace. This is supernatural happiness, achievable only in the next life.

Ethical Systems
1. Islamism. Islam is a philosophy of life, a complete system of living, based on the
Word of God revealed to Mohammed. Islam teaches that the Greatest Value is one's
surrender to God. This consists in the fulfillment of the Five Pillars:
(1) Confession of Creed: There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet"
(2) Prayer brings man in the right relationship with God.
(3) Charity.
(4) Observance of the Ramadan.
(5) Pilgrimage to Mecca

2. Buddhism. The Greatest Value according to Buddha is the liberation of man from
suffering through the abandonment of all egoistic desires. The Four NobIe Truths of
Buddhism are:
1) Life is the root of all sufferings
2) Suffering are caused by desires
3) Desires can be eliminated by negating life
4) Elimination of desires can be achieved by accumulating karma or deeds that
eventually free the individual.

3. Utilitarianism. The Greatest Value, according to Jeremy Bentham, one of its

proponents, is pleasure. But man, being a sociable animal, must conduct his affairs in a
way that would benefit others. Thus, the greatest moral good is that "which gives the
greatest happiness to the greatest number of people".

4.Communism. Communism is based on the teachings of Karl Marx. The Greatest

Good is absolute equality. The mission of communism is the production of material
wealth by means of collective labor, so that the goods of this world might be enjoyed in
a paradise where each would give according to his powers and would receive according
to his needs. Communism aims to build a classless society. Until such goal is attained,
he State shall rule absolutely.

5. Christianism, Christianity is based on the teachings and life of Jesus Christ. Christ
taught that the Greatest Value is Love. God is love. Christian morality is essentially
based on love which embraces even the enemy.

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Name of Instructor: HONEY LYN C. GAMAS
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CHAPTER 3
QUALITIES OF THE FILIPINO MORAL IDENTITY

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. The beliefs and
traditions of pre-colonial Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage. The
Spanish colonized the islands and the Hispanic culture influenced the natives.
Psychologist, educator, and former Chairperson of the Commission on Higher
Education Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the
Filipino character are rooted in factors such as:
1. The home environment
2. The social environment
3. Culture and language
4. History
5. The educational system
6. Religion
7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
9. Mass media
10. Leadership and role models
Home environment
- Filipino children are taught to value family and give it primary importance.
Social environment
- Characterized by depending on one another to survive. This dependence on
relationships and the struggle for survival make Filipinos group oriented.
Culture and language
- Depict openness to foreign elements with no basic consciousness of our cultural
core. (Licuanan, 1994) The Filipino colonial mentality such as the importance of
the English language in our educational system, the wider following of Hollywood
movies, foreign soap operas/TV shows, and foreign songs/singers over Filipino
movies, shows, and music is a manifestation of our attachment to foreign
elements.
History
- Regarded as the culprit behind our colonial mentality. Unfortunately, most Filipino
elite are of no help in setting an example of overcoming colonial mentality
because they are even more westernized in their ways. Present day media on
the other hand reinforced these colonial influences. (1994)
Educational system
- Is also instrumental in molding the strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino
character. Schools are highly authoritarian. Early on, children learn that well-

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behaved and obedient students are praised and rewarded. This teaches passivity
and conformity.
Religion
- It taught us optimism and conformity. However, it also instilled in us a fatalistic
attitude. Since religious communities are also highly authoritarian, this further
reinforced our being passive and a conformist. (Licuanan, 1994)
Economic environment
- The hard life drove Filipinos to work hard and take risks, such as leaving our
families to work abroad. This further developed our ability to survive.
Political environment
- Government structures and systems are fraught with problems. For instance, the
fact that political power is mainly in the hands of the elite and the absence of a
strong government presence enhanced the Filipino’s already extreme family
centeredness (Licuanan, 1994). The economic and political environments are
among the elements that developed the culture of corruption in the Philippines.
Mass media
- The emphasis on the superiority of an imported brand or product through mass
media is in fact part of Filipino’s daily life.
Leadership and role models
- Filipino’s highly respect authority, we lean on our leaders and role models. Any
person with authority is looked up to. Thus, when our leaders violate the law and
when there is lack of accountability for leaders who break the law, the Filipino
mindset is hugely affected in a negative way. (Licuanan, 1994)

Strengths of a Filipino Character

The Filipino traits listed here is certainly not exhaustive, but these are what we have in
common the most. The strong aspects of the Filipino character are:
1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao is demonstrated in the Filipino’s openness, helpfulness,
and generosity; in the practice of bayanihan or muual assistance; and the famous
Filipino hospitality (Licuanan, 1994; Guevara & Gripaldo 2005).
2. Family Orientation - Filipinos also possess a genuine love for family. This love
is not just for one’s spouse and children but also to parents, grandparents, aunts,
uncles, cousins and even to ceremonial relatives. This love is shown through
giving honor and respect to parents and elders, care for the children, generosity
towards kin, and the personal sacrifices that a Filipino endures for the welfare of
the family. This strong family orientation gave Filipinos a sense of belonging and
security.
3. Joy and humor – Filipinos are also cheerful and fun loving. Our various fiestas
and social gatherings demonstrate the Filipino joy and humor. We can laugh at
those we love and hate, and can make jokes about our good or bad fortune.
Even in the most trying times, Filipinos will always find a reason to smile or
laugh. This pleasant disposition contributed to our ability to overcome life’s
challenges.
4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity – Filipinos are also tremendous in
adjusting and adapting to any circumstances. We can improvise and make use of
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Name of Instructor: HONEY LYN C. GAMAS
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whatever is at hand to create and produce. Our flexibility, adaptability and

creativity are reasons why many Filipinos thrive in various parts of the world.
5. Hard work and industry – this trait is most noticeable in our willingness to take
risks and work in other countries.
6. Faith and religiosity – this can be related to our bahala na mindset. There is
actually a positive side to this fatalistic trait. For Filipinos the bahala na attitude
could serve as a “kickstarter” or a “pampalakas loob” to move him or her into
action.
7. Ability to survive – all the positive Filipino traits mentioned contribute to our
ability to survive. The salawikain proverb “matutong mamaluktot habang maikli
and kumot” aptly depicts our survival instinct. This trait is the reason why
Filipinos continue to carry on even through our harsh economic and social
circumstances

Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

Aside from identifying the roots and strengths of the Filipino character, Dr. Patricia B.
Licuanan also pointed out our weaknesses. This is important because this enables the
Filipino to identify the areas that need improvement in order to grow and develop as a
person. An informed and improved Filipino will also result in a stronger and more
progressive nation.
1. Extreme personalism – Filipinos function in the world by personally relating to
things, events, and people. We find it difficult to separate objective tasks and
emotional involvement. This is where the palakasan system spring from. Filipinos
want to get special treatment and will always look for “inside connections” in most
of his/her transactions. Extreme personalism is another element that led to the
prevalence of graft and corruption in the country.
2. Extreme family-centeredness – family is valued above anything and everyone
else. Extreme family-centeredness is manifested in our political system where
political dynasties lord over our elected government posts starting from the
barangay level all the way up to the national positions.
3. Lack of discipline – is characterized by our idiomatic expression “ningas
cogon:. Projects start out with full enthusiasm and interest, but no sooner was it
started that the enthusiasm and interest just as soon died down.
4. Passivity and lacking initiative – Filipinos have very high respect to authority.
Unfortunately, this is also led to general passivity and lacking initiative. For
instance, there is a strong reliance on leaders and government to solve the
nation’s problems but ordinarily Filipinos also do not feel the need to initiate or
contribute to the solution.
5. Colonial mentality – generally, Filipinos love anything foreign. Foreign elements
are adapted and incorporated into our image. In the process, we are also losing
our cultural identity. Colonial mentality is connected to our general feelings of
inferiority, where we think foreigners-especially Westerners, are superior.
6. The kanya-kanya syndrome – is related to the Filipino traits of extreme
personalism and extreme family-centeredness. Personal and in-group interests
are supreme and the drive to fulfill these interests is completely insensitive to the
common good. The kanya-kanya syndrome dampened our sense of community
and cooperation and we trample on each other’s rights as result. The expression
crab mentality, where we tend to pull others down to climb up, exemplify the
kanya-kanya syndrome.
7. Lack of analysis and reflection – a manifestation of this lack of analysis and
reflection is the expression that Filipinos are “madaling makalimot” or have a
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short memory. This means, as a nation, we easily forget the mistakes we made;
hence we make the same mistakes again. This is one reason why traditional
politicians or ‘trapos’ are always re-elected in the office.

THE FILIPINO VALUE SYSTEM

The Filipino value system refers to the set of values or the value system that a majority
of the Filipino have historically held important in their lives. This Philippine value system
includes their own unique collection of consistent ideologies, moral codes, ethical
practices, etiquette and cultural and personal values that are encouraged by their
society.
The Filipino life is dominated by lots of values such as false sense of resignation
(ganyan lang ang buhay), a superstitious belief or blind faith (malas/swerte, tadhana,
kapalaran) or escape from decision-making and social responsibility.

1. BAHALA NA
Trust in God or the concept of Bahala na is a principle used when a
person does not know what to accomplish or is too slothful to do anything
at all. This belief to put fate in God’s hands may be a sign of how religious
Filipinos may be. It may show that the Filipinos are free-spirited and that
they put their life in fate’s hands. For most Filipinos everything is already
fixed or destined. Negatively, bahala na could bring about a false sense of
security with God as insurance or a security blanket.
By nature, Filipinos are malakas and loob (strong-hearted) and not timid
and fearful. The fact is that many Filipinos pursue their plans and projects
even if they are not sure of future developments or events that may affect
their accomplishment. In situations where they are not sure of their ability
to accomplish things, they say bahala na (let fate decide the outcome) and
do the best they can believeing that Nasa Diyos and awa, nasa tao ang
gawa (Look to God for compassion and to man for action).

2. UTANG NA LOOB
Gratitude or utang na loob is a very fashionable Filipino characteristic.
This debt of gratitude is at times abused by those who have done well to
others. They may request favors or things that may either be difficult to
deal with or beyond the means of the one in debt.
With this system people are forced to do something in exchange for what
others do in favor. A man who, in spite of having been helped by a friend,
declines to help the latter when his need crops up is called walang utang
na loob. This value has been taken advantage by others especially the
politicians. This utang na loob may result to faithfulness and a source for
graft and corruption.

3. NINGAS COGON
Ningas is a noun which means flame, blaze, or combustion, while cogon is
a grass which can be easily burned with its representation. Ningas cogon
means the fast burning of cogon, which signifies Filipinos’ way of
eagerness only at the beginning but then quickly losing enthusiasm soon
after to continue it, or the lack of a follow-up. It is usually observed as a
negative value.
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4. PADRINO SYSTEM
Padrino system, or patronage in the Filipino culture and politics is the
value system where one gets support, endorsement, or political
appointment through family affiliation or friendship, as against to one’s
worth. The padrino system in the Philippines has been the root cause of
many controversies and corruption.
It is identical to Compadre system whereby an enterprising subordinate
will convince his superior to be the godfather of his son to get promotion or
salary increase.
It has been an open secret that one cannot join the political arena of the
Philippines without mastery of the padrino system. Starting from the
lowest barangay official, to the President of the Republic, it is expected
that one obtains political debts and gives out political favor to advance
one’s career or influence, if not wealth.

5. MAŇANA HABIT
The mañana habit is something that Filipinos have learned from the
Spaniards. The word mañana means tomorrow or specified future time. It
is also known as procrastination in plain English and mamaya na in
Filipino. It could also means purring something off until another time. This
trait was instilled to the Filipinos during the Spanish era in which they use
this habit in work and serious business as a silent objection to the
invaders.
The mañana habit can be also considered as the procrastination virues
since it brings a lot of negative effects to people. This habit has made
Filipinos become lazier and less efficient in doing tasks. It is also one of
the greatest reasons why they become less productive and why they give
their outputs late which prevents them from growing as human beings.
Financially, it’s perfect to describe lack of preparation for the future. Many
Filipinos postpone saving or getting insurance, feeling they can do so on
another sunny day or when their finances are steadier. When they at least
decide to do it, it’s too late because the premiums are too high or they are
already sick and want the money too badly.

6. AMOR PROPIO/SELF-RESPECT
Amor Propio is a Spanish word which means self-love. It is a sense of
self-esteem or self-respect that stops a person from swallowing his pride.
It includes sensitivity to personal insult or offends. A minor remark or
offensive gesture, though insulting, would not prompt a sense of amor
propio.

7. DELICADEZA
Delicadeza is a Spanish term which means daintiness when translated in
English. It is defined as an act of being refined or delicate in tastes or
manners. In simpler terms, it is a sense of good manners or how to
behave rightly in all situations. It is an etiquette that was passed on to
Filipinos as a legacy of the Spanish culture.
It could also mean proper decorum or strict adherence to what’s right,
moral or ethical. Perhaps it can be better understood by saying that those
who don’t have it meaning walang delicadeza or makapal and mukha, or
thick-faced.

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In other words, delicadeza stands for the deep feeling on the part of an
individual such that it sees and reads the clear signs when the same is
frowned at or looked down upon, held in scorn and looked down upon with
contempt. Consequently, someone without delicadeza is basically
despised, clearly disrespected or even already hated by neighbors, by the
community or the people in general.

8. HIYA
Shame or hiya is a very common Filipino value. It is a sense of social
propriety and conforming to societal norms of behavior. If someone is
publicly embarrassed, criticized, or does not live up to expectations, they
feel shame and lose self-esteem.
To the Filipino, hiya is something that a person must possess to a high
level. He who does not have hiya is called walang hiya or shameless.
Because of this value, a Filipino would do something stupid in order to
save face.
Most Filipinos just turn silent and kept their mouths shut to corruption in
both and government para walang mapahiya.

9. PAKIKISAMA/PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO
Loyalty or pakikisama is another Filipino value. This is the shared sense of
identiy and consciousness of the other person. It is treating others with
respect and dignity as an equal and not someone below the individual.
Filipinos are said to be loyal to their friends and fellowmen in order to
guarantee the peace in the group.
Pakikisama consists of doing somebody a good act, like helping a man
build a house without asking for payment, or helping a man look for a job.
And so on. If he does these and other related things, he is said to be
mabuting makisama. If he does the opposite, he is called masamang
makisama. Pakikisama does not mean doing corrupt or dishonest things in
orer to look good to others. Pakikisama is a positive value and means
doing somebody a good turn.

10. FAMILY ORIENTATION

The basic units of the Philippine social organization are the elementary
family which includes the mother, father, and children, and the bilateral
extended family which embraces all relatives of the father and the mother.
Or particular significance is the sibling group, the unit formed by brothers
and sisters.
The Philippines is known to be a family centered nation. The Filipinos
recognized their family as an important social structure that one must take
care of. They give importance to the safety and unity one’s family. The
Filipino family is so intact that it is common for members of the same
family work for the same company. It is also common to find the whole can
living in the same area as that the Filipinos are afraid to be too far from
their own family. Family lunches with the whole clan with up to 50 people,
that extend until the line of second cousins are not strange. The Filipino
puts a being close to one’s family member. A Filipino’s life of the family.
Filipinos upon turning eighteen (18) years old are not obliged to move out
of their parents’ home and get a place for himself. The Filipinos do not
send their elders to nursing homes to taken care of. They believe that
when their elders are powerless to live alone, the time has come for them
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to pay their respects and to be able to serve their parents just as they
were nurtured when they were younger. People also get strength from
their family; thus a child may have several godparents to ensure his future
in case his parents will not be there for him.

11. HOSPITALITY
Hospitality refers to the relationship between guest and the host. Although
Filipinos are not the only people in the world who can be friendly and
welcoming, their attitude towards other people is said to be exceptional.
The host entertains and gives relieve to the guest while staying in house
of the host.
The Filipinos are very hospitable when it comes to their fellowmen. They
will invite their visitors to come into their homes and offer them treats such
as snacks and drinks after a long journey. There are also instances when
the Filipinos will serve only the best to their visitors even if at times, they
may not be able to afford it. They also go the extremes a to give up the
comfort of their own bedrooms for their guests and to the point of sleeping
on floor just to ensure that their guests are comfortable. Even the
humblest home along the road can serve as a shelter for a stranger who
has lost his way.
For Filipinos, serving other people the best of what they have is an honor
and a promise of true friendship. A typical Filipino house is not fully called
a home without any place prepared for unexpected visitors. It is filled with
new and lovely items held in reserve only for them while ordinary ones are
for everyday use. They welcome guests with the expression “feel at home”
to make them comfortably at ease. Arriving at host’ house during mealtime
may be awkward however if it’s in a Filipino house, the guest will be
requested to sit down and share with what they have on the table.
Because eating alone without asking others according to Filipino
costumes is considered rude. These manners picture hoe Filipinos accept
and properly respect the presence of their visitors. It is a form of
hospitability that comes truly from the heart.

12. JOY AND HUMOR

This famous trait is the ability of Filipinos to fine joy and humor in
everything. It sheds light on the optimism and positivity of Filipinos in
whatever situation they are in so as to remain determined in going through
struggles or challenges. Filipinos have a cheerful, optimistic and fun-loving
approach to life and its ups and downs. They have a pleasant disposition,
a sense of humor, and a propensity for happiness that contribute not only
the Filipino charm but also to the indomitability of the Filipino spirit.
Laughing is an important coping mechanism.
It is like how the country made its image as the land of true smiling people.
Considering the struggling economy, political confusions and the rising
poverty in the country, anyone will be surprised seeing how Filipinos
handle such situations. It is like taking everything from them but not their
love of joking. Joking and laughing at everything perhaps give them relief
and make them see things more positively.
The sense of joy and humor is manifested in the Filipino’s love for socials
and celebrations, in its capacity to laugh even in the most trying of times,
in the appeal political satire.

13. FELIXIBILITY, ADAPTABILITY, CREATIVITY

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Studies show that Filipinos often have a dislike to a set of standardized

rules on procedures. They are known to follow a natural clock or organic
sense of time-doing things they feel is correct. They are present-
oriented, which means that one attends to a task or requirement at the
time it is needed and does not worry much about future engagements.
This allows the Filipino to adapt and be flexible in doing the tasks at times
not bound to a particular schedule or timeframe. This allows them to think
on their feet and be creative in facing whatever challenge or task they
have even when it is already right in front of them.
This are manifested in the ability to adjust to often complicated situations
and prevailing physical and social environments. Filipinos have a high
patience for uncertainty that enables them to respond coolly to ambiguity
or lack of information. Filipinos often improvise and make productive and
innovative use of whatever is obtainable. These qualities have been
repeatedly demonstrated in their capacity to adapt to living in any part of
the world and in their ability to allow change.

14. FAITH AND RELIGIOSITY

The Philippines is approximately 85% Christian (mostly Roman Catholic),
10% Muslim, and 5% other religions, including the Taoist-Buddhist
religious beliefs of Chinese and the indigenous animistic beliefs of some
peoples in upland areas that resisted 300 years of Spanish colonial rule.
This is a reflection of the Filipinos’ strong faith in God as seen in their
various practices. This includes the numerous church holidays they
observe, the customary and obligatory Sunday Mass, the individual’s
basis of their moral standpoints, the influence of the church on the minds,
actions, and opinions of the majority, importance of the sacraments,
praying at almost any possible time of the day, the extreme practices
during Holy Week,
and so on.

15. ABILITY TO SURVIVE

The Filipinos as a people who have been constantly under the rule of
numerous powerful countries has over time, developed a sense of
resourcefulness or the ability to survive with whatever they have. They
have the extraordinary ability to make something about of basically
nothing.
Filipinos have an ability to survive, which is manifested in their capacity for
endurance despite difficult times in their ability to get by on so very little.
Filipinos make do with what is available in the environment.
The survival instinct is related to the Filipinos other strengths. A basic
optimism, flexibility and adaptability, hard work, and a deep faith in God. It
is noticeable in the millions of Filipinos who bravely live through the
harshest economic and social situations.

16. HARDWORK AND INDUSTRY

With resourcefulness comes hard work. Filipinos are very determined and
persevering in accomplishing whatever they set their minds to. Filipinos
over the years have proven time and time again that they are a people
with an industrious attitude. Sadly, this is seen by others as Filipinos being
only useful as domestic helpers, working abroad to help their families in
the country. This is also present in the country’s workforce particularly the
farmers. Even with little support, technological weaknesses and the
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country’s seasonal typhoons, the Filipino farmer still strives to earn their
daily meal.
The related capacity for hard work and industry among Filipinos is widely
acknowledged. Filipinos are universally regarded as excellent workers
who perform well whether job involves physical labor and tasks or highly
sophisticated technical functions. This propensity for hard work, which
often includes a highly competitive spirit, is driven by the need for
economic security and advancement for oneself and one’s family. This
achievement direction is further accompanied by typically high ambitions
and great personal sacrifices.

17. FILIPINO TIME

Filipino time is a coined phrase for the embarrassing affliction of tardiness
among Filipinos it has become a phenomenon and impression for Filipino
Schedule, making it a characteristic of Filipinos to be generally late.
Obviously, this trait was also an influence from the Spanish occupiers for
people would rather give more attention to their amor propio (hiya), in
some events than going there as early as possible. This trait is also a root
of the “mañana habit”.

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CHAPTER 4
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg was a 20th century developmental psychologist and moral
philosopher. When he was the director of Harvard’s Center for Moral Education,
Kohlberg’s research focused on the moral development of children particularly on how
they developed a sense of what is right or wrong, as well as justice. He observed hat
children move through what he believed as definite stages of moral development.

Kohlberg’s Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very interesting technique. In his research,
Kohlberg would ask children and adults to try solve moral dilemmas in short stories and
asked the participants to think out loud so he could follow their reasoning. The reason
for this was that Kohlberg was not interested with the specific answers to the dilemmas
– he wanted to know how the person got to his or her answer.

His theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, has
identifiable developmental stages and each become more adequate at responding to
moral dilemmas as the person progresses from one stage to the next. Kohlberg
asserted that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice,
and that the process goes on throughout the individual’s lifetime.

After looking at hundreds of interviews using several stories, Kohlberg outlined three
broad levels and six specific stages of moral development.

Level I: Pre-conventional morality

Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This line of moral reasoning
is common among children although some adults would also exhibit such
behavior. The child, having no concept about society’s conventions on what is
right or wrong, would base its judgment mainly on the external consequences of
its action.

Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation

This is also called the ‘pre-moral’ stage where decisions and actions are
determined by immediate physical consequence and not the true moral value.
The overall goal at this stage is to avoid punishment. For example, “I am going to
study my lessons because mom will get mad at me if I do not pass this test”.

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Stage 2: Reward Orientation

As children grow older, they begin to see that there is actually room for
negotiation
because other people have their own goals to meet and wants that must be
satisfied too. Children learn to behave in a manner based on the principle
“What’s
in it for me?” For example, an older child might reason: “If I get good grades mom
and dad will buy me a new smart phone. So, I’m going to do my homework.”

Level II: Conventional Morality

This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and adults. Conventional morality
is to reason in a conventional manner. It is accepting the rules and standards of one’s
group. This means decisions and the morality of his/her actions are based on society’s
views and expectations. The focus on this level is the “significant others” or what is also
called “Tyranny of the They” (They say this…. They say that…They say I should….)
Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other people by living up to
their expectations. He/She also now understands the concept of loyalty, trust,
and gratitude as well as become interested in motives and intentions behind a
particular decision or action. For example, children understand and live by the
Golden Rule.
Stage 4: Authority Orientation
By this time, individual’s have reached adulthood and they usually consider
society as a whole when making judgments. The focus at this stage is following
the rules, maintaining law and order, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.
For example, when someone violates the law, it is morally wrong; culpability is
therefore a significant factor in this stage because it separates what is bad from
what is good.

Level III: Post conventional

This is also known as the ‘principled level’. It is marked by a growing realization that
people are unique and are an independent part of the society. Therefore, the
individual’s own perspective is more significant over what the rest of the society thinks
and that this would sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow personal principles.

at this level, a person does not see rules and laws as absolute or beyond question, but
a changeable mechanism. Kohlberg asserted that post conventional individuals view
rules and laws to be important in maintaining peace and order but it only serves as a
guide that needs to be weighed against personal principles and beliefs to uphold one’s
human rights.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

This stage means the individual is aware that much of what is considered to be
moral or good is mainly based on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they
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belong to and that only a very few of the known fundamental values are actually
universal.

Stage 6: Principle Orientation

At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and the person makes a
personal commitment to uphold universal principles of equal rights and respect. At this
stage, an individual already has a principled conscience; and will follow universal,
ethical principles regardless of what the laws or the rules say. Judgment here is based
on abstract reasoning such as being able to put oneself in other people’s shoes.

CHAPTER 5
THE FILIPINO MILLENIALS (“FILLENIALS”)

Millenials are those born between 1981 and 2000. Authors William Strauss and
Neil Howe are credited for coining the term “millennials”. But who are the Filipino
millennials? Get to know the qualities of the “Fillenials” that make them different
from their global contemporaries.

In a 2010 survey census, there are an estimated 25 million Filipino millennials or

“Fillennials” (aged 15-29) in the Philippines. In 2015, Filipino millennials (aged 15-34)
make up 53% of the working population and 45% of them were employed. Those who
were in the 25-29 years bracket were the highest percentage of Filipinos workers
abroad. Most Filipino youths today own a mobile phone and use the internet. The
Philippines was once dubbed as the social media capital of the world. It was found most
Filipino youth have a social media account and the Filipino millennials aged 20-29 are
the most common users of Facebook.

Currently, there are four generations working in the same workplace:

 Traditionalists – those born from 1900-1945. The generation that lived through
two World Wars. Their formative years were that of survival.
 Baby Boomers – those born from 1946-1964. They are called “baby boomers”
because of the significant increase of population in their generation.
 Generation X – those born from 1965-1980. The generation born in the era of
video games and computers.
 Millennials – those born from 1981-2000. They are also called the “digital
natives”. They grew up in the digital age, rather than acquiring familiarity of it as
an adult. The generation born in an internet era.
 Generation Z - the fifth classification. These are those who were born in 2001 to
the present. They are also called the iGeneration. They are the generation born
in an era of individualized mobile technologies (smartphones, tablets, iPad,
iPhone, etc.)

By 2025, millennials are estimated to account for 75% of the global workforce. This
means that the attitudes and traits of these self-involved, selfie-taking individuals are
what will be shaping various industries, both as workers and consumers. So much
extensive research is being done to get a better picture of this generation.

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QUALITIES OF FILLENNIALS

A 2016 study dubbed “The Truth About The Youth Philippines” was conducted by
McCann Truth Central by McCann Worldgroup, a leading global marketing services
company. This was part of a larger study consisting of findings from 33, 000 interviews
across 18 countries including the US, Germany, Japan, and the Philippines.

It turned out that there are things the Filipino millennials care more about than their
millennial counterparts in other countries. Here are some of the interesting statistics:

 83% of Filipino youths rely heavily on their parents for advice.

 On adulthood, Fillennials value close family relationships.
 However, they also believe that the age limit for someone to continue living with
their parents is 30 years old. The global average was surveyed at 32 years old.
 Filipino millennials are more active in social media and are more easily
influenced by peers.
 61% feel pressured to portray themselves in the best way possible in social
media
 96% feel it is important to a positive contribution to the community.

However, despite the fast-moving world of social media and communication there are
three enduring human truths about being young that as true today as they ever were in
the previous generations.

1. The notion of needing to “find yourself”

Being young is still ridden with angst. They are at the stage wherein
identity is being formed. Millennials go through the same agony of “trying
to figure things out” specifically “to figure what kind of person I am”.
2. Friends are everything
Finding your group (barkada, ka-berks, dabarkads, beshie) to hang out
with is the key to establishing the sense of “self” and happiness.
3. “Finding your place in the world”
This pursuit remains relevant across eras. The millennials still strive to
figure out their values, passions and ideals, as well as establishing their
sense of personal justice of what is right and wrong.

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CHAPTER 6
RIGHTS AND DUTIES

Man is born with rights and duties. Having rights is an attribute of a person.
Notion of Right
Right, objectively taken, is anything which is owed or due. Taken subjectively, that is, as
residing in a person, right is a moral power, bound to be respected by others, of doing,
possessing, or requiring something.
Right is founded upon law, either natural law or human positive law. But because all
laws are derived ultimately from the Eternal law, then education are founded on eternal
law.

Kinds of Rights
1. Natural Rights are those based on the natural law, that is, on human nature.
Examples of natural rights are: the right to live, right to education, right to work.
2. Human Rights are those based on human positive laws, either those enacted by
the State or a religious sect. Civil rights are those dependent upon the laws of the
State. Ecclesiastical or religious rights are those dependent upon the laws of a
church or religious sect. examples of human rights are: right to form
associations, right to legal due process, right to travel. Examples religious rights
are: right to worship, right marry within one’s church, and right to be educated in
the faith.
3. Alienable and Inalienable Rights. Alienable rights are those, civil or religious
rights, which can be surrendered, renounced, or removed, such as the right to
travel. Inalienable rights are those which cannot be surrendered, renounced, or
removed, such as the right to decent livelihood.
4. Right of Jurisdiction is the power of lawful authority to govern his subjects and
to make laws for them. A father has the right of jurisdiction over his children.
5. Right of Property is the power to own, to sell, to barter, to lend, to change, or
give away one’s personal possessions. The farmer has property rights to the land
he owns and the produce thereof.
6. Juridical Rights refers to all rights insofar as they are based on law. These
rights must be respected, allowed, fulfilled, as a matter of strict justice. Non-
juridical rights are those which are not founded on laws, either natural or human,
but on virtue.

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Characteristics of Rights
1. Coaction is the power inherent in rights to prevent their violation and to exact
redress for their unjust violation. Under normal circumstance, coaction is
exercised through the process of law, where a person whose right has been
violated may sue in court. Under extraordinary situations, coaction may be
enforced by the person himself whose right is endangered, such as in that
situation which warrants self-defense against unjust aggression.
2. Limitation is the natural limits or boundary beyond which a right may not be
insisted without violating the right of another. One may not play his radio in a way
that would disturb the right of another who wants to sleep.
3. Collision is the conflict of two rights so related that it is not possible to exercise
one without violating another.

Civil and Political Rights

The Bill of Rights includes the civil and political rights of the people.
1. Civil rights – are those which an individual enjoys in his private activities, or in
his transactions with others, as protected and granted by law. These include the
right to privacy, the right to travels or change residence, the right to property, the
right to worship, and the right to free access to a court of justice. Civil rights are
enjoyed by citizens and non-citizens alike.
2. Political rights – are those which an individual enjoys in participation in
government affairs. These include the right to fee speech and free press, the
right to form associations, the right to assemble and to petition the government
for redress of grievances, the right to vote and be voted upon to public office.
Political rights are enjoyed only by the citizens of each particular country.

Civil and political rights are what we call human rights. But in its widest sense
human rights include those pertaining to the dignity of the person such as
integrity, liberty, education, health, work, and welfare.

Notion of Duty
Duty, taken as objectively, is anything we are obliged to do or to omit. Taken
subjectively, is a moral obligation incumbent upon a person of doing, omitting, or
avoiding something.
Duty is a moral obligation because it depends upon freewill. As such, it resides on a
person. And because duty is defined by law, any willful neglect of duty makes the
person accountable for such act.

Kinds of Duties
1. Natural duties – are those imposed by natural law such as, the duty to care for
our health.
2. Positive Duties – are those imposed by a human positive law such as, the duty
to pay taxes and to observe traffic rules.
3. Affirmative duties – are those which require the performance of a certain act,
such as casting a ballot during election; or applying for a business license.
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Negative duties are those which require the omission of a certain act, such as not
carrying illegal firearms, or not destroying the property of another.

CHAPTER 7
LOVE OF GOD

Love of God is a duty to God. The practice of religion is not only second nature to
Filipinos, it is the spiritual psychic of the Filipino to be religious.
Worship of God
Worship of God is the proclamation of the glory of God. It is the acceptance of the
intellect and will-of mind and heart- of God’s dominion over the created universe.
Worship of God is internal when it consists of acts of the intellect and will, such as in
making an act of faith, or, in mental prayer in praise of God.
It is external when it consists of commanded acts of honoring or paying homage to God,
such as fasting, kneeling down in prayer, or in giving alms to the poor.
Worship of God as the duty involve the duty of knowing, loving and serving God.
1. The Duty to Know God
 Man has a natural tendency to worship God. This implies that he has a natural
capacity of know God. We say “natural” because man, by his own intellectual
powers, discovers the presence of God as Creator and Supreme Lawgiver.
 Our knowledge of God is natural if it is the conclusion of human reason operating
on its own powers. It is supernatural when it is based on divine revelation, that is,
on truths made known to man by God Himself.
2. The Duty to Love God
 We cannot love what we do not know. But knowing God does not necessarily
lead to love of God. One may know someone and still be detached from him.
 Loving God in a religious sense, means being attached to Him. Thus, love of God
is a personal response to His presence. It is not a mere emotional reaction, a sort
of physical infatuation or pious sentiment. It is the submission to our mind and
heart to what God is and to what he is saying to us.
3. The Duty to Serve God
 If to love God is to obey God’s will, then our moral acts sum up our services to
God. We cannot offer God anything else, but our life-made clean and worthy of
God’s Infinite Goodness. It is in this sense, that religion is concerned with the
sanctification of souls, with self-perfection.
Properly called acts of religion or acts of worship are the following;
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1. Devotion which is the readiness of the will to perform acts of divine worship, such
as prayer and fasting among others.
2. Prayer which is the elevation of the mind to God in praise of Him, in gratitude to
Him, or in communion with Him.
3. Adoration which is the submission of the mind and will to the glory of God.
4. Sacrifice which is the offering of body and soul to God in recognition of His
dominion over the created universe.

CHAPTER 8
LOVE OF ONESELF

Wisdom, according to Socrates, begins with this one basic principle: “Know thyself”. He
referred to the human mind as a storehouse of truths which man has only to recognize
and realize in order to acquire a true and certain knowledge of what we ought to
become as persons. If anyone knows what is right and true, he cannot help but choose
it and act consistent with it.

Love and Selfishness

To know ourselves is to love ourselves. To love ourselves is to acknowledge the
fundamental goodness of our nature and to share it with others.
Love is the tendency towards what is good. Selfishness is withdrawing to ourselves,
putting ourselves ahead and above all others. Love thrives on justice, on what is honest
and beautiful. Selfishness is the overflowing of greed and pride.

THE INTEGRAL VALUES OF THE PERSON

1. Biological duties
The biological duties are those pertaining to the preservation of life and
the maintenance of health and bodily functions.
It is the duty of everyone to take adequate nourishment, food and rest in
order to preserve physical well-being. One should observe personal
hygiene and avoid risks to his health and safety.
2. Intellectual duties
The intellectual duties are those pertaining to the development of our
intellect and will
It is the duty of everyone to overcome ignorance by learning a skill or by
acquiring a science. It belongs to human dignity that one is at least
knowledgeable of those things directly affecting his life. Intellectual
competence promotes self-reliance and qualifies a person to bee of help
to others.
3. Moral duties
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The moral duties are those pertaining to the development of the spirit or
character. This consists in the practice of religion and the exercise of
moral virtues.

OUR BASIC PERSONAL RIGHTS

1. The Right to Life
The right to life is the most important of all rights. It is the foundation, we
may say, of all other rights. The 1987 Constitution expressly guarantees
this right, that our right to be alive and to be secured from physical harm is
a primordial duty of the government.
The right to life secures us not only from physical harm but provides for
our economic, cultural and spiritual growth.
2. The Right to Private Property
Derived from the right to life is the right to private property. Precisely,
because man has the right to life, he also acquires the right to private
property, to those means necessary for the sustenance and maintenance
of life.

3. The Right of Education

The right to education comes from man’s rational nature. Every child is
entitled to be educated by his family. By the State and by the Church.
In the Philippines, the education of children is a serious concern of
parents. The sacrifices Filipino parents are willing to endure in order to
send their sons and daughters to college mark their love and nobility.

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CHAPTER 9
WORK ETHICS

The duty to preserve one’s life implies the duty to work. Work is a creative process for
self-development. When properly combined with leisure, it is healthful and promotes
both mental and physical well-being.

Work is not only a personal activity. It is a social process with the preservation of
human society as its ultimate purpose. Work therefore has its moral and legal
implications.

The meaning of Work

Work is the legitimate use of our mental and bodily powers for economic gain or profit.
1. Work is the “use: or application of our physical powers to accomplish a certain task.
It is “use” because nobody can own another man’s body, nor cam anyone sell his body
or any part of it, for purposes of material advantage and gain.
2. Work is for the purpose of obtaining an economic gain for the laborer. It belongs to
the essence of work that it be compensated.

BASIC DUTIES OF WORKERS

Conscience dictates the duties of a worker. It is conscience because it is impossible for
anyone not to have an inkling of these duties, namely:
1. Work honestly and comply with all agreements;
2. Never injure capital, nor steal from the employer;
3. Never outrage the person of the employer;
4. Never employ deceit nor violence in presenting a cause
5. Never consort with “agitator” or men of evil principles

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BASIC DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS

Employers have the sacred task of caring for their workers. Theirs is the golden
opportunity to become the ethical “man for others”. They must be fair minded and
generous in their dispositions.
1. Respect the human dignity of the workers;
2. Appreciate their work;
3. Never treat them as slaves for making money;
4. Never assign them task beyond their strength, do not employ them in work not suited
to their age or sex;
5. Give them commensurate wages;
6. Provide for their health and social recreation;
7. Provide them time for the practice of their religion;
8. Instruct them on how use their money wisely;
9. Instruct them to love their family;
10. Provide them with the opportunities for promotion.

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CHAPTER 10
THE FAMILY

The family springs from marriage. Filipinos regard the family as the center of their lives,
their primary support and the source of their moral strength and motivation. The family
is the first human society.

Society in General
Society is a moral union of men for the purpose of attaining a common end.

Kinds of Society
1. natural and positive – a society which is derived from natural law. From the essential
need of man as man, is called natural society.
2. necessary and unnecessary – with reference to the needs of man as man, some
societies are necessary and man cannot do away with them.

The Family
The family is the first and the most fundamental unit of society. It is made up of the
father, mother, children, and relatives. The family is a necessary society which is
derived from natural law.

Rights and duties of Parents

The family code sums up the following rights and duties derived from parental authority.
1. To keep children in their company, to support, educate and instruct them by right
precept and good example, and to provide for their upbringing in keeping with their
means;
2. To give them love and affection, advice and counsel, companionship and
understanding.

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3. to provide them with moral and spiritual guidance, inculcate in them honesty,
integrity, self-discipline, self-reliance, industry and thrift, stimulate their interest in civic
affairs, and inspire in them compliance with the duties of citizenship.
4. To enhance, protect, preserve, and maintain their physical and mental health at all
times.
5. To furnish them with good and wholesome educational materials, supervise their
activities, recreation and association with others, protect them from bad company, and
prevent them from acquiring habits detrimental to their health, studies and morals.
6. To represent them in all matters affecting their interests.
7. To demand from them respect and obedience.
8. To impose discipline on them as may be required under circumstances
9. To perform such other duties as are imposed by law upon parents and guardians

Duties of Children
The duties of the children are implied in the above rights of parents and guardians.
1. Children must love, revere, and obey their parents.
2. They must obey all the lawful commands of the parents
3. They must honor their parents at all times, must not speak ill or evil of them
4. They must submit to the parent’s authority and decisions.
5. They must never harm their parents physically or morally.
6. They must consult and seek the advice of their parents in their activities
7. They must help and support their parents in times of need, such as in sickness and
weakness of old age.

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CHAPTER 11
LOVE OF NEIGHBOR

Neighbor is every person apart of oneself: parents, relatives, friends, acquaintances,

classmates, officemates, employers, superiors, and servants. Even those we regard as
our enemies remain neighbors whom we ought to love and respect. In its widest sense,
neighbor includes all the creatures with whom we exist in this world.

Principles of Neighborly Relations

Our relationship with others expressed negatively be the golden rule. “Do not do unto
others what you do not want to be done to you”. The same principle is expressed
positively. “Love your neighbor as yourself”. For Christ, this is the second greatest
commandment, the first being that of loving God with al our heart, with all our mind and
with all our soul.

Two prominent virtues regulate our relationship with the other person. These are the
virtues of charity and justice. Justice requires that we render to another what is due to
him. We render to a person that which belongs to him by right. Justice therefore
presupposes the right of the person.

The Different Application of Justice

St. Thomas Aquinas defines justice as the firm and constant will to give to each on his
due (Sum. Theol. II-II, 58, 1). This means giving to one his own or his right. By right we
mean that which is strictly owed according to equality, the equality of proportion.
Equality of proportion does not imply that we render to all persons one and the same
thing in the manner of mathematical equation or division. People differ from each other
and insofar as “one is different from another, there is a corresponding diversity also in
the measure of rights and of the claim to rights”. Accordingly, we distinguish the
following types of justice.
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1. Commutative Justice
Commutative justice regulates and harmonizes the exercise of rights between
man and man. It covers private persons as well as juridical persons to render to
each other according to the principle of give and take. This means that the
exchange of anything shall be based on equal value. The business transaction of
equitable pricing of goods is an example of commutative of justice.

2. Distributive Justice
Distributive justice regulates the exercise of rights between the individual and the
community. The objective end of this form of justice is the private or particular
good of each member of the community. Distributive justice therefore regulates
acts of the public authority or of the State in relation to the rights of the individual
citizen or party. It presupposes these rights as something which public authority
or community ought to preserve and respect. It is distributive justice which
regulates the imposition of taxes, fees, or privileges by the community upon the
individual member. Likewise, the individual members practice distributive justice
by accepting uncomplainingly the equitable distribution of burdens and privileges.
(Haring, Ibid., 517)

3. Legal Justice
Legal justice regulates the exercise of rights between the community and the
authority charged with the welfare of the community. The objective purpose of
legal justice is the common good. The “common good
“ refers to the sum total of those conditions of social living necessary and
contributory to the development of man within the community. The imposition of
laws derives from legal justice.
Legal and distributive justice compliment each other. “In the measure in which
the individual devotes his powers and resources to the common welfare, the
community must show its concerns for his particular welfare”, observes Bernard
Haring (Law of Christ, I, 517).

4. Social Justice
Social justice presupposes commutative justice as a condition. But it goes far
beyond the requirements of commutative justice. Its objective purpose is the
common good, and is thus also called “justice of the common welfare” or “justice
of the community”. Where commutative justice depends on the law or legal
contracts between individuals, social justice draws its force from the solidarity of
men living in the community of persons.

Duties to our Neighbor on the basis of Justice

In the reciprocity of rights and duties, whatever right we may claim for ourselves we
must owe as a duty towards our neighbor. Accordingly, we may classify our duties to
our neighbor as 1.) those pertaining to their body; 2.) those pertaining to their soul; and
3.) those pertaining to their property.

1. Duties to our neighbor’s body

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Every person has the right to his life, bodily integrity and health. This right comes
from the force of natural law and we are bound to respect it, both morally and
legally. The general rule is to refrain from any activity that, directly or indirectly,
endangers the health or life of another.

2. Duties to our neighbor’s soul

Every person has the right to the truth and to the good that befits his rational soul.
This is a right from natural law, since man is endowed with the intellect for knowing
the truth and the will for desiring that which is good
3. Duties to our neighbor’s property
Every person has the right of ownership over his properties and belongings. Such
rights implies the moral power to use and to exclude from such use other persons.

“Property” in its ordinary meaning refers to external and material goods which,
properly speaking can be possessed, disposed of, or consumed. “Property”,
however, could also mean the results of one’s work a personal cultivation. In this
sense, we speak of “good name” or reputation as a property of a person.

CHAPTER 12
MARRIAGE

Persons acquire special duties on account of their moral and legal relationship to one
another. One such relationship is established in marriage.
The 1998 Family Code of the Philippines defines marriage as “a special contract of
permanent union between a man and a woman entered into in accordance with the law
for the establishment of conjugal and family life”. (Title I, Chapter I, Art. 1).

Nature of Marriage
Marriage is a moral and legal contract between a man and a woman. It is a moral
contract because it is entered into by both parties, giving free and voluntary consent. It
is a legal contract because it is solemnized in accordance with the law.
For Christians, particularly Catholics, marriage is of divine institution. While the spouses
enter into a marriage by their free and voluntary, “this freedom regards only the question
whether the contracting parties really wish to enter upon matrimony or to marry this
particular person” (Encyclical on Christian Marriage, no.6). marriage as such is entirely
independent of the free will of man. Thus, upon entering the married state, a person
becomes subject to its divinely made laws and its essential properties.

Legal Requirements for Marriage

1. Contracting parties must be a male and a female of legal age. This means that both
parties are free from any legal impediments and are 18 years old or above. Some
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legal impediments are: a.) existing previous marriage; b.) mental or psychological
incapacity; c.) blood or legal relationships, such as that of brother and sister, or that
of an adopter and adopted child; d.) treachery or deceit, such as when one party
killed the spouse of the other in order to facilitate marriage.
2. Free voluntary consent must be expressed in the presence of the solemnizing
officer. This means that consent given mutually but in private, no matter how
sincerely expressed does not constitute a valid marital contract. Cohabitation, or
“live-in” arrangement is not a legal marriage.

Purpose of Marriage
Marriage has the twofold purposes of establishing a conjugal life and the establishing a
family.
The married state constitutes a conjugal society. Conjugal society, as define by Paul
Glenn, is “the stable union entered into by a man and a man for the procreation and
education of children and for mutual support and helpfulness” (Ethics, 232).
Marriage is a natural institution. Man is drawn to it by the necessity of his natural nature.
While marriage is not necessary in order to beget children, it is necessary for the
purpose of care and training of children. The welfare of the children then is the primary
purpose of marriage. This is precisely why marriage by nature and by divine will is a
stable or permanent relationship since the welfare of the children would not otherwise
be assured.
The secondary purpose of marriage is mutual support and companionship. Marriage is
a state where spouses compliment each other. Love and concern for each other is the
foundation of a happy marriage. Without such love and appreciation for each other, no
man and woman can be together permanently. Thus, such love which draws spouses in
marriage must be more than physical attachment, sexual attraction, or infatuation. It is
deep commitment of matured persons for each other.

The Sanctity of Marriage

Marriage is not simply a civil contract binding man and woman to accomplish a task. It is
the sanctified union of the souls of the spouses. Pope Pius XI declares: “By matrimony,
therefore, the souls of the contracting parties are joined and knit together more directly
and more intimately than are their bodies, and that not by passing affection of sense or
spirit, but by a deliberate and firm act of will: and this union of souls by God’s decree, a
sacred and inviolable bond arises (On Christian marriage, no.7)
The sanctity of marriage derives from the holiness of God who instituted it and from the
honest surrender of man’s will to the natural law of his being. Indeed, man is directed by
his nature to marriage without however being compelled to enter it out of necessity. The
freedom of choice, even to enter marriage, belongs to the person.

The Meaning of Conjugal Love

It is obvious from common sense that when man and woman enter marriage, they do so
not to have sexual intimacy since this could be had even outside the married state.
Rather, inspired and motivated by their love for each other, they commit themselves to
each other in building a common life of sharing. Conjugal love therefore is not the effect

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of biology, nor “the product of evolution of unconsciousness natural forces. It is the

rational and reciprocal personal gift of self, proper and exclusive to them, husband and
wife tend towards personal perfection, to collaborate with God in the generation and
education of new live” (Humane Vitae, no.8)

Characteristics of Conjugal Love

1. It is human. It is not merely the appetite of the senses. It is instead “an act of the
free will, intended to endure and to grow by means of the joys and sorrows of
daily life, in such a way that husband and wife becomes one only heart and one
only soul, and together attain their human perfection”.
2. It is total. It is a special form of friendship of generous sharing of everything
without undue reservations or selfish calculations. “Whoever truly loves his
marriage partner loves not only for what he receives, but for the partner’s self,
rejoicing that he can enrich his partner with a gift of himself”.
3. It is faithful and exclusive until death. Love, if it must be genuine, must be
lasting. This permanence comes from the vows of fidelity to each other. A
conditional love, where certain factors foreseen or not are provided as
prerequisite to fidelity, is not authentic love. It is timid and selfish love because it
puts personal interest above the interest of the union itself. It belongs to the
essence of love itself that it be faithful and exclusive, because happiness and
security cannot thrive in an atmosphere of uncertainty and fearful anxiety.
4. It is fecund. It is fertile because it helps husband and wife grow in mutual
respect and love and concern for each other. It is fertile because such love is not
exhausted by the spouses, but is transferred and continued in the children.
Fecundity, in this sense, is not measured by the number of children a couple
have, but by the equality of life it offers for the members of the family.

Responsible Parenthood
Marriage leads to parenthood. This is the primary purpose of marriage that children are
generated and cared for. “Children are really the supreme gift of marriage and
contribute very substantially to the welfare of their parents”.
There was a time before the advent of contraceptives when parenthood meant simply
providing food, clothing, shelter and education to the offspring. Today, mainly because
of economic factors, as the exigency of providing the necessities of life has become
more difficult to obtain, parenthood has become a heavier challenge.

Sex and Marriage

Despite today’s focus on sex and related problems, sex is not that all important in a
happy marriage.
Sex is a normal biological need. In this sense, it is good. It is besides moral and,
therefore, permissible only when its natural end or purpose is preserved. This is why
pre-marital sex is wrong. Not because it may not generate offspring, but precisely
because it may result in offspring whose care is uncertain. It is only within marriage that
the natural end of sex, that is, procreation is capable of being respected. Procreation
insofar as it is the natural end of the sex act requires responsibility in its use.

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In marriage the sex act is moral even if procreation is not always achieved. But to
deliberately frustrate the natural end of sex by artificial means so that couples may avail
of its pleasures only while refusing responsibility over its consequences is immoral. It is
not required that couples exercising the marital act also intends procreation. What is
required is that “each and every marriage act must be open to the transmission of life”.

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