CY3151/ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY / SEP 2024 MAILAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE, MAILAM.

UNIT-1 WATER AND ITS TREATMENT

PART – A
1. Write the different sources of water.
 Rain water
 Surface water (Eg. Pond, lake, river)
 Underground water (Eg. well, springs)
 Sea water

2. What are the various impurities present in water?

 Physical impurities
a) Suspended impurities like vegetable and animal matter, oil, etc.
b) Colloidal impurities like organic waste products, clay, etc.
 Chemical impurities (dissolved salts and dissolved gases)
 Biological impurities (bacteria, fungi, algae)

3. What are water quality parameters? Mention its types.

Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of
one or more biotic species and or to a human need or purpose.
There are three types of water quality parameters. They are,
1. Physical parameters (colour, taste and odour, turbidity, etc.)
2. Chemical parameters (pH, hardness, alkalinity, etc.)
3. Biological parameters (bacteria, fungi, virus, etc.)

4. Write the significance of presence of colour in water.

 Highly coloured water limits the penetration of light.
 Variation in colour of water from the same sources serves as the index of quality of
water.

5. Define taste and odour.

Taste: It is the sensation of flavour perceived in the mouth and throat on contact with a
substance.
Odour: It is a smell caused by one (or) more volatilized chemical compounds that are
generally found in low concentration.

6. What is turbidity?
It is the reduction of clarity of natural water due to the presence of finely divided,
insoluble impurities suspended in water.
It is the appearance of cloudiness or dirtiness in water.

7. Write the significance of turbidity in water.

 It increases the cost of water treatment for various uses.
 It has negative effects on aquatic life and blocks light to penetrate in water.

8. Define hardness of water.

Hardness is one of the chemical characteristics of water, which does not produce
lather with soap.
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It is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of Calcium and

Magnesium.
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 (C17H35COO)2 Ca + 2NaCl
Soap hardness hard soap
Causing substance

9. What is meant by soft water and hard water?

Hard water: Water which does not produce lather with soap solution but produces
white precipitate is called hard water. This is due to the presence of dissolved
Ca and Mg salts.
Soft water: Water which produce lather readily with soap solution is called
soft water. This is due to the absence of Ca and Mg salts.

10. What are temporary hardness and permanent hardness?

Temporary hardness: presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
Eg: Ca (HCO3)2, Mg (HCO3)2
Permanent hardness: presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and magnesium.
Eg: CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2, MgSO4

11. What is meant by BOD? [AU May 2022]

BOD (Biological oxygen Demand) is the amount of oxygen required for the
biological decomposition of organic matter present in the water.

12. Write the significance of BOD. [AU May 2022, 2023]

 It indicates the amount of decomposable organic matter present in the sewage.
 It helps to determine the degree of pollution in waste water.

13. What is COD? [AU May 2022]

COD (Chemical Oxygen demand) is the amount of oxygen required for the chemical
oxidation of organic matter using some oxidizing agent like K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.

14. Write the significance of BOD. [AU May 2022]

 It measures both the biologically oxidisable and biologically inert organic matter.
 It is used to monitor water treatment plant efficiently.
 It is used to measure pollutants in water and aqueous hazardous wastes.

15. Define alkalinity.

Alkalinity is a measure of acid neutralizing ability. Alkalinity in water is due to the
presence of hydroxide, carbonates and bicarbonates.

16. Write the effect of low and high pH in water or Significance of pH in water.
 A high pH makes the water taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine
disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine.
 The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises.
 Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.

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17. Write the health effects of fluoride present in water.

 Excessive amount of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental
fluorosis.
 Low fluoride concentration in water causes dental caries for children.

18. Write the significance of arsenic if present in water.

 Long term intake of arsenic in drinking water causes cancer of the bladder, skin and
kidney.
 Other health problem includes hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and
neurological disorders.

19. What are the various stages in the treatment of water for domestic supply?

Sources of water Screening Aeration Sedimentation

Sterilization (or) Disinfection Filtration Coagulation

20. What is aeration of water? Mention its purpose.

The process of mixing air with water is known as aeration. The main purpose of
aeration is
 To remove gases like CO2, H2S and other volatile impurities
 To remove ferrous and manganous salts as insoluble ferric and manganic salts.

21. Explain the function of a coagulant with example.

When the coagulant is added to water, it gets hydrolyzed to form a gelatinous
precipitate of Al(OH)3 which entraps the finely divided and colloidal impurities, settles to the
bottom and can be removed easily.

22. What is chlorination?

The process of adding chlorine to water is called chlorination. Chlorination can be
done by the following methods.
 By adding chlorine gas
 By adding chloramine
 By adding bleaching powder

23. Why is it necessary to chlorinate drinking water supply beyond break point?
It is necessary to chlorinate drinking water supply beyond break point because at
that point only all the impurities are destroyed and free chlorine begins to appear.

24. What is disinfection or sterilization? Mention various disinfection methods.

The process of destroying harmful bacteria present in water is called as disinfection or
sterilization.
Methods: Chlorination, ozonation, boiling, UV treatment

25. What is meant by disinfectant? What is the advantage of using chloramines as a

disinfectant?
The chemicals used for destroying the harmful bacteria are known as disinfectants.
Eg. Bleaching powder

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Advantages of chloramines:
 Chloramine compounds decompose slowly to give chlorine.
 It is a better disinfectant than chlorine. It also gives good taste to the treated water.
ClNH2 + H2O HOCl + NH3

26. Define the term break point chlorination. (Or) What is break-point chlorination?
[A.U.May 2024]
Break point chlorination is the point at which all the impurities are removed and free
chlorine begins to appear when chlorine is added to water as disinfectant.

27. How is water sterilized by ozone?

 Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and is readily absorbed by water.
O3  O2 + [O] Nascent oxygen (powerful germicide which kills bacteria)

28. What are the disadvantages of using ozone in disinfection of water?

 This process is costly and cannot be used in large scale.
 Ozone is unstable and cannot be stored for long time.

29. Define desalination.

The process of removing common salt from brackish/sea water is known as
desalination.

30. Write the principle involved in the desalination of water by reverse osmosis. (Or)
What is meant by Reverse osmosis? How is it applied in the desalination of water?
[A.U. May 2024]
If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure applied on the higher
concentration side, the solvent flow is reversed i.e. solvent flows from higher concentration
to lower concentration. The process is known as reverse osmosis.

31. Name some of the semi permeable membranes employed in reverse osmosis
process. State the advantages of this process.
Semipermeable membrane: Cellulose acetate, Cellulose butyrate.
Advantages:
 It removes ionic, non-ionic and colloidal impurities.
 The life time of the membrane is high and it can be replaced within few
minutes.
 Low cost, simple to operate.
32. Name the methods which separate both ionic and non-ionic impurities from
water.
Reverse osmosis process, Electro dialysis

33. What are the requisites of drinking and boiler feed water?
Boiler feed water: water which is fed into the boiler for steam production.
(i) Boiler feed Must be free from turbidity, oil, alkali and
water dissolved gases like O2, CO2.
(ii) Drinking (i) pH of water should be in the range of
water 7.0-8.5
(ii) Total hardness and dissolved solids of
water should be less than 500 ppm.
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34. Why is water softened before using in boiler? (Or) Why is hard water unsuitable for
boilers? (Or)Give the disadvantages of using hard water in boilers. What are the
various boiler troubles? (A.U. Jan 2018, 2019)
 Scale and sludge formation.
 Priming and foaming.
 Caustic embrittlement.
 Boiler corrosion.

35. What are sludges and scales? Write its causes. (A.U Dec 2023 )
Sludge: Soft and loose deposits. MgCl2, MgSO4, MgCO3, CaCl2.
Scale: Hard and adherent deposits. Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4, Mg(OH)2.

36. Distinguish between scale and sludge. [AU May 2024]

S.No. Scale Sludge
1. Hard and adherent deposits. Soft, loose and slimy deposits.
2. Formed by substances like Formed by substances like MgCl 2,
Ca(HCO3)2, CaSO4 and MgCO3 and CaCl2.
Mg(OH)2
3. Insoluble in hot water. Soluble in hot water.
4. Can be easily removed by Cannot be easily removed by boiling.
boiling.

37. What are the disadvantages of sludge/scale formation in boilers?

 It leads to wastage of fuel.
 It decreases the efficiency of boiler.
 Boiler explosion.

38. What is blow-down operation?

Blow – down operation is a process of removing a portion of concentrated water by
fresh water frequently from the boiler during steam production.

39. What is meant by priming and foaming? How can they be prevented?

Priming is the process of production of wet steam.

 It can be prevented by controlling the velocity of steam and keeping the water level
Lower.
Foaming is the formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water in boiler.
 It can be prevented by adding coagulants like sodium aluminate and antifoaming
agents like synthetic polyamides.

40. What is meant by caustic embrittlement? How it is prevented? ( AU. Dec 2022)
Caustic embrittlement means intercrystalline cracking of boiler metal.
It can be prevented by
 Using sodium phosphate as softening agent instead of sodium carbonate.
 Adding tannin, lignin to the boiler water which blocks the hair cracks.

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41. Mention any two compounds that cause caustic embrittlement in boilers.
(AU May 2014)
 NaOH
 Ca(OH)2

42. Write the reasons for the caustic embrittlement in boilers. [AU May 2022]
Caustic embrittlement is one of the boiler troubles caused by the use of water
containing high concentration of sodium hydroxide.
It leads to the formation of irregular cracks on the boiler parts such as bends and
joints.

43. What is boiler corrosion? Write its causes.

Decay of boiler metal by chemical or electrochemical reactions with its environment.
Causes:
Dissolved oxygen, Dissolved carbon dioxide, Dissolved salts.

44. How is boiler corrosion removed due to dissolved oxygen?

Sodium sulphite and hydrazines are used for removing dissolved oxygen from water.
2Na2SO3 + O2 2Na2SO4
N2H4 + O2 N2 + 2H2O

45. How is boiler corrosion removed due to carbondioxide?

Dissolved carbon dioxide is removed by adding NH4OH and also by mechanical de-
aeration process.
CO2 + 2NH4OH (NH4)2CO3 + H2O

46. Define softening / conditioning of water. How is it carried out?

The process of removing hardness producing salts from water is known as
softening (or) conditioning of water.
Softening of water can be done by two methods
1. External treatment (or) conditioning.
2. Internal treatment (or) conditioning.

47. What are internal and external treatments?

The process of removing hardness producing salts from water before feeding into the
boiler is known as external treatment or conditioning.
The process of removing hardness producing salts from water after feeding into the
boiler by using chemicals is known as external treatment or conditioning.

48. What are boiler compounds? Mention two different boiler compounds
and their actions.
The chemicals directly used in the boiler to remove scale forming salts are called as
boiler compounds.
Eg: Sodium aluminate and Sodium phosphate.
(i) NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3

MgCl2 + 2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 +2NaCl

(ii) 3 CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

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49. What is sodium aluminate conditioning?

When Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2)is added to boiler feed water, it gets hydrolyzed
to form NaOH and a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3
The NaOH, so formed reacts with magnesium salt and convert it into Mg(OH) 2.
MgCl2 + 2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 + 2NaCl

50. What is phosphate conditioning? (OR)

What is the role of phosphates in the internal treatment of water?
Sodium phosphate reacts with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions to give soft sludges of calcium and
magnesium phosphates.

3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4

51. What is calgon conditioning? How is it functioning in water treatment?

Calgon is sodium hexa meta phosphate Na 2[Na4(PO3)6] which interacts with Ca/Mg
ions forming a highly water soluble complex and thus prevents scale formation in
boilers.
2CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4

52. What is colloidal conditioning?

In low pressure boilers, colloidal conditioning agents like agar-agar, gelatin,
starch, kerosene, etc., are added to avoid scale formation.
These colloidal substances get coated over the scale forming particles and
convert them into sludges which can be removed by blow down operation.

53. Soft water is not demineralised water where as demineralised water is soft water-
Justify.
 Soft water produced by lime-soda and zeolite processes does not contain hardness
producing Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, but it contains other ions like Na+, K+, Cl- etc.
 Demineralized water does not contain both anions and cations.

54. What are ion exchange resins?

 Ion exchange resins are long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymers with a
microporous structure.
 The functional groups attached to it are responsible for the ion exchanging properties.

55. What are the types of ion exchange resin? Give some examples for cation and
anion exchange resin.
 Cation exchange resin:It contains acidic functional groups. Eg. Sulphonated coals,
Sulphonated polystyrenes.
 Anion exchange resin: It contains basic functional groups. Eg.Cross-linked
quaternary ammonium salts, Urea – formaldehyde resin.

56. How water is demineralised in an ion-exchange process?

When the water containing ions are passed through ion exchange columns, all
the hardness causing ions get exchanged with ion exchange resins.
Cation exchanger: RH2 + CaCl2 RCa+ 2HCl
Anion exchanger: R’(OH)2 + 2HCl R’Cl2 + 2H2O
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57. How is exhausted resin regenerated in ion-exchange process?

The cation exchange resin is regenerated by using dil. HCl or H2SO4.
RCa + 2HCl RH2 + CaCl2
The anion exchange resin is regenerated by using dil. NaOH.
R’Cl2 + 2NaOH R’(OH)2 + 2NaCl

58. What are the advantages of ion–exchange process?

 Highly acidic or alkaline water can be treated by this process.
 The water obtained by this process will have very low hardness.

59. What are the disadvantages of ion-exchange process?

 Water containing turbidity cannot be treated.
 Soluble Fe and Mn ions in water form stable compound with the resin.
 The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are needed.

60. What is zeolite? What is its role in water technology? Write its formula.
Zeolite is a naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate. It is capable
of exchanging sodium ions with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ present in hard water.
Na2O. Al2O3. xSiO2.yH2O. (x=2-10,y=2-6)

61. How will you regenerate the exhausted zeolite?

The exhausted zeolite is regenerated again by treating with 10% NaCl solution.
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2

62. What are the advantages of zeolite process?

 Hardness will be of 1- 2 ppm.
 Cheap method because the regenerated zeolite can be used again.
 No sludge formation.
 The equipment is compact and occupies less space.

63. What are the disadvantages of zeolite process?

 Turbid and acidic water cannot be treated.
 The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts which leads to boiler
troubles (boiler corrosion and caustic embrittlement).

64. Write the differences between Zeolite process and Demineralisation Process.
(AU Dec 2023)

S.No. Zeolite Process Demineralisation Process

1. It is also called permutit It is also called ion exchange or
process. deionization process.
2. It exchanges only cations. It exchanges cations as well as anions.
3. Treated water contains more Treated water does not contain any
sodium salts. salts.
4. Leads to boiler troubles No boiler troubles

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65. Compare Internal treatment/conditioning and External treatment/

conditioning. [AU May 2024]
S.No Internal treatment /conditioning External treatment/conditioning
1. It is carried out in the It is carried out before its
boiler itself. entry into the boiler.
2. It is a corrective method. It is a preventive method.
3. Suitable for low pressure Suitable for high pressure
boilers. boilers.
4. Carbonate, phosphate , Lime soda process, zeolite
sodium aluminate , calgon and process and ion exchange
colloidal conditioning . process.

66. Why do we express hardness of water in terms of calcium carbonate

equivalent? [AU Jan 2022]
The hardness in water is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
equivalent because it is the most insoluble salt in water and its molecular
weight/Equivalent weight is a simple whole number.
67. What is brackish water? [AU Jan 2022]
The water containing dissolved salts with peculiar salty or
brackish taste is called brackish water.
Brackish water contains less than 1000 and more than 35,000
ppm of dissolved solids.
68. State the harmful effects of silica present in boiler feed water. [AU Dec
2022]
 Presence of silica in hardwater used in boiler reacts with Ca and Mg ions
and forms hard scales of Calcium or Magnesium silicates.
 This decreases the heat transfer efficiency and may also leads to boiler
explosion.
69. State about the influences of TDS and BOD in drinking water. [AU May
2023]
 BOD measures both the biologically oxidisable and biologically inert
organic matter.
 BOD is used to monitor water treatment plant efficiently.
 TDS impacts salinity in water.
 High level of TDS in water causes scale forming in boilers.
70. Write the reasons for the formation of scale and sludges in boilers.
[AU May 2023]
 The use of hardwater in boilers leads to scale and sludge formation in
boilers.
 The decrease in solubility of dissloved salts in boiler produces sludges.
 Decomposition of calcium carbonate, hydrolysis of Magnesium salts,
solubility of calcium sulphate and presence of silica causes formation of
scales in boilers.
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PART – B

1. Explain briefly about Water quality parameters in detail. [AU Jan 2022]
The quality of water is a very important parameter to be determined in order to decide
the type of application or treatment required. The quality of water varies from place to place
and seasons.
 It is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water.

Water quality is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or
more biotic species and/ or to a human need or purpose.
There are three types of water quality parameters. They are
1. Physical parameters
2. Chemical parameters
3. Biological parameters
1.Physical Parameters:
i) Colour ii) Taste and odour iii) Turbidity
i)Colour:
 It is a shade imparted by organic or inorganic material which changes the appearance
of the water.
 Pure water should be colourless.
Sources:
Organic sources: Algae, tannins, organic dyes, humic acids, etc
Inorganic sources: Fe and Mn Compounds, chemical wastes from industries, etc
Significance:
 Highly coloured water limits the penetration of light.
 Variation in colour of water from the same sources serves as the index of quality of
water.
 It has been used as a quantitative assessment of the presence of potentially
hazardous or toxic organic materials in water.

Removal:
It can be removed by coagulation, settling, adsorption and filtration process.

ii) Taste and odour:

Taste: It is the sensation of flavour perceived in the mouth and throat on contact with a
substance.

Odour: It is a smell caused by one (or) more volatilized chemical compounds that are
generally found in low concentration.
Odour and taste in water originate from natural or biological sources or processes, from
contamination by chemicals or as a byproduct of water treatment.

Sources:
Organic sources: Algae, decayed vegetation, etc
Inorganic Sources: Dissolved gases, chemical and industrial wastes, etc

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Significance:

 Disagreeable odours and tastes are objectionable for various industrial processes
such as textiles, paper and pulp, etc.
 Senses of smell and taste are vital in identification of valuable nutrients.

Removal:
Odour in water is measured in terms of threshold odour number (TON)
 Aeration (or) activated carbon treatment
 It can be removed by chemical methods(oxidation, chlorination, precipitation)

iii)Turbidity:
It is the reduction of clarity of natural water due to the presence of finely divided,
insoluble impurities suspended in water.
It is the appearance of cloudiness or dirtiness in water.

Sources:
Organic sources: Finely divided vegetable or organic matter, oils, fats, greases, etc, etc
Inorganic Sources: Clay, silt, silica, ferric hydroxide, etc
Significance:
 It affects the taste and odour of drinking water.
 It increases water temperature because a suspended particle absorbs more heat.
 The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby
shield them from the disinfection process.
 It increases the cost of water treatment for various uses.
 It has negative effects on aquatic life and blocks light to penetrate in water.
Removal:
Turbidity in water can be removed by coagulation, settling and filtration process.

Chemical Parameters:
i) pH ii) Hardness iii) Alkalinity iv) COD and BOD v) TDS vi) Fluoride vii) Arsenic

i) pH: It is defined as negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration.

pH = - log10 [H+]
 pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base solution.
 Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C.
 Normal rainfall has a pH 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric CO 2 gas.
Significance:
 It determines the solubility and biological availability (aquatic life)
 pH indicates chemical pollution (or) acid rain.
 A high pH makes the water taste bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine
disinfection, thereby causing the need for additional chlorine.
 The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises.
 Low-pH water will corrode or dissolve metals and other substances

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 Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, and chromium dissolve more easily in highly
acidic water and become more toxic.
 Acidic water can decrease the number of hatched fish eggs, irritate fish and aquatic
insects and damage membranes.
ii) Hardness:
Hardness is one of characteristics of water. Hardness in water is due to the presence
of bicarbonates, chlorides and sulphates of calcium and Magnesium.
Types:
i) Temporary hardness or carbonate hardness:
It is due to the presence of bicarbonates of calcium and Magnesium.
ii) Permanent hardness or non carbonate hardness:
It is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium and Magnesium
Significance:
 Hard water does not produce lather with soap solution.
 In industries, use of hard water causes scale formation in boilers and heat
exchangers.
 It mitigates metal toxicity.
Removal:
Hardness in water is removed by Internal and external treatment methods.

iii) Alkalinity:
Alkalinity is a measure of acid neutralizing ability. Alkalinity in water is due to the
presence of hydroxide, carbonates and bicarbonates.

Sources:
Domestic and Industrial wastes.
Significance:
 Use of alkaline water in boiler causes caustic embrittlement.
 The measurement of alkalinity of water is necessary to determine the amount of lime
and soda needed for water softening.
 Alkalinity in natural waters provides a buffering action that protects fish and other
aquatic organisms from sudden changes in pH.
iv) TDS:
TDS stands for Total Dissolved solids.
It is defined as the measure of all inorganic and organic substances present in water.
Sources:
Agricultural runoff, domestic and industrial wastes, etc
Significance:[AU May 2023]
 TDS impacts salinity in water.
 Water with TDs level higher than 300 ppm may not be potable as it can taste salty.
 Water with high level of TDS impacts colour, odour and taste dramatically.
 High level of TDS in water causes scale forming in boilers, heat exchangers, water
pipelines, household appliances, etc

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v) COD and BOD:

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
It is the measure of amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize all the oxidisable
impurities present in the sewage using an oxidizing agent like acidified K2Cr2O7.
Significance:
 It measures both the biologically oxidisable and inert organic matter.
 It takes only 3 hours for determination of COD in water.
 COD is used to measure pollutants in waste water and aqueous hazardous wastes.
 It provides an index to assess the effect of discharged waste water on the
environment.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
It is the amount of free oxygen required by bacteria for the biological oxidation of the
organic matter under aerobic condition at 20ºC for a period of 5 days.
Significance:
 It indicates the amount of decomposable organic matter present in the sewage.
 It helps to determine the degree of pollution in waste water.
 Lesser the BOD, better is the quality of water. Water with BOD less than 3ppm is
pure and more than 4 ppm is polluted.
 BOD5-the period of 5 days for complete oxidation at 20˚C.
vi) Fluoride:
Fluoride is found in ground water as a result of dissolution of geological formulation.
Sources:
Fluoride containing mineral like fluorapatite, domestic sewage, runoff from
agricultural lands, etc
Significance:
 Optimum fluoride concentration in water ranges from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/l.
 A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental
health
 Excessive amount of fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental
fluorosis.
 Low fluoride concentration in water causes dental caries for children.
Removal:
 By precipitation with aluminium salts in alkaline medium.
 Using anion exchange resin.
 Adsorption by activated carbon.
vii) Arsenic:
Arsenic is a semi metallic element that forms a number of poisonous compounds.
It is found in nature mostly in compounds with oxygen, chlorine and sulphur.
Sources:
Natural deposits, agricultural runoff, industrial wastes, etc
Significance:
 Long term intake of arsenic in drinking water causes cancer of the bladder, skin,
kidney.
 Other health problem includes hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular and
neurological disorders.
Removal:
Treatment depends on the level of contamination. It includes the addition of an anion
filter or tank media.

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2. Write the detailed description about the Municipal water treatment process.
(OR) Describe briefly the different steps in the purification of water for drinking
purposes. Describe briefly the different steps involved in Municipal water treatment.
(OR) Outline the various stages of domestic water treatment in sequence of water for
drinking purpose. (A.U. May 2022, Dec 2022,2023 )
The following steps are involved in the purification of domestic or municipal water.

Source of water  Screening  Aeration  Sedimentation  Coagulation

FiltrationSterilization.

Sources of water : Water taken from rivers and lakes.

Screening :
 Process of removing floating materials like leaves, plastics, wood pieces etc., by
passing water through a screen.

Aeration:
 The process of mixing water with air is known as aeration.
 Passing sufficient amount of air into water removes gases like CO2, H2S, etc and
removes iron and manganese as insoluble salts.

Sedimentation:
 It is done by allowing the water to stand undisturbed for 2-6 hours in a big tank.
 75% of the suspended impurities are deposited.

Coagulation:
 Finely divided clay or silica can be removed by adding Aluminum sulphate to water
which forms gelatinous precipitate of Aluminium hydroxide and entraps the finely
divided impurities.
Al2(SO4)3+6H2O→ 2Al(OH)3↓+3H2SO4
Filtration:
 It is the process of removing colour, taste, odour, suspended impurities and bacteria.
 The sand filter with several layers of sand and gravel is used.
 When the rate of filtration becomes slow, the filtration is stopped and the top layer of
the fine sand is scrapped off and replaced with new sand.
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Sterilization (or) disinfection:

It is the process of destroying harmful bacteria. Sterilization can be done by
 By Boiling
 By using Ozone
 By UV radiation
 By Chlorination

Break point chlorination - Break point chlorination is the point at which all the impurities
are removed and free chlorine begins to appear.

3. Explain how sterilization of water is carried out? (Or) Explain the necessity for
sterilization of domestic water and discuss the various methods of sterilization.
Discuss in detail about break point chlorination. (A.U Jun 2009), (A.U.MAY.2012)

Sterilization or disinfection: It is the process of destroying harmful bacteria.

Sterilization methods:
 By Boiling - Water boiled for 10-15minitues all the harmful bacteria are killed and
the water becomes safe for use.
 By Ozonation –Ozone is a powerful disinfectant and is readily absorbed by water.
O3 O2 + [O] Nascent oxygen (powerful germicide which kills
bacteria)
 By UV radiation – UV rays obtained by passing electric current through mercury
vapour lamp and use to sterilize water in swimming pool.
 By Chlorination – The process of adding chlorine to water.
a) By adding chlorine gas.
b) By adding Chloramine(Chlorine + ammonia in the ratio of 2:1)
c) By adding bleaching powder (CaOCl 2) which produces HOCl, acts as powerful
germicide.
The amount of chlorine added is based on break point chlorination.
It is “the point at which all the bacteria, reducing substances and organic
substances are removed and free residual chlorine begins to appear”.

4.What is break-point chlorination? State its significances. (OR) Explain break-point

chlorination. What is the usage of breakpoint chlorination? (Or) Discuss in detail
about break point chlorination. (A.U Jun 2009,2010, Jun 2005, May 2003, Jan 2022)
When bleaching powder is added to the water as sterilizing agent the following
sterilizing action takes place
CaOCl2+H2O→Ca(OH)2+Cl2
Cl2+H2O→HCl+HOCl

Cl2+NH3→ClNH2+HCl
ClNH2+H2O→HOCl+NH3

HOCl+Bacteria→bacterias are killed

 When the amount of chlorine added is low, it is used to kill bacteria and oxidize
reducing substances. There is no free residual chlorine.

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 As the amount increases, chloramines and other chloro compounds are formed and
the amount of residual chlorine also increases.
 On further chlorination, oxidation of impurities and chloro compound starts.
 Residual chlorine decreases to minimum and at one point it starts increasing again as
shown in fig 1.1. This point is called Break point chlorination.

Fig 1.1 Break point chlorination

Significance/Uses: It gives an idea about the exact amount of chlorine required for
complete sterilization of the water.

5. What is boiler feed water? Discuss the requirements of boiler feed water.
(AU Dec 2015, Jan 2018)
The water which is fed into the boiler for steam production is called boiler feed water.
The boiler feed water must have the following requirements:

Hardness <0.2 ppm

Soda alkalinity 0.15 – 1.0 ppm
Caustic alkalinity 0.15 – 0.45 ppm
Excess soda ash 0.3 – 0.55 ppm
Dissolved gases like O2, 0 ppm
CO2

S.No. Specifications Disadvantages

1. It must be of zero hardness. Scales and sludges will be produced.
2. It must be free from dissolved It leads to boiler corrosion
gases like O2, CO2.
3. It should be free from Produces wet steam
suspended impurities.
4. It should be free from Produces caustic embrittlement.
dissolved salts and alkalinity.
5. It should be free from oil and Produces priming and foaming
turbidity
6. It should be free from total Produces priming, foaming and
dissolved salts. caustic embrittlement etc.,

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6. What are scales and sludges? Describe the disadvantages of scale and sludge
formation in boilers. (Or) Discuss in detail the causes and remedial measures
(preventive measures) of sludges and scales.( Or) what are the various boiler troubles?
How they can be prevented? Or Explain briefly about the disadvantages of using hard
water in boilers. (AU Jan 2018, Jan 2019, May 2019,Jan 2022)
In a boiler, water is continuously converted into steam. Due to this continuous
evaporation of water, concentration of dissolved salts increases progressively.
When it reaches the saturation point, dissolved salts starts separating out from water
in the form of precipitates.
Sludge (Soft Deposits):
 If the precipitate formed is soft, loose and non-adherent, it is called sludges.
 It remains in water and do not stick to the inner walls as shown in fig 1.2 (a)
 It is formed due to the presence of salts like CaCl 2 ,MgCl2, MgSO4, MgCO3.
Disadvantages:
 Poor conductors of heat.
 Decreases the efficiency of boiler.
Prevention:
 By using softened water.
 Removed by blow down operation.

Blow down operation:

It is a process of removing a portion of concentrated water by fresh water frequently
from the boiler during steam production.

(a)Sludge (b) scale

Fig.1.2 Sludge and Scale

Scale (Hard Deposits):

 If the precipitate is hard and adherent, then it is called scale.
 It sticks firmly on the inner wall of the boiler as shown in Fig 1.2 (b).
 It is formed due to the presence of Ca (HCO3)2, CaSO4, Mg(OH)2, CaSiO3.
Disadvantages:
 Wastage of fuel: Scales have low thermal conductivity, so overheating is done which
leads to wastage of fuel.

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 Decrease in efficiency: scales get deposited on the valves and condensers which
results in decrease in efficiency of boilers.
 Boiler explosion: sometimes at high pressure, scales may crack and water comes in
direct contact with overheated iron plates. This results in sudden formation of large
amount of steam with high pressure which leads to explosion of boilers.
 Lowering of boiler safety.
Prevention:
 For soft scale –use scrapers, wire brush or by blow down operation.
 For brittle scale-apply thermal shock
 For hard and adherent scale - By using chemicals [CaCO3 scale – HCl,
CaSO4 scale - EDTA]
 External treatment and internal treatment.

7. Discuss the causes and prevention of priming and foaming. (OR) Discuss in
detail the causes and remedial measures of priming and foaming. (AU May 2024)
Priming: It is the process of production of wet steam in boilers.
Causes:
 High steam velocity.
 High water level in the boiler.
 Sudden boiling.
 Poor boiler design.
Prevention:
 Controlling the steam velocity.
 Keeping the water level lower.
 Good boiler design.
 Using treated water.
Foaming: Formation of stable bubbles above the surface of water in boilers is called
foaming.
Causes:
 Presence of oil and grease in water.
 Presence of finely divided particles.
Prevention:
 Adding coagulants like Sodium aluminate, Aluminium hydroxide etc.,
 Adding anti-foaming agents like synthetic poly amides

8. What is caustic embrittlement? How can it be prevented? (OR) Discuss in

detail the causes and remedial measures of caustic embrittlement.
Caustic embrittlement: (Intercrystalline Cracking)
Caustic embrittlement means inter crystalline cracking of boiler metal.
Causes:
 In high pressure boilers, the Na 2CO3 present in boiler water is converted into NaOH.

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 When the concentration of NaOH increases it flows into minute cracks by capillary
action and dissolves iron as sodium ferroate.
Na2CO3 + H2O NaOH + CO2
Fe + 2 NaOH Na2FeO2 + H2↑
Prevention:
 Uses of sodium phosphate as softening agent instead of Na 2CO3
 By adding tannin, lignin.

9. What is Boiler corrosion? How will you protect boiler from corrosion? (OR) Discuss
in detail the causes and remedial measures of boiler corrosion.
Boiler corrosion is defined as the decay of boiler metal by chemical or electrochemical
reaction with its environment.
Boiler corrosion in water is due to the presence of
i. Dissolved oxygen
ii. Dissolved carbon dioxide
iii.Dissolved salts
i. Dissolved oxygen: The dissolved oxygen in water attacks the boiler material at high
temperature forming Fe(OH)3 .
4Fe + 6 H2O + 3O2 4 Fe(OH)3
Removal:
 By adding Na2SO3 and hydrazine,
 By mechanical deaeration:
Water is passed through the perforated plates inside the tower at high temperature
and low pressure.
This reduces the dissolved oxygen in water.
ii. Dissolved CO2: Dissolved CO2 in water produces carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Removal:
 By adding NH4OH.
 By mechanical de-aeration
iii. Dissolved salts – Salts like MgCl2, CaCl2 etc., undergo hydrolysis at high temperature
and produces HCl, which corrodes the boiler parts.
MgCl2 + 2H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2 HCl
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2+ 2H2O Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
Removal :
 By adding calculated amount of NaOH.
HCl +NaOH NaCl + H2O

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10. What are Zeolites? How is the softening of water carried out using the zeolite
process? Explain with neat diagram. ( AU Dec 2019)
Zeolite (or) Permutit Process:
Zeolite is a naturally occurring hydrated sodium aluminosilicate.
General formula:
Na2O. Al2O3. xSiO2.yH2O. (x=2-10,y=2-6)
 The synthetic form of zeolite is known as permutit is used for water softening.
 Synthetic zeolite is represented by Na 2Ze.

Process:
 Hard water is passed through a bed of sodium zeolite (Na 2Ze) as shown in fig 1.3.
 Sodium ions present in sodium zeolite exchanges with Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions present in
hard water to form calcium and magnesium zeolites.
CaCl2/ MgCl2+ Na2Ze CaZe/ MgZe+ 2NaCl
CaSO4/MgSO4 + Na2Ze CaZe/ MgZe + Na2SO4

Fig 1.3 Zeolite process

Regeneration:
The exhausted zeolite bed is regenerated by treating with 10% NaCl solution.
CaZe + 2NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe+ 2NaCl Na2Ze + MgCl2
Advantages:
 Hardness will be of 1- 2 ppm.
 It is a cheap method because the regenerated zeolite can be used again.
 The equipment is compact and occupies less space.
 Its operation is easy.
Disadvantages:
 Turbid and acidic water cannot be treated.
 The softened water contains more dissolved sodium salts like NaHCO 3, Na2CO3 etc.
When such water is boiled in boilers, causes boiler troubles (boiler corrosion and
caustic embrittlement)
 Water containing Fe, Mn cannot be treated.
 This process cannot be used for treating brackish water.

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11. Explain the softening of water by deionization process/Ion-exchange process.

(OR) Explain how demineralization of water is done in water technology?
( AU Jan 2019, May 2019, Dec 2022, May 2023, 2024)
Demineralization:
The process of removing hardness causing ions ( both anions and cations) from water
before feeding into the boiler is known as demineralization process.
 It is carried out using ion exchange resins.
 Ion exchange resins are long chain, cross linked, insoluble organic polymer with a
microporous structure.
 The functional groups attached to it are responsible for ion exchange properties.
 Demineralised water does not contain both cations and anions.
Types of Ion exchange resin:
1. Cation exchange resin or Cation exchanger
2. Anion exchange resin or Anion exchanger

Cation exchanger:
 It is a cross-linked polymer containing acidic functional groups like –COOH, -
SO3H.
 It is capable of exchanging H+ ions with Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, ions.
 It is represented as RH2.
 Eg: Sulphonated coal or polystyrene
Anion exchanger:
 It is a cross-linked polymer containing basic functional groups like –NH2,-OH.
 It is capable of exchanging OH- ions with Cl-, SO42-, and HCO3-.
 It is represented as R’(OH)2.
 Eg: Urea formaldehyde resin, Cross-linked quaternary ammonium salts, etc.
Process:
The hard water is first passed through a cation exchanger where all the cations are
removed except H+ ions as shown in fig 1.4.
RH2 + CaCl2 RCa + 2HCl

RH2 + MgSO4 RMg + H2SO4

The cations free water is then passed through an anion exchanger where all the
anions are removed except OH- ions.
R’(OH)2 + 2HCl R’Cl2 + 2H2O

R’(OH)2 + H2SO4 R’SO4 + 2H2O

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Fig 1.4 Demineralization process

Regeneration:
Exhausted cationic resin is regenerated by adding dil. HCl or dil. H2SO4 solution.
RCa + 2HCl RH2 + CaCl2

Exhausted anionic resin is regenerated by adding dil. NaOH solution.

R’Cl2 + 2NaOH R’(OH)2 + 2NaCl

Advantage:
 Highly acidic and alkaline water can be used.
 Treated water contains very low hardness (2 ppm)
Disadvantage:
 Turbid water cannot be treated.
 Equipment is Costly.
 More expensive chemicals are needed.

12. How is internal treatment of water carried out? (OR) Give an account of
Internal treatment of boiler water. Discuss the various methods available for internal
conditioning. (AU Jan, 2019, May 2019, Dec 2022, 2023)

Internal Conditioning (or) Internal Treatment (or) Boiler Compounds:

The process of removing hardness and scale producing ions from water after feeding
into the boiler by adding chemicals are called internal conditioning.
The chemicals like carbonates, phosphates, calgon, etc directly added to the boiler for
softening purpose are called boiler compounds.
1. Phosphate conditioning: (AU May 2019,2024)
In high pressure boilers, sodium phosphate is added to convert hard scales into soft
sludges of calcium phosphate .
3CaSO4 + 2Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 + 3Na2SO4
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Trisodium Phosphate- Na3PO4 (highly alkaline) - Used for highly acidic water.
Disodium hydrogen phosphate - Na2HPO4 (Weakly alkaline)- Used for weakly acidic water.
Sodium dihydrogen phosphate - NaH2PO4 (acidic)- Used for alkaline water.

2. Calgon Conditioning: (AU May 2024)

Calgon is the trade name of Sodium hexameta phosphate (Na2[Na4(PO3)6]). When it
is added to boiler feed water it converts scale forming salts into highly water soluble
complex.
2CaSO4 + Na2[Na4(PO3)6] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4
Highly water soluble complex
Scale forming salts are converted into highly water soluble complex. So, Calgon
conditioning is better than phosphate conditioning.

3. Sodium aluminate conditioning: (AU May 2019)

When Sodium aluminate (NaAlO2) is added to boiler feed water, it gets hydrolyzed to
form NaOH and a gelatinous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3

The NaOH, so formed reacts with magnesium salt and convert it into Mg(OH)2
MgCl2 + 2 NaOH Mg(OH) 2 + 2NaCl
The gelatinous precipitate of Mg(OH)2 and Al(OH)3 entraps finely suspended and colloidal
impurities along with oil drops and silica. They are removed as soft sludges by blow down
operation.

4. Colloidal Conditioning:
In low pressure boilers, colloidal conditioning agents like agar-agar, gelatin,kerosene,
etc., are added to avoid scale formation.
These colloidal substances get coated over the scale forming particles and convert
them into soft sludge which can be removed by blow down operation.

13. Define the term desalination. With a neat diagram describe the desalination of
brackish water by reverse osmosis method. Mention its advantages.
(AU May 2022, Dec 2022, May 2023)
Desalination:
The process of removing common salt from water is known as desalination.
Osmosis:
 When two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi permeable
membrane, the solvent flows from lower concentration to higher concentration side.
This process is called osmosis.
 The driving force for this is osmotic pressure.
Reverse Osmosis:
 If a hydrostatic pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on higher
concentration side, the solvent flow is reversed (i.e.) solvent moves from higher
concentration to lower concentration side. This is called reverse osmosis.
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Fig 1.5 Reverse Osmosis

Process:
 If high pressure in excess of osmotic pressure is applied on sea water or brackish
water side, the semipermeable membrane allows only pure water to pass through it.
 Thus the dissolved ionic salts and nonionic substances left behind. So this process is
also called super filtration process.
 The semipermeable membranes used are cellulose acetate, cellulose butyrate, etc.
Advantages:
 It removes ionic, non-ionic and colloidal impurities.
 The life time of the membrane is high and it can be replaced within few
minutes.
 Low cost
 Simple to operate.

Anna University Important Questions:

1. Explain briefly about water quality parameters in detail.

2. Write the detailed description about the Municipal water treatment process.
3. Explain how sterilization of water carried out (Or) explain the necessity for
sterilization of domestic water and discuss the various methods of sterilization.
4. Discuss in detail about break point chlorination.
5. What are scales and sludges? Describe the disadvantages of scale and sludge
formation. (OR) Discuss in detail the causes and remedial measures of sludges and
scales.
6. Explain the softening of water by deionization process (OR) Demineralization of water
is done in water technology.
7. How is the softening of water carried out using the zeolite process? What are zeolites?
How do they function in removing the hardness of water?
8. How is internal treatment of water carried out? (Or) Give an account of Internal
treatment of boiler feed water.
9. Define the term desalination. Describe desalination of brackish water by Reverse
osmosis method with a neat diagram. Mention its advantages.

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UNIT – II NANOCHEMISTRY

PART-A

1. What is Nanochemistry? [AU Dec - 2014, May-2011]

Nanochemistry is a branch of science which deals with the study of phenomena and
manipulation of atom, molecules and macro molecules at nano scales.

2. Define Nanotechnology.
Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization, production and
applications of structures, systems and devices by controlling size and shape at 10 -9 m
scale or the single-atomic level.

3. What are Nanoparticles or Nanomaterials? [AU Jan 2022, Dec 2022]

The universally accepted definition is that any particle which has at least one
dimension less than 100nm is called nanoparticle or Nanomaterial.
Eg: ZnO, MgO, CaO can be prepared in nanoscale.

4. Mention some characteristic properties of Nanomaterials.

 Nanomaterials are very strong and withstand extreme strain and tension.
 They possess very good electrical properties and thermal conductivity.

5. Distinguish between bulk particles and nanoparticles.

(AU Dec-2023)
S.No Nano-particles Bulk particles
1 Size less than 100 nm Size is larger in micron size
2 Surface area is more Surface area is less
3 Strength and hardness are more Strength and hardness are less.

6. List any four Nanomaterials or write about the important categories of

nanomaterials. [AU Jan 2022]
 Carbon nanotubes(CNT)
 Nanowire
 Nanoclusters
 Nanorods
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7. Write the applications of nanoparticles.

 TiO2 is used in the cosmetics as they are very good UV absorber.
 Nano silver particles are used as a catalyst in industries.
 Nanoparticles are used in medicine.
 Nano silver particles are used in making bone cement, surgical instruments, etc.

8. What is Nanotubes?
It is a tube structure has dimension in nanometer scale.
Eg: carbon nanotube (CNT), DNA, Membrane.

9. What are Carbon nanotubes? Write its types. [AU May 2024]
Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure having a length to
diameter ratio greater than 1,000,000.
Types:
1. Single walled carbon nanotubes
2. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes

10. Define Nanowire and write its types. [AU May -2014]
It is defined as the structure which has a thickness or diameter of tens of nanometer
or less.
 Nano-wires of metals :Au, Ni, Pt.
 Nano-wires of semiconductors :InP, Si, GaN
 Nano-wires of Insulators :SiO2,TiO2
 Molecular nano wires :DNA

11. What are the properties/characteristics of nano-wires?

 Nanowires are two-dimensional.
 Strong photoluminescence characteristics.
 Conductivity of a nanowire is less than that of bulk materials.
12. Mention some important applications of nano-wires.
 Nanowires are used for enhancing mechanical properties of composites
 It replaces conventional copper wires used in computers, televisions, etc.,

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13. What is Nanocluster? [AU Dec 2012, Jan 2022]

Nanocluster constitutes an intermediate state of matter between molecules and
solids. Their sizes range from 0.1 to 10 nm in diameter. Eg: ZnO, MgO, CaO

14. Define Magic number.

The number of atoms present in the clusters of critical sizes with higher stability is
called magic number.

15. What are the properties of nanoclusters? [AU May 2023]

 The reactivity of nanoclusters is decreased due to their decrease in size.
 The melting point of nanoclusters is lower than bulk material.

16. Mention two applications of nanocluster. [AU May 2023]

 Nanoclusters are used as catalysts in many reactions.
 Used in nano based sensors.
 Used as a light emitting diode in quantum computers.

17. Define Nanorods. Mention its applications. [AU Dec – 2014]

Nanomaterials are long sticks or rods with diameter in nano scale and the length is
very much longer. Eg: ZnO, MgO, CaO
Applications: Display Technologies, Micro mechanical switches, Cancer therapeutics.

18. What are the properties of nanorods?

 Nanorods are two-dimensional materials.
 It exhibits optical and electrical properties.

19. Mention two applications of nanomaterials.

Nanomaterials are mostly used in sensors ie light based sensors for cancer diagnosis,
solar cells (Dye Sensitized Solar Cells), Anti-reflection coatings.

20. What are the applications of nanomaterials in catalysis? [AU May 2023]
Nanoparticles are used as catalyst
 Water purification
 Biodiesel production
 Drug delivery
 Dehydrogenation reaction
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21. Write the applications of nanomaterials in medicine.

 Nano materials are used as nano drugs for the cancer and TB therapy.
 Nano technology is used in the production of laboratories on a chip.
 It converts light into heat, enabling the destruction tumours.
 Gold nano particles as sensors

22. Mention the difference between a nanorod and a nanowire. [AU May 2024]

Nanorod Nanowire
Length to width ratio Length to width ratio less than
greater than 20 nm 20 nm.
Eg: Au, Ni, Pt, Si, DNA Eg: CNT, Silicon Nanotube

23. List any four nano-materials. [AU Jan -2010]

 Carbon nanotubes
 Nanowire
 Quantum dots
 Dendrimers

24. Mention the applications of carbon nanotube. [AU May-2015]

 It is used in battery technology and in industries as catalyst.
 CNTs are used effectively inside the body for drug delivery.
 It is used in composites, ICs.

25. Define Taylor cone.

When the electrostatic repulsion is higher than the surface tension the liquid
meniscus is deformed into conically shaped structure known as a Taylor cone.

26. Define Sol-gel process.

The sol–gel process is a wet-chemical technique used for the fabrication of both glassy
and ceramic materials.

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27. Give a brief description about the Sol gel principle. [AU Jan 2022, Dec 2022]
The sol-gel process is a wet chemical technique also known as chemical solution
deposition. It is the method for producing solid materials from small molecules.
It involves conversion of monomers into a colloidal solution (sol) that acts as the
precursor.
This colloidal solution gradually evolves towards the formation of gel-like system.

28. Define Solvothermal synthesis.

It is the method used to prepare variety of materials such as metals, ceramics,
polymers, semiconductors of various nanoparticle forms.

29. Define laser ablation.

Laser ablation or photo ablation is the process of removing material from a solid (or
occasionally liquid) surface by irradiating it with a laser beam.

30. What are the advantages of laser ablation?

 It is very easy to operate.
 The amount of heat required is less.
 It is eco-friendly method because no solvent is used.
 The product, obtained by this method, is stable.
 The process is economical.

31. What are the various steps involved in the sol-gel process?
 Hydrolysis and polycondensation
 Gelation
 Aging
 Drying
 Densification
 Crystallization

32. Define Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD).

It is a process of chemical reaction of volatile compounds with other gases, to produce
a non-volatile lid that deposits automatically on a suitably placed substrate.

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33. What are the advantages of CVD?

 Nanomaterials, produced by this method, are highly pure.
 It is economical
 Nanomaterials, produced by this method are defect free.
 As it is simple experiment, mass production in industry can be done without major
difficulties.

34. Define electro-deposition (or) electrochemical deposition.(AU Dec 2023)

Electro-deposition is an electrochemical method in which ions from the solution are
deposited at the surface of cathode.

35. What are the advantages of electro-deposition?

 This method is relatively cheap and fast.
 Complex shaped objects can be coated
 The film or wire obtained is uniform
 Metal nanowires including Ni, Co, Cu and Au can be fabricated by this method.

36. Define Electrospinning.

It is a method of producing ultrafine fibres by charging and ejecting a polymer
solution through a spinneret under a high-voltage electric field and to solidify or coagulate it
to form a filament.

37. What are the components involved in the Electrospinning?

 A high voltage power supply
 A polymer reservoir that can maintain a constant flow rate of solution.
 A conductive needle, as polymer source, connected to the high voltage power supply.
 A conductive collector (plate, drum, etc).

38. What are the applications of Electrospinning?

It is used in diagnosis, treatment of diabetes, energy storage device, textiles,
sensors, biomedical, e-spun etc.

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PART-B

1. Distinguish among Molecules, nanoparticles and Bulk Materials.

[AU Jan – 2014, June-2013, 2014]
Nano particles/
S.No Properties Atom/Molecule Bulk Material
Clusters
Size of Few Angstroms (A°) Angstrom to
Microns to
1 Constituting Nanometer
particles (10-10m) Higher
(10-10m to 10-9m)
Number of
1 for Atom 2 to Several
2 Constituting Infinite
Many for Molecules Thousands
Particle
Electronic
3 Confined Confined Continuous
Structure
Well defined
Geometric Well defined structure Crystal Structure
4 Structure and
Structure and Predictable decides
Predictable
Gold bar &
Examples NaCl, HCl (NaCl)n
Silver bar

 Surface area of nano particles is more than the bulk materials.

 Hardness of nano materials is 5 times more than the bulk materials.
 Strength of nano materials is 3-10 times higher than the bulk materials.
 Corrosion resistance is more than the bulk materials hence localized corrosion in
nano materials is stopped.

2. Explain about size dependent properties of Nanoparticles.

[AU June – 2015, 2014, Dec–2012[AU Jan 2022, Dec 2022]
Nanomaterials have the structural features in between of those of atoms and the bulk
materials.
The properties of materials with nanometer dimensions are significantly different from
those of atoms and bulks materials.
This is mainly due to
i) larger surface atoms ii) high surface energy iii) spatial confinement
(iv) Reduced imperfections, which do not exist in the corresponding bulk materials.

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Due to their small dimensions, nanomaterials have extremely large surface area to
volume ratio, resulting in more “surface” dependent material properties.
The metallic nanoparticles can be used as very active catalysts.
Chemical sensors from nanoparticles and nanowires enhanced the sensitivity and
sensor selectivity.

Generally, nanoparticles have size and shape dependent applications. When the
measurements are made in micrometer (10-6m) or nanometer (10-9m) range, properties such
as magnetic, mechanical and electrical nature may change.
Eg:

S. No Material Bulk state Nano-phase state

1 Iron, Nickel Ferro-magnetic Super para-magnetic
2 Copper Opaque Transparent
3 Silicon Insulator Conductor
4 Gold Solids Liquid (Room Temp)

3. Describe the properties of Nanoparticles or Nanomaterials

[AU June – 2014, 2013, Dec – 2012]
Mechanical Properties:
 Nanomaterials have very high strength and super hardness.
 They are mostly free from dislocations due to the presence of cluster of grains.
 Young’s modulus of CNT is 10 times larger than that of steel.
 Eg.Nano-crystalline carbides are much stronger, harder and wear resistant which are
used in micro drills.

Electrical properties:
 Resistivity is the inverse of conductivity.
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 In general, the resistivity of nanomaterials is greater than that in polycrystalline

materials.
 This is because, the electrons get scattered at grain boundaries resulting in the
increase of resistance.
 The electrical properties of CNTs lie between metallic and semiconducting materials.
 The high electrical conductivity is due to the minimum defects in its structure.
Thermal properties:
 Thermal conductivity of nanomaterials (CNT) is very high.
 This is due to the vibration of covalent bonds.
 Value is 10 times greater than that in metals.
Chemical properties:
 When the particle size is reduced from the bulk, the electronic bond in the metals
becomes narrow.
 It leads to the transformation of delocalized electron states into more localized
molecular bonds. As a result, the ionization potential increases.
 The large surface to volume ratio, the variations in geometry and electronic structure
have a strong effect on catalytic properties.
Magnetic properties:
 Nanomaterials of non-magnetic solids also exhibit totally new type of magnetic
properties.
 Eg. The magnetic moment of iron nanoparticles is more than 30% higher than that of
bulk.
 At smaller sizes, they become spontaneously magnetic.
Optical properties:
 The reduction of material dimensions has pronounced effect on the optical properties.
 The change in optical properties is due to quantum confinement of electrons and
surface plasma resonance.
 Eg. The particles size of CdSe crystal from 1 to 50 nm is too small to scatter the
visible light. Hence, it becomes transparent.

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4. What are carbon nanotubes (CNT)? Explain their important properties and
applications. [AU Jan – 2014, Dec – 2014, 2022]
Carbon nanotubes are allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure having a length-to-
diameter ratio greater than 1,000,000. When graphite sheets are rolled into a cylinder, their
edges joined and form carbon nanotubes i.e., carbon nanotubes are extended tubes of rolled
graphite sheets. Nanotubes naturally align themselves into “ropes” and held together by
vanderwaals forces. But each carbon atoms in the carbon nanotubes are linked by the
covalent bond.

Structure (or) Types of Carbon Nanotubes:

Carbon nanotubes are lattice of carbon atoms, in which each carbon is covalently
bonded to three other carbon atoms. Depending upon the way in which graphite sheets are
rolled, two types of CNTs are formed.
 Single - walled nanotubes (SWNTs)
 Multi –Walled nanotubes (MWNTs)

Fig 2.1 Single Walled Carbon nanotube

Single - Walled nanotubes (SWNTs):

 SWNTs consist of one tube of graphite.
 It is one-atom thick having a diameter of 2 nm and a length of 100 µm as
shown in fig 2.1.
 SWNTs are excellent conductors.

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Three kinds of nanotubes are resulted, based on the orientation of the hexagon lattice.

Arm-chair structures: The lines of hexagons are parallel to the axis of the nanotube.
Zig-zag structures: The lines of carbon bonds are perpendicular to the axis.
Chiral nanotubes:
 It exhibits twist or spiral around the nanotubes.
 It has been confirmed that arm-chair carbon nanotubes are metallic while zig-
zag and chiral nanotubes are semiconducting.

Multi - walled nanotubes (MWNTs)

 MWNTs (nested nanotubes) consist of multiple layers of graphite rolled on
themselves to form a tube shape.
 It exhibits both metallic and semiconducting properties.
 It is used for storing fuels such as hydrogen and methane.

Synthesis of Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes can be synthesized by any one of the following methods.
 Pyrolysis of hydrocarbons
 Laser evaporation
Pyrolysis:
Carbon nanotubes are synthesized by the pyrolysis of hydrocarbons such as acetylene
at about 700°C in the presence of Fe-silica or Fe-graphite catalyst under inert conditions.
Laser evaporation (or) Laser ablation: Jan – 2014

Fig 2.2 Laser Evaporation Technique

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 It involves vaporization of graphite target, containing small amount of cobalt and

nickel.
 It is then exposed to an intense pulsed laser beam at higher temperature (1200°C) in
a quartz tube reactor as shown in fig 2.2.
 An inert gas such as argon (or) helium is simultaneously allowed to pass into the
reactor to sweep the evaporated carbon atoms from the furnace to the cold copper
collector, on which they condense as carbon nano tubes.
Properties of CNTs:
 CNTs are very strong, withstand extreme strain in tension and possess elastic
flexibility.
 The atoms in a nano-tube are continuously vibrating back and forth.
 It is highly conducting and behaves like metallic or semiconducting materials.
 It has very high thermal conductivity and kinetic properties.
Uses of CNTs:
 It is used in battery technology and in industries as catalyst.
 It is also used as light weight shielding materials for protecting electronic equipment.
 It is used effectively inside the body for drug delivery.
 It is used in composites, ICs, biosensor.

5. Define and explain the terms: i) Nanowires ii) Nanoclusters iii) Nanorods.
[AU Jan - 2014, Dec 2023]
I. Nanowire
Nanowire is a two-dimensional cylindrical solid material having an aspect ratio ie.
length to width ratio greater than 20. Diameter of the nanowire ranges from 10 – 100 nm.

Different types of nanowires:

S.No Types of nanowires Examples

1 Metallic nanowires Au, Ni, Pt

2 Nanowires of Semiconductors InP, Si, GaN
3 Nanowires of insulators SiO2, TiO2
4 Molecular nanowires DNA

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Synthesis of nanowires:
Nanowires are commonly synthesized by the following methods

Template assisted synthesis

 It is a simple way to fabricate nanostructures.
 These templates contain very small cylindrical pores or voids within the host material
and the empty spaces are filled with the chosen material to form nanowires.

VLS (Vapour-Liquid-Solid) Method:

 It involves absorption of the source material from the gas phase into liquid phase of
catalyst.
 Upon super saturation of the liquid alloy, a nucleation event generates a solid
precipitate of the source material.
 This serves as the site for the further deposition of material at the interface of the
liquid droplet promoting the elongation of the seed into nanowires.

Properties of nanowires:
 Nanowires are two-dimensional
 Strong photoluminescence characteristics
 Conductivity of a nanowire is less than that of bulk materials.

Uses (or) Application of nanowires:

 Nanowires are used for enhancing mechanical properties of composites
 It replaces conventional copper wires used in computers, televisions, etc.,

II.Nanoclusters [AU Jan – 2014, Dec 2023]

Nanoclusters are fine aggregates of atoms or molecules. The size of which ranges from
0.1 to 10nm.Nanoclusters are the smallest sized nanomaterials because of their close
packing arrangement of atoms.
Eg: CdS, ZnO, MgO, etc.,
The number of atoms present in the clusters of critical sizes with higher stability is
called magic number.

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Synthesis of Nanoclusters
Nanoclusters can be produced from atomic or molecular constituents or from the bulk
materials either by bottom up process or top down process as in fig 2.3.

Fig 2.3 Process of Nanocluster

Properties of nanoclusters:
 The reactivity of nanoclusters is decreased due to their decrease in size
 The melting point of nanoclusters is lower than bulk material.

Uses of nanoclusters:
 It is used as a catalyst in many reactions.
 Used in nano based sensors.
 Used as a light emitting diode in quantum computers.

III.Nanorods
Nanorod is a two-dimensional, cylindrical solid material having an aspect ratio i.e.,
length to width ratio less than 20 nm.
Eg: ZnO, MgO, TiO2, CdS, etc.,

Synthesis of Nanorods
Nanorods are produced by direct chemical synthesis. A combination of ligands acts as
shape control agents and to differ in bond nature of the nanorods with different strength.
Many of the above nanorods are not manufactured due to lack of commercial demand.

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Fig 2.4 Nanorod

Properties of Nanorod:
 Nanorods are two-dimensional material.
 It exhibits optical and electrical properties.
Uses of Nanorods
 Nanorods have used as cancer therapeutics.
 It is used in energy harvesting and light emitting devices.
 It is also used in the manufacturing of micro mechanical switches.

6. What are the different methods of Synthesis of Nanoparticle? [AU Jan, Jun
2014]
Nanoparticles are synthesized by various methods. The different methods are as
follows:

Top-down (or) Physical (or) Hard methods:

It involves conversion of larger particles into smaller particles of nano-scale structure.

Fig 2.5 Top down process

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Bottom-up (or) Chemical (or) Soft methods (or) Small to Big methods:
It involves building-up of materials from the bottom by atom by atom ((≈ 0.1 nm)),
molecule by molecule or cluster by cluster.

Fig 2.6 Bottom up process

7. Describe Laser Ablation method of synthesizing nano materials.
[AU Jan 2014, 2022]

 In laser ablation, high-power laser pulse is used to evaporate the material from the
target.
 The stoichiometry of the material is preserved in the interaction.
 The total mass ablated from the target per laser pulse is referred to as the ablation
rate.
Process:
 The target material with small amount of catalyst (Ni or Co) is taken in a quartz tube
reactor maintained at 120°C.
 An intense pulsed laser beam is passed into the target material.
 The particles get evaporated from the target surface.
 Simultaneously, an inert gas such as argon or helium is allowed into the reactor to
sweep the evaporated particles from the furnace zone to the cold collector as shown in
fig 2.7.

Fig 2.7 Laser Ablation Chamber

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Uses:
 Nanotubes having a diameter of 10 to 20nm and 100µm can be produced by this
method.
 Ceramic particles and coating can be produced.
 Other materials like silicon carbon can also be converted into nanoparticles by this
method.
Advantages:
 It is very easy to operate.
 The amount of heat required is less.
 It is eco-friendly method because no solvent is used.
 The product, obtained by this method, is stable.
 The process is economical.

8. Describe Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) method of synthesizing nanomaterials.

[AU Dec 2023, May 2023, 2024]
The process which involves conversion of gaseous molecules into solid nanomaterials
in the form of tubes, wires or thin films is called Chemical Vapour Deposition.
CVD reaction requires activation energy to proceed. This energy can be provided by
several methods.
a) Thermal CVD
In thermal CVD, the reaction is high temperature above 900oC.Typical apparatus
comprises of gas supply system, deposition chamber and an exhaust system.
b) Plasma CVD
In plasma CVD, the reaction is activated by plasma at temperature between 300 –
700oC.
Types of CVD reactor:
1. Hot-wall CVD
 It is tubular in form.
 Heating is done by surrounding the reactor with resistance elements as in fig 2.8(a).
2. Cold-wall CVD
The substrates are directly heated inductively while chamber walls are air or water
cooled as shown in fig 2.8(b).

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Fig 2.8 Types of CVD reactors

Description:
 CVD reactor consists of a higher temperature vacuum furnace maintained at inert
atmosphere.
 The solid substrate containing catalyst (Ni, Co) supported on a substrate material like
silica, quartz is kept inside the furnace.
 The hydrocarbons such as ethylene, acetylene and nitrogen cylinders are connected to
the furnace.
 The carbon atoms produced by the decomposition at 1000°C condense on the cooler
surface of the catalyst as shown in fig 2.9.

Various steps involved in synthesis of CVD:

 Transport of gaseous reactants to the surface.
 Adsorption of gaseous reactant on the surface.
 Catalyzed reaction occurs on the surface.
 Product diffuses to the growth sites.
 Nucleation and growth occurs on the growth sites.
 Desorption of reaction products away from the surface.

Fig 2.9 Chemical Vapour Deposition

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Advantages:
 Nanomaterials are highly pure.
 It is economical.
 Nanomaterials produced by this method, are defect free.
 As it is simple experiment, mass production in industry can be done without major
difficulties.

9. Describe Electro Deposition method of synthesizing nanomaterials.

[AU Jun2013, May 2023]
Electro deposition or Electrochemical deposition:
 Electro-deposition is an electrochemical method in which ions from the solution are
deposited at the surface of cathode.
Template assisted electro-deposition is an important technique for synthesizing
metallic nanomaterials with controlled shape and size.
Process :
 The cell consists of a reference electrode, specially designed cathode and anode.
 All these electrodes are connected with the battery through a voltmeter.
 These electrodes are dipped in an electrolytic solution of a soluble metal.
 When the current is passed through the electrodes of template, the metal ion from the
solution enter into the pores and gets reduced at the cathode as shown in fig 2.10.
 The growth of nanowire occurs inside the pores of the template.

Fig 2.10 Electro deposition

Example: Electro deposition of Gold or Silver

 Nanostructure gold can be prepared by using gold sheets as an anode and silver plate
as a cathode.
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An array of alumina template is kept over the cathode.

AuCl3 is used as an electrolyte.
When the current is passed, Au3+ ions diffuse into the pores of alumina templates and
get reduced at the cathode.
 The growth of gold nanowires (or) nanorods inside the pores of the alumina templates.
Advantages:
 This method is relatively cheap and fast.
 Complex shaped objects can be coated.
 The film or wire obtained is uniform.
 Metal nanowires including Ni, Co, Cu and Au can be fabricated by this method.

10. Describe the synthesis involved in Sol-Gel process. [AU Jan 2022, May 2023]
Definition: It is the process of conversion of colloidal solution (sol) to gel.
 The sol-gel process is a wet chemical technique. It is the method for producing solid
materials from small molecules.
 This method is used for the fabrication of metal oxides.
 It involves conversion of monomers into a colloidal solution (sol) that acts as the
precursor.
 This colloidal solution gradually evolves towards the formation of gel-like system.

It involves the following steps as shown in fig 2.11:

Fig 2.11. Various steps involved in Sol-Gel process

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Preparation of metal oxide from sol-gel process:

Step-1: Preparation of monomers (precursor)
Metal alkoxide is dissolved in alcohol and diluted with water which gets hydrolyzed to
form monomer.
Step-2:Formation of sol
Condensation of monomer to form colloidal solution (sol).
Step-3:Formation of gel
Sol converted to gel by polycondensation.
Step-4:Aging process
Gel transforms into a solid mass
Step-5:Drying
Water and other volatile liquid removed from the gel.
Step-6:Tempering
Densification of gel

11. Describe the steps involved in Solvothermal Synthesis.

It is the method used to prepare variety of materials such as metals, ceramics,
polymers, semiconductors of various nanoparticle forms.
It involves the use of a solvent under moderate to high pressure (1 to 104 atm) and
temperature (100°C to1000°C) as shown in fig 2.12.

Fig 2.12 Solvothermal synthesis

For example, ZnO quantum rod is prepared by dissolving zinc acetate in 2- propanol
at 50°C.

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 It is then cooled to O°C.

 Sodium hydroxide is added to precipitate ZnO.
 The solution is then heated to 65°C to allow ZnO growth.
 The rod shaped ZnO nanocrystals are obtained.

12. Describe the synthesis of nanomaterial by electrospinning process.

[AU May 2022, 2023, 2024, Dec 2023]
It is a method of producing ultrafine fibres by charging and ejecting a polymer
solution through a spinneret under a high-voltage electric field and to solidify or coagulate it
to form a filament.

Components:
 A high voltage power supply.
 A polymer reservoir that can maintain a constant flow rate of solution.
 A conductive needle as polymer source, connected to the high voltage power supply.
 A conductive collector(plate, drum, etc)

Fig 2.13 Electrospinning

Process:
 A polymer is dissolved in a suitable solvent and is filled in the capillary reservoir.
 When sufficiently high voltage is applied to create an electric field between the needle
tip and the collector, a charge accumulates at the liquid surface as shown in fig
2.13.

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 When the electrostatic repulsion is higher than the surface tension the liquid
meniscus is deformed into conically shaped structure known as a Taylor cone.
 The charged liquid jet is ejected towards the collector.
 Depending upon viscosity of the solution, solid fiber will be formed as the solvent
evaporates.
Applications:
It is used in diagnosis, treatment of diabetes, energy storage device, textiles, sensors,
biomedical, e-spun etc.

13. Explain briefly the applications of Nanomaterials.

[AU Jan/May 2022,2024, Dec 2022]
Applications of Nanomaterials
Nano-technology finds significant impact on all areas. Since nano-materials possess
unique beneficial chemical and physical properties, they have wide variety of
applications.
1. Medicine
1. Nano drugs
Nano materials are used as nano drugs for the cancer and TB therapy.
2. Laboratories on a chip
Nano technology is used in the production of laboratories on a chip.
3. Nano-medibots
Nano particles function as nano-medibots tha release anti-cancer drug and
treat cancer.
4. Gold-coated nanoshells
It converts light into heat, enabling the destruction tumours.
4. Gold nano particles as sensors
Gold nano particles undergo colour change during transition of nano particles.
6. Protein analysis
Protein analysis can also be done using nanomaterials.
7. Gold nanoshells for blood immuno assay
Gold nano shells are used for blood immuno assay.

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8. Gold nano shells in imaging

Optical properties of the gold nano shells are utilized for both imaging and
therapy.
9. Targeted drug delivery using gold nano particles
It involves slow and selective release of drugs to the targeted organs.
10. Repairing work
Nano technology is used to partially repair neurological damage.
II. In Agriculture
1. Nanomaterials used as plant growth regulators.
2. They also minimize the amount of harmful chemicals that pollute the environment.
3. Nanosensors are used in crop protection for the identification of diseases and
residues of agrochemicals.
4. Nanodevices are used for the genetic engineering of plants.
5. Nanomaterials are used in diagnosing various plant diseases
6. It is also used in post harvest management.
7. Precision farming techniques might be used to improve the crop yields.
8. Some nanomaterials are used as antimicrobial agents in food packing especially
silver nanoparticles.
9. Nano particle based pesticides and herbicides are being act as antimicrobial
agents.
III. In Energy
Nanomaterials are used in several applications to improve the efficiency of
energy generation (or) develop new methods to generate energy.
1. Power generation
Sun light, concentrated on nanoparticles, can produce steam with high energy
efficiency, which can even be used in power plants.
2. Generating hydrogen from sea water
Nanostructured thin film of nickel selenide used as a catalyst for the
electrolysis of hydrogen from water.
3. Producing high efficiency light bulbs
Nano-engineered polymer matrix is used for the production of high efficiency
light bulbs.

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4. Increasing the electricity generated by wind mills

Stronger and lower weight blades, made from nanotubes-filled epoxy, in wind
mills increases the amount of electricity.
5. Generating electricity from waste heat
Sheets of nanotubes have been used to build thermo cells that generate
electricity, when the sides of the cell are at different temperature.
6. Storing hydrogen for fuel cell powered cars
Graphene layers are used in fuel tank, resulting in a higher amount of
hydrogen storage and lighter weight fuel tank.
7. Reducing power loss in electric transmission wires
The wires containing carbon nanotubes lower resistance than the wires
currently used in the electric transmission grid.
8. Reducing the cost of solar cell
Nanotech solar cells are manufactured at significantly lower cost than the
conventional solar cells.
9. Nano battery and fuel cell
Nanomaterials are used in batteries and fuel cell to increases their efficiency.
IV. Electronics
1. Quantum wires are found to have high electrical conductivity.
2. The integrated memory circuits have been found to be effective devices.
3. A transistor, called NOMFET, (Nanoparticle Organic Memory Field Effect Transistor)
is created by combining gold nanoparticles with molecules.
4. Nano wires are used to build transistors without p-n junctions.
5. Nano radios are the other important devices, using carbon nanotubes.
6. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semi conductor Field Effect Transistor), performs both as
switches and as amplifiers.
V. In Catalysis
Nanoparticle catalysts are highly effective because of the following two reasons
(i) huge surface area
(ii) enhanced reactivity
1. Water purification
Nanosilver catalyst is highly efficient in controlling microbes in water.
2. Bio-diesel production
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Solid base nanocatalyst KF/CaO can be used for biodiesel production with 96%
yield.
3. Fuel cell application
Carbon supported electro-catalysts play important role in fuel cell.
4. In drug delivery
CNTs may be suitable for bio-applications in bio recognition and drug delivery
systems.
5. Gold nanoparticles
Act as catalyst in co-oxidation, epoxidation of propylene, hydrogenation of
unsaturated hydrocarbons.
6. Nanopowder Si/Pt catalyst exhibit strong catalytic activity for hydrolysis reactions.
7. Titania-based nanocatalysts are being increasingly used in photo catalysis.
8. Nanocrystalline MgO particles act as an effective catalyst for dehydrogenation.

Anna University Questions:

1. Describe the synthesis of nanomaterials by precipitation and thermolysis methods.

2. How are carbon nanotubes are synthesized? Explain in detail.
3. Distinguish molecules, nanoparticles and bulk materials. (AU (CEG) Jan2014), May-2015
4. Discuss various types of synthesis involved in the preparation of nanomaterials.
5. Explain nanocluster and nanowire with examples.
6. Discuss any four salient properties of nanomaterials.
7. Discuss the size dependent properties of nanomaterials.
8. Explain any six applications of nanomaterials in various fields.
9. Explain the chemical vapour deposition with a neat diagram.
10. Explain laser ablation.
11. Describe the hydrothermal and electrodeposition techniques for the synthesis of
nanoparticles.
12. Discuss the solvothermal and laser ablation methods of synthesis of nano materials.

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UNIT-III- PHASE RULE AND COMPOSITES

PART – A
1. State Phase rule. [A.U Dec 2015]
The phase rule is a generalization which explain the Heterogeneous equilibrium
mathematically as, F=C – P+2
Where F= No .of degrees of freedom
C= No .of components
P= No .of phases

2. Define Phase with suitable example.

A phase is defined as any homogeneous and physically distinct and mechanically
separable portion of the system which is separated from other parts of the system by definite
boundary.
Eg: Ice(s) Water (l) Water vapour (g) , P=3

3. Define component with suitable example. [A.U Dec 2015, Jan 2018]

Component is defined as the smallest number of independently variable constituents by

means of which the composition of each phase can be expressed in the form of a chemical
equation.

Eg: Ice(s) Water (l) Water vapour (g), C=1

4. Define Degree of freedom. [A.U Dec 2016, Jan 2018]

It is the minimum number of independent variables such as temperature, pressure and

concentration which must be fixed to define the equilibrium of a system completely.

Eg: Ice(s) Water (l) Water vapour (g)

P=3, C=1, F=0 (Non-variant)

For Degree of freedom, F=0(non-variant), F=1(univariant), F=2(bivariant), F=3(trivariant)

5. Mention any two merits (or) uses of phase rule.

 It is applicable to both physical and chemical equilibrium.

 It helps to predict the behaviour of a system under different sets of conditions.

6. State the limitations of phase rule.

 It can be applied only for a system which is in equilibrium.

 All phases of the system must be present simultaneously under similar set of conditions.
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7. How many phases and components are present in the following system?

CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) [A.U Dec 2012]

The system consists of two solid phases and one gaseous phase {P = 3,C=2,}

8. How many phases, components and degrees of freedom are available in this

Equilibrium?

NH4Cl(s) NH3 (g)+ HCl(g) [A.U Jun 2012]

Phases (P) = 2, solid (NH4Cl) and gaseous mixture (NH3 + HCl)

Components (C) = 1 (in equal composition)

Degree of freedom (F) = C-P+2

= 1-2+2= 1(univariant), F=1

9. What is condensed or reduced phase rule? [A.U Jan 2022, May 2023, 2024]

The system in which only solid and liquid phases are considered and the gas phase is
ignored is called condensed system.

F’ =C – P+1

Where, F= No .of degrees of freedom

C= No .of components
P= No .of phases

10. What is an invariant/non-variant system? Give an example.

A system in which the degree of freedom is zero is called an invariant system.

Eg: Triple point of water (F=0). Where, ice water vapour, are in equilibrium.

11. Define Triple point.

It is the point of a system at which the gaseous, liquid and solid phases of a substance
can co-exist in equilibrium. At triple point the system is non-variant (F=0).

Solid Liquid Gas

12. What is the significance of triple point?

 A triple point of a system is invariant.

 It is constant for a substance at a set of temperature and pressure conditions.

 If temperature or volume is altered, one phase of the substance disappears and the
system becomes univariant from invariant.

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13. What do you mean by eutectic? What is the eutectic composition of Pb-Ag System?
Give one application of eutectics.

It is a mixture of substances that melts and freezes at a single temperature that is

lower than the melting points of the separate constituents or of any other mixture of them.

Eutectic composition of Pb-Ag system - 97.4 % Pb, 2.6% Ag.

Uses: Very low melting alloys can be selected for preparing safety devices like fire
sprinklers, plugs in automobiles etc.

14. What are the significances of eutectic mixture?

 Suitable alloy composition can be predicted with the help of eutectic systems.
 Eutectic systems are used in preparing solders.

15. What do you meant by Eutectic point?

It is the temperature at which two solids and a liquid phase are in equilibrium.

Solid A + Solid B Liquid

16. Define Eutectic system.

A binary system consisting of two substances which do not react chemically but is
miscible in all proportions in liquid phase is called "eutectic system". Eg.Pb-Ag system

17. What do you meant by phase diagram? Mention its types.

Phase diagram is a graph obtained by plotting one degree of freedom against another.

 If temperature is plotted against pressure, the diagram is called temperature-pressure

phase diagram (P-T).
 If temperature is plotted against composition, the diagram is called temperature-
composition phase diagram (T-C).

18. What are the uses of phase diagram? [A.U Jan 2018, Dec 2022]

 It is useful in understanding the properties of materials in heterogeneous equilibrium

system.
 It is used to predict whether a eutectic alloy or solid solution is formed on cooling liquid
mixture of two metals.
 It is used to study low melting eutectic alloys for soldering.

19. Calculate the number of phases present in the following systems.

[A.U. Dec 2016, May 2018]

(a) MgCO3(s) MgO(s)+CO2(g) , Three phases.

(b) Rhombic sulphur (s) Monoclinic sulphur(s), Two phases.

(c) Ice(s) Water (l) Water vapour (g), Three phases.

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(d) An emulsion of oil in water, Two phases.

(e) NH4Cl(s) NH3(g) + HCl(g), Two phases.

20. How many components are present in the system?

KCl(s) + Water(l) KCl .hydrated (s)

Number of phases = 3; No. of Components = 2.

21. State the number of degrees of freedom for the following systems.

(a) PCl5(s) PCl3(l)+Cl2(g), (a) P=3, C=2, F = C-P+2=2-3+2 =1

(b) CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g), (b) P=3, C=2, F = C-P+2=2-3+2 =1

22. What is the degree of freedom at eutectic point in lead – silver system?

Degree of freedom (F=0) is zero ie.., F’=C-P+1=2-3+1=0

23. What is thermal analysis?

Thermal analysis is a method involving a study of the cooling curves of various

compositions of a system during solidification.

The shapes of the freezing point curves for any system can be determined by thermal
analysis.

24. What is cooling curve? Mention its uses.

The rate of cooling of metal or mixture of metals can be graphically plotted between
temperature and time is called cooling curves.

Uses:

 Melting point and eutectic temperature can be noted from the cooling curve.
 Percentage purity of the compounds can be noted from the cooling curves.

25. How is cooling curve drawn?

A pure substance in the fused state is allowed to cool slowly and the temperature is

noted at different time interval. Then graph is plotted between temperature and time.

26. What are the important uses of cooling curves?

 Melting point and eutectic temperature can be noted from the cooling curve.
 Percentage purity of the compounds can be noted.
 The procedure of thermal analysis can be used to derive the phase diagram of any two
component system.

27. What is metastable equilibrium?

It is the equilibrium between super cooled water and water vapour.

Super cool water water Vapour

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28. What is Pattinson’s process?

The process of raising the relative proportion of silver in the alloy is called

Pattinson’s process.

29. What are composites?

Composites are “a material system consisting of a mixture of two or more micro-

constituents which are mutually insoluble, differing in form or composition and forming
distinct phases”.

30. Write the characteristics of composites or state about the requisites of composite
materials. [AU May 2022, May 2023]

Composite material posses higher specific strength, lower specific gravity, lower thermal
conductivity and thermal expansion, corrosion and oxidation resistance.

31. How are composites classified?

Composites are classified into three major types:

i. Metal Matrix Composites.

ii. Ceramic Matrix Composites.
iii.Polymer Matrix Composites.

32.What are the Constituents of composites?

Composites consist of two important constituents.

i. Matrix phase (or) Matrix resin

ii. Dispersed phase (or) Reinforcement.

33. What is matrix phase?

Matrix phase is the continuous body constituent, which encloses the composites. It
may be metal, ceramics (or) Polymers (liquid resins). The composites formed using these
matrices are known as matrix phase.

34. What is cure reaction?

 Formation of cross-linking in certain polymers is known as cure reaction.

 Cure reactions are done by using a curing agent.
 The uncross-linked linear polymers should contain functional groups (or) double bonds.

35.What is meant by reinforcement?

It is a process of improving the characteristics of the plastic matrix by adding

reinforcing agent. The reinforcing agents may be organic (or) inorganic in nature. They may
be in the form of powder, flakes, fibres.

36. Write some characteristics of fibre.

 Fibre possesses high tensile strength.

 It possesses high stiffness.
 It lowers overall density of composites.
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37. What are whiskers? Give examples.

Whiskers are thin, strong fibre like material made by growing a crystal.

Example: Graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride.

38. What are FRPs?

FRP are fibre reinforced plastics obtained by reinforcing plastics with high strength fibre
materials.

39. What are the characteristics of FRP?

i. FRP possess higher yield strength, fracture strength and fatigue life.

ii. High corrosion resistance and heat resistance property.

40. Explain the properties of FRP.

FRP possess higher yield strength, fracture strength, corrosion resistance and heat
resistance.

41. Mention some important applications of FRPs. [AU Dec 2022]

 FRP is used for making acid and alkali storage tanks, cloth washing tanks.
 It is used in mining industries for making digesters, solvent extraction tanks, etc.

42. Write the properties of metal matrix composites.

 It exhibits extremely good thermal stability, high strength, good stiffness and low specific
weight.
 It can withstand at elevated temperatures in corrosive environment than polymer
composites.

43. What are the uses of metal matrix composites?

 It is used in engine blade, combustion chambers, etc.,

 Al and Mg MMCs are used in automotive industry.
 It is used in aerospace, defence and automotive applications.
 It is also used in biomedical and sports equipment industry.

44. Write the properties of ceramic matrix composites.

 It provides necessary strength at high temperature with good oxidation resistance.

 It is used at temperatures above 1500 o c, because of their good corrosion resistance.

45. What are the uses of ceramic matrix composites?

Ceramic matrix composites are used in re-entry thermal shields in space vehicles, tiles,

pump seal, round rings, brake linings etc.,

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46. What are hybrid composites? Give two examples of hybrid composites. Or write the
concept of hybrid composites. [AU Jan, May 2022, Dec 2023]

Hybrid composites are new class of materials composed of a suitable polymer matrix
reinforced with two different fibres (or) fillers.
 The most common hybrid composites are carbon-aramid and glass-carbon reinforced
epoxy.
 It is used when a combination of properties of different types of fibres with mechanical
performance are required
 Eg., woven jute/glass fabric, sisal fibre-reinforced polyester composites with the addition
of carbon
47. What are the types of hybrid composites?

Functionally hybrid composites are of three types

 Structurally hybridized composites.

 Materials hybridized in chemical bond.
 Functionally hybridized composites.

48. Write about the uses of hybrid composites.

 It is used in light – weight transport.

 It is also used in light weight orthopaedic components and sporting goods.
 It is used to make furniture like chair, table and bath tubs, railway coach interiors.
 It is also used in making daily used application like plates and spoons.

49. Name any two resins used as matrix forming materials in the manufacture of
composites.

Poly ester resins, epoxy resin and phenolic resin.

50. With an example write about the one component system. [A.U Dec 2023]

The example for one component system is water system. Water exists in all the three
phases ie solid ice, liquid water, gaseous water.

Ice(s) water (l) (Melting)

water (l) Vapour (g) (Vapourisation)

Ice(s) Vapour(g) (Sublimation)

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PART-B

1. State Phase rule and explain the terms involved in it. [AU Jan 2022]

The phase rule is a generalization which explains the heterogeneous equilibrium.

Mathematically, it is stated as

F = C-P +2

Where, F – the number of degrees of freedom for the equilibrium,

C – the number of components,

P – the number of phases present in equilibrium.

Phase (P):

A phase is defined as any homogeneous, physically distinct and mechanically separable

portion of the system which is separated from other parts of the system by definite boundary.

(a) Gases: mixture of gases miscible in all proportions will constitute one phase only.

(Eg) Air which is a mixture of O2,H2,N2,CO2 etc constitutes a single phase

(b) Liquids: i)Mixture of two completely miscible liquids has single phase.

(Eg) Water + Alcohol

ii) If two liquids are immiscible, they form two phases.

(Eg) oil + water.

(c) Solids: Each solid constitutes a separate phase.

(Eg) CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

It consists of three phases—two solid and one gaseous phase.

Component(C):

Component is defined as the smallest number of independent variable constituents by

means of which the composition of each phase can be expressed in the form of a chemical
equation.

Eg.(a) The system ice(s) Water (l) vapour(g), the composition of each phase can be
expressed by a single component i.e., H2O. So, it is a one-component system.

(b) In the thermal decomposition of CaCO 3,

CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

The composition of each of the three phases can be expressed in terms of atleast any
two of the three constituents. So it is a two-component system.

Degrees of Freedom (F) or Variance:

It is the minimum number of independent variables such as temperature, pressure and

concentration which must be fixed to define the equilibrium of a system completely.
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A system having 1, 2, 3 or 0 degree of freedom is called univariant, bivariant, trivariant or

non-variant.

Eg. (a) The system Ice(s) Water (l) Vapour(g) P=3, C=1, F=0 (Non-variant)

If temperature or pressure is altered, one of the phases will disappear and only two
phases are in equilibrium.

Eg .Ice (s) Water(l), P=2, C=1, F=1 (Univariant)

Eg. Water vapour (g) Water (l), P=2, C=1, F=1 (univariant)

2. Explain the phase diagram of Water System or One Component System.

[A.U. Jun 2016, 2018] [A.U. Dec2015, 2022]
Water exists in three phases, namely solid, liquid and gas.

There are three forms of equilibrium.

Ice(s) water (l) (Melting)

water (l) Vapour (g) (Vaporisation)

Ice(s) Vapour(g) (Sublimation)

Fig 3.1 Phase diagram of water system

Curve OA: (Vaporisation curve)
Water Water vapour

 The equilibrium will extend upto the critical temperature 374 oC as shown in fig 3.1.
 Beyond the critical temperature water vapour will exist.
 Degree of freedom (F)= C-P+2 = 1-2+2 = 1 (Univariant)
Curve OB: (Sublimation curve)

Ice Vapour

 The equilibrium will extend upto the absolute zero (-273oC)

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 Below this temperature ice will exist.

 Degree of freedom (F)= C-P+2 = 1-2+2 = 1 (Univariant)

Curve OC: (Melting point curve)

Ice Water

 It is slightly inclined towards pressure axis.

 Melting point of ice decreases with increase of pressure.
 Degree of freedom (F)= C-P+2 = 1-2+2 = 1 (Univariant)

Point O: (Triple Point)

Ice Water Vapour

 Temperature and pressure at the point ‘O’ are 0.0075 oC and 4.58 mm.
 Degree of freedom (F)= C-P+2 = 1-3+2 = 0 (Nonvariant)

Curve OB’: (Meta-stable equilibrium)

Super cool water Vapour

 Super cooled water-water cooled below 0oCwithout formation of ice converted to water.
 Degree of freedom (F)= C-P+2 = 1-2+2 = 1 (Univariant)
Areas:

AOC = Liquid State ,P= 1, C = 1

BOC = Solid State, P = 1,C = 1 F=C-P+2=1-1+2=2
AOB =Vapour State, P = 1,C = 1 (Bivariant)

3. Draw and explain the phase diagram of two component system with an example. Or
Explain lead- silver (Pb-Ag) simple eutectic system. [A.U Dec 2022, Jan 2018, Jan
2022, May 2023, Dec 2023, May 2024]

Simple eutectic system: A binary system consisting of two substances, which are completely
miscible in liquid state, but completely immiscible in the solid state, is known as eutectic
system. Eg: Lead silver system
In this alloy system only solid and liquid phases are considered and the gas phase is
ignored and so condensed phase rule is used.

F’=C – P+1

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Fig 3.2 Phase diagram of Pb-Ag system

Curve AO: (Freezing point curve of Silver)

Solid Ag Melt

 Point A-Melting point of pure Ag(961 °C)

 Curve OA-Melting point depression of Ag by successive addition of Pb as shown in fig 3.2.
 Degree of freedom F’= C-P+1 = 2-2+1 = 1 (Univariant)

Curve BO: (Freezing point curve of Lead)

Solid Pb Melt

 Point B-Melting point of pure Pb(327 °C)

 Curve OB-Melting point depression of Pb by successive addition of Ag
 Degree of freedom F’= C-P+1 = 2-2+1 = 1 (Univariant)

Point O :( Eutectic Point)

Solid Ag +Solid Pb Melt

 Eutectic Temperature (303°C)

 Composition-97.4%Pb , 2.6% Ag
 Below this eutectic point metal solidifies.
 Degree of freedom F’= C-P+1 = 2-3+1 = 0 (Non-variant)

Areas:

 Above the curve AOB: [Molten Pb + Molten Ag] F’= C-P+1 = 2-1+1 = 2 (Bivariant)
 Below the curve AO : [Solid Ag +Liquid melt], F’=1 univariant
 Below the curve BO : [ Solid Pb +Liquid melt ], F’=1 univariant
 Below point O : [Solid Ag & Solid Pb] ,F’ = C-P+1 = 2-2+1 = 1(Univariant)

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Application:

Pattinson’s process – process of raising the relative proportion of silver in the alloy.

 The process of recovery of silver from argentiferous lead is called (Desilverisation)

 Argentiferous lead consists of very small amount (0.1%) of silver (point-p in phase
diagram) is heated to a temperature well above its melting point and then allowed to cool,
lead is crystallized out.
 On repeating the process of melting and cooling beyond the point q, more and more lead
is separated and the melt contains more amount of Ag.
 At point ‘O’ a eutectic mixture containing 2.6% of Ag and 97.4 % Pb is obtained .The
eutectic alloy is then treated for recovery of silver.

Uses:
 Suitable alloy composition can be predicted.
 Used in preparing solders and joining two metal pieces together.

4. What is thermal analysis? Draw the cooling curves of a pure substance and a mixture
and discuss in detail. Elaborate in systematic manner about the construction of a simple
eutectic phase diagram. [A.U Jan 2018, Dec 2023, May 2024]

Thermal analysis is a method involving a study of the cooling curves of various

compositions of a system during solidification.

The shapes of the freezing point curves for any system (involving metals) can be
determined by thermal analysis.

The form of the cooling curve indicates the composition of the solid.

COOLING CURVE FOR PURE SOLID:

A pure substance in the fused state is allowed to cool slowly and the temperature is noted
at different time interval. Then graph is plotted between temperature and time.

 Initially the rate of cooling is continuous.

 When it reaches the point ‘b’ solid begins to appear and temperature remains constant
until the liquid melt is completely solidified as shown in fig 3.3.
 Solidification completes at the point ‘c’.
 The horizontal line ‘bc’ represents the equilibrium between the solid and liquid melt
 Along the line cd the temperature of the solid begins to decrease.

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Cooling curve for a mixture

 The mixture of two substances (say A and B) in the fused state is allowed to cool slowly
 Initially the rate of cooling is continuous.
 When it reaches the point ‘b’ one substance (either A and B ) begins to solidify out of the
melt as shown in fig 3.4.
 On further cooling at the break point ‘c’ the second compound also begins to solidify.
 Along the line cd the liquid melt solidified completely which forms the eutectic mixture.
 The temperature of horizontal line ‘cd’ gives the eutectic temperature.
 After the break point “d” cooling of solid mass begins.
The experiment is repeated for different compositions of A and B and the various cooling
curves are recorded as shown in fig 3.5.
The main phase diagram can be drawn by taking compositions along x-axis and
temperature along y-axis.

Fig 3.5 Cooling curve of various compositions of two solids

Uses:
 Melting point and eutectic temperature can be noted from the cooling curve.
 Percentage purity of the compounds can be noted.
 The behaviour of the compounds can be clearly understood from the cooling curve.
 The composition corresponding to its freezing point yields the composition of the alloy.
 The procedure of thermal analysis can be used to derive the phase diagram of any two
component system.

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5. What are Composites? Explain the constituents of Composites. Or Write a note on

matrix and reinforcement. Give examples.

[AU Dec 2022, May 2024]

A composite material may be defined as, “a material system consisting a mixture of

two (or) more micro-constituents, which are mutually insoluble, differing in form (or)
composition and forming distinct phases”.

Composites consist of two important constituents.

(i) Matrix Phase (or) Matrix resin.

(ii) Dispersed phase (or) Reinforcement.

1. Matrix phase (or) matrix resin.

Matrix phase is the continuous body constituent, which encloses the composite.
Matrix phase may be metals, ceramics (or) polymers (liquid resins), composites using
these matrix phases are known as

(i) Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)

(ii) Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
(iii)Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

2. Dispersed phase (or) Reinforcement.

Dispersed phase is the structural constituent, which determines the internal
structure of the composites.
Examples: -Fibres , particulates, flakes, whiskers.

1. Fibres
Fibres are long and thin filament of any macromolecular substance such as polymer,
metal (or) ceramic having high length to diameter ratio at least 100:1
Example: Natural and Artificial fibres.
2. Particulates
 Particulates are small pieces of hard solid materials.
 They may be metallic (or) non-metallic.
 Generally distribution of particles in a given matrix is random, so the
resulting composites are usually isotropic.
 Due to the inherent hardness, the particle in composites causes constraints
on the plastic deformation on the matrix.
Example: Concrete
3. Flakes
Flakes are very thin solid like materials.
Example: Mica flakes
4. Whiskers
Whiskers are thin strong fiber like material made by growing a crystal.
Example: Graphite, silicon carbide, silicon nitride.

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6. Write notes on the following. i) Ceramic matrix composites ii) Metal matrix

Composites iii) Hybrid composites. [AU May, Jan 2022]

i) Ceramic matrix composite: [AU May, Jan 2022, May 2023]

Ceramic matrix composites are a subgroup of composite materials and a subgroup of

ceramics. It consists of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix.

Matrix phase: Glass, ceramics, carbides, nitrides, oxides and borides,

Dispersed phase: Al203, B, C, SiC and Si02.

Properties:

 CMCs are used at temperature above 1500 C, because of their good corrosion resistance,
stability at elevated temperatures and high compressive strength.

 Ceramics provide necessary strength at high temperature with good oxidation resistance.

 CMC’s have high creep resistance and thermal shock resistance.

Uses:

They are used in re-entry thermal shields in space vehicles and tiles, pump seal, round
rings, brake linings etc.

ii) Metal matrix composites [AU May 2022, 2023] [AU Jan 2022, 2023]

It is a composite material with at least two constituents in which one is necessarily being
a metal and the other material may be a different metal or another material, such as
a ceramic or organic compound.

Matrix phase: Al, Ti, Ni, Mg, etc.

Dispersed phase: B,C, SiC, etc.

Properties:

 It exhibit extremely good thermal stability, high strength, good stiffness, low weight.
It have other advantages like fracture toughness, ductility, elevated temperature.
 It has good damping and compression strength.
 It shows better electrical and thermal conductivity.
 It withstand at elevated temperatures in corrosive environment than polymer composites.
Uses:

 It is used in engine blades, combustion chambers.

 Al and Mg MMCs are used in automotive industry.
 It is used in aerospace, defence and automotives.
 It is also used in biomedical and sports equipment industry.
 Ni and Co alloy matrix are used to counter high temperature creep in gas turbine engine.

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iii) Hybrid composites. [AU May 2024]

Hybrid composites are new class of materials composed of a suitable polymer matrix
reinforced with two different fibers or fillers.

Properties

 They possess strong, tough and higher impact resistance.

 When hybrid composites are stressed in tension, failure does not occur suddenly.
 They possess balanced strength and stiffness.
 They also have balanced thermal distortion stability, reduced weight, and improved
fatigue resistance.
 They exhibit superior mechanical and biological properties than other composites.
Uses

 It is used in light-weight transport (land, water (or) oil) structural components.

 It is also used in light weight orthopedic components and sporting goods.
 It is used to make furniture like chair, table and bath tubs.
 It is used in railway coach interiors.
 It is also used in making daily used applications like plates and spoons.
 Automobile industry utilizes hybrid composites in many of the interior and exterior
applications.
7. Define polymer matrix composites. What are the properties and uses of polymer matrix
composites? [AU May 2022, Dec 2023]

Polymer matrix composites are materials made up of fibers that are embedded in an
organic polymer matrix. Polymers used are thermoplastic or thermosetting plastics or
elastomers.

Matrix phase: polyesters, epoxy, phenolic, silicone and polyamides

Dispersed phase: glass, graphite, alumina, carbon, boron etc

Properties:

 Low specific weight.

 High material stability against corrosion.
 Good electrical and thermal insulation.
 Ease of shaping and economic mass production.
 Attractive optical properties.
 High specific stiffness to weight ratio.
 Improve fatigue strength.

Applications:

Automobiles industry, aircraft and aerospace industry, marine, sports materials,

biomedical applications

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8. What are composites? Give the preparation, properties and uses of various FRP.
Composites: [AU Jan 2010, 2022]
Composites are a new class of materials developed to meet the specific requirements to
design missiles, supersonic aircraft, etc
Definition: A material system consists of two or more micro constituents, which are mutually
insoluble and forming distinct phases.
Advantages/Characteristics of FRP
 High strength to weight ratio.
 Low electrical conductivity and low thermal expansion.
 High corrosion resistance.
 Withstand more heat and light
 Very good mechanical properties like creep, fatigue and strength even at high
temperature.
Constituents of Composites

Composites consist of two constituents:

Matrix phase: Polymer forms the continuous phase and encloses the composite.

Matrix used in FRP is polyesters, epoxy, phenolic, silicone and polyamides.

Dispersed phase: Structural constituent which makes internal structure of the composites.

The reinforcing agents used are glass, graphite, alumina, carbon, boron etc.

Preparation: Fibre-reinforced plastics are produced by bonding a fibre material with a resin
matrix.

Types of Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRP)/ (Polymer composites)

Name Properties Applications

Glass-FRP Low density and dielectric constant Automobile parts ,

High tensile strength and impact pipes and floorings
resistance. Excellent corrosion
resistance and fire resistance

Boron-FRP Excellent stiffness and compressive Horizontal and

strength. Difficult to prepare vertical tails in
airplanes

Carbon-FRP Excellent corrosion resistance, Light Solar panel, sports

weight and retains properties at elevated materials and
temperature. components of airplane
and helicopters

Alumina-FRP Good abrasion and creep resistance, Engine parts

Dimensional stability

Aramid -FRP High ductility components of

airplane and
helicopters

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Important university questions:

1. State phase rule and explain the terms involved in it.

2. Explain the phase diagram of water system or one component system.
3. Draw and explain the phase diagram of two component system with an example. Or
simple eutectic system of Pb-Ag.
4. What are the advantages of polymer composites? Explain using FRP as an example.
5. What are composites? Give the preparation,properties and uses of various FRP
Composites.
6. Write short notes on Metal matrix Composites, ceramic matrix composites and Polymer
Matrix composites.

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UNIT-IV- FUELS AND COMBUSTION

PART-A
1. What is a fuel?
A fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as a main constituent which on
burning gives large amount of heat.
Fuel(C) + oxygen(O2) combustion product (CO2) + heat
Eg: wood, coal, petrol, diesel, natural gas, etc

2. What are the characteristics of a good fuel?

 The calorific value of the fuel should be high.
 It should be easily ignited at moderate temperature.
 Combustion should be easily controllable,
 It should be easy to handle, store, transport at minimum cost.

3. What are the different types of fuels? [AU Jan, May 2019]
Fuels are broadly classified as two types
i) Primary fuel or natural fuel: Eg coal, crude oil, natural gas
ii) Secondary fuel or artificial fuel: Eg coke, petrol, water gas

4. What is meant by combustion of fuel?

Combustion is a process of rapid exothermic oxidation, in which a fuel burns in the
presence of oxygen with the evolution of heat and light.
Fuel(C) + oxygen (O2) combustion product (CO2) + heat
5. Mention combustible and non-combustible constituents present in the fuel.
 Combustible constituents: C, H, S
 Non-combustible constituents: N, O, CO2
6. What is meant by calorific value of fuel? Write its unit.
(AU May 2016 2019, Jan 2018, 2019)
It is the total quantity of heat liberated when a unit mass (or volume) of the fuel is
burnt completely in presence of air/oxygen.
Units of calorific value: calorie/gram (or) kilocalorie/ kilogram (or) British thermal unit (or)
centigrade heat unit.
Calorie: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water through 1°C.

7. Define Gross or Higher calorific value. [AU Dec 2005, Jun 2006, May 2019]
Gross calorific value (G.C.V) is defined as the total amount of heat produced, when a
unit quantity of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to
room temperature.

8. Define Net or Lower calorific value. [AU May 2019]

Net calorific value (N.C.V) is defined as the net heat produced when a unit quantity of
the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion are allowed to escape.

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9. Write the Dulong’s formula for the theoretical calculation of calorific value. [AU
May 2019]
GCV = 1/100 [8080 C+34500 (H-O/8) +2240 S] kcal/kg
NCV = GCV-9Hx587/100 kcal/kg

10. Calculate the net calorific value if the gross calorific value is 2550 cal/g and
contains 6.5% H
NCV = GCV – [0.09H x 587] kcal/Kg = 2550 – [0.09 x 6.5 x 587]
= 2206.6 cal/g
11. What is Ignition temperature? (AU Dec 2016, May 2019)
It is defined as,” the lowest temperature to which the fuel must be heated, so that it
starts burning smoothly”.

12. What is Spontaneous ignition temperature? (AU Dec 2016, 2023) [AU May 2022]
It is defined as “the minimum temperature at which the fuel catches fire (ignites)
spontaneously without external heating”.

13. What is an Explosive range of fuel? [AU Jun 2014, Dec 2016] [AU May 2018]
The explosive range (or) explosive limit is the limiting composition of a gas-air mixture
beyond which the mixture will not ignite and continue to burn.

14. What is coal? How coals are classified? (AU Jan 2018)
Coal is a carbonaceous matter formed as a result of alteration of vegetable matter
under favourable condition over several millions of years.
Classification:
Wood Peat Lignite Bituminous Anthracite

15. Write the calorific value of different types of coal. (AU Dec 2015)
Higher Calorific Value (HCV or
Fuel
GCV)kJ/kg
Carbon 34,080
Charcoal 29,600
Coal (Lignite -
15,000 – 27,000
Anthracite)

16. What is Coalification Or metamorphism?

The process of conversion of vegetable matter into anthracite (coal) is called
Coalification or metamorphism.

17. What is proximate analysis? [AU May 2023]

It involves determination of moisture content, volatile content, ash content & fixed
carbon in coal.
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18. Write the significances of proximate analysis.

i) Moisture content: Reduces the calorific value.
 It consumes more heat to catch fire.
ii) Volatile matter: Reduces the calorific value.
 Burns with long smoky flame.
iii) Ash content: Reduces the calorific value
 It involves additional cost in ash disposal.
iv) Fixed carbon content: Higher calorific value.
19. What is ultimate analysis?
It involves determination of Carbon, hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Ash and Oxygen
contents in coal.
20. Write the significances of ultimate analysis.
Carbon and hydrogen contents:
 Higher calorific value
 Helpful in the classification of coal.
Nitrogen & Sulphur content:
 They are undesirable
 The combustion products of sulphur, i.e.,SO2 and SO3 are harmful.
Oxygen content:
 High oxygen content shows high moisture content.
 The calorific value of the fuel is reduced.

21. Distinguish between proximate and ultimate analysis. [AU 2017, Jan 2019]
Sl.No Proximate analysis Ultimate analysis
1. It involves the determinations of It involves the determination of
physical constituents like chemical constituents like
moisture, volatile, ash and fixed carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
carbon contents in coal. sulphur and oxygen contents in
coal.
2. It gives the approximate It gives the exact composition of
composition of the main the elementary constituents of
constituents of coal. coal.

22. What is the drawback of sulphur in coal? (AU June 2015)

 They are undesirable.
 The combustion products of sulphur, i.e.,SO2 and SO3 are harmful.

23. What is carbonization?

When coal is heated in the absence of air (destructive distillation), it is converted
into lustrous, dense, porous and coherent mass called coke. This process of converting coal
into coke is called carbonization.

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24. What is metallurgical coke?

When bituminous coal is heated in the absence of air, the mass becomes hard,
porous and coherent mass called metallurgical coke.

25. What are the characteristics of metallurgical coke?

 The moisture, ash, S and P should be low.
 It should be highly porous.
 The calorific value should be high.
 It should burn easily.
26. What are the advantages of Otto-Hoffman’s process?
 Valuable by- products like ammonia, coal gas, naphthalene etc., are recovered.
 The carbonization time is less.
 Heating is done externally by producer gas.

27. Why is coke used in metallurgical process than coal? (or) How coke is superior to
Coal?
 Percentage of fixed carbon in coke is more.
 The moisture, ash, sulphur contents are very low.
 The mechanical strength, calorific value is high.

28. What are the important by-products recovered from Otto Hoffman’s by-product
oven method?
Tar, Ammonia, Naphthalene, Benzene, H2S

29. What is crude oil/petroleum? Give the classification of petroleum. (AU Dec 2019)
Crude oil is dark greenish – brown viscous oil found deep in earth’s crust.
It consists of mixture of hydrocarbons (like straight chain paraffins, cycloparaffins,
olefins and aromatics) together with small amounts of organic compounds containing
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
Classification:
1. Paraffinic base type crude oil
2. Naphthenic base type crude oil and
3. Mixed base type crude oil.
30. What is Refining?
The process of removing impurities and separating the various fractions having
different boiling points from crude oil by fractional distillation is called refining.

31. How water is separated from crude oil by Cottrell’s process?

The crude oil is allowed to flow between two highly charged electrodes, where
colloidal water combines to form large drops.

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32. What is synthetic petrol? [AU Dec 2011]

It is a liquid fuel obtained from solid coal by hydrogenation process.

33. What is meant by hydrogenation of coal?

If coal is heated with hydrogen at high temperature under high pressure, it is
converted to synthetic petrol or gasoline.
The preparation of liquid fuels from solid coal is called hydrogenation of coal.

34. What is knocking? [AU May 2024]

Knocking is a kind of explosion occurs due to rapid pressure rise in an IC engine.
Knocking tendency of petrol can be reduced by adding TEL, aromatic phosphates.

35. How to improve the ant knocking properties of petrol? [AU Dec 2022]
The octane number of fuel can be improved by.
 Blending petrol of high octane number with petrol of low octane number
 By adding anti-knocking agents like Tetra-Ethyl Lead (TEL), aromatic phosphates, etc.

36. What is Octane number or Octane rating? [AU June 2022, 2024, Dec 2023]
Octane number is defined as the percentage of iso-octane in iso-octane and
n – heptane mixture which has the same knocking characteristics as that of the test
petrol when burnt in a standard test engine under standard condition.

CH3
CH3-CH- CH2-C-CH3 CH3-CH2- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH3
Iso octane (Octane No=100) n-heptane (Octane No=0)

37. What is cetane number or cetane rating? [AU Dec 2016, Jan 2022]
It is defined as the percentage of n-cetane in a mixture of n-cetane and
2–methyl naphthalene which has the same ignition lag as the diesel fuel under test.
CH3–(CH2)14–CH3 CH3
n – cetane
(cetane No= 100) o O (cetane No= 0)
o α-Omethyl naphthalene
o O
o O
38. Why should leaded petrol not to be used?
o O
 Lead deposits on the spark plug and on cylinder
o O walls, which is harmful to engine life.
 This creates atmospheric pollution. o O
o
39. What is leaded petrol? Give its significance in automobiles.
When the petrol is mixed with Tetra- Ethyl Lead (TEL), it is called leaded petrol.
Significance: knocking in petrol engine is minimized.

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40. How will you improve the anti-knocking characteristics of diesel?

Cetane value of diesel can be increased by adding dopes like ethyl nitrate, iso-amyl
nitrate, acetone peroxide etc.

41. What is flue gas?

The mixture of gases (like CO2, O2, CO etc) coming out from the combustion
chamber is called flue gas.

42. What are the reagents used in flue gas analysis? Indicate their functions.

Reagents Functions
KOH solution absorbs CO2
Alkaline pyrogallol absorbs O2, CO2
Ammoniacal cuprous absorbs CO, CO2,O2
chloride

43. Mention the significances of flue gas analysis.

Flue gas analysis gives an idea about the complete or incomplete combustion process.
 If the flue gases contain considerable amount of CO, it indicates the incomplete
combustion.
 If the flue gases contain considerable amount of O2, it indicates the complete
combustion.

44. What is power alcohol? [AU May 2022]

When ethyl alcohol is blended with petrol at concentration of 5-25%, it is called
power alcohol.

45. What are the advantages of using power alcohol as fuel?

 Addition of ethyl alcohol increases the octane number of petrol.
 Alcohol has property of absorbing any traces of water if present in petrol.
 The polluting emissions of CO, hydrocarbon, particulates are reduced largely.
 Power alcohol is cheaper than petrol.

46. What are the disadvantages of using power alcohol as fuel?

 Lower calorific value than petrol.
 Reduces power output upto 35%.
 Ethyl alcohol may be oxidised to acetic acid, which corrodes engine parts.

47. What is biodiesel? [AU Dec 2016, May 2022]

It is defined as the mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable
oils or animal fat.

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48. What are the advantages of using biodiesel as fuel? [AU May 2024]
 Domestically produced from non-petroleum renewable resources
 Biodegradable, Non-toxic
 Less air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., B20 reduces CO2 by 15%)

49. What are the disadvantages of using biodiesel as fuel?

 Lower fuel economy and power (10% lower for B100, 2% for B20)
 Currently more expensive
 B100 generally not suitable for use in low temperatures
 Concerns about B100's impact on engine durability.

50. Mention two disadvantages of using alcohol-gasoline blends in IC engine.

 Alcohols may be corrosive to certain materials used in engines.
 Alcohol-gasoline blends can cause injury to persons if not used properly.

51. Write the differences between gasoline and diesel oil.

S.no Gasoline oil Diesel oil
1. Low boiling fraction of Petroleum High boiling fraction of petroleum
contains C5-C9 hydrocarbons. contains C15-C18 hydrocarbons.
2. Fuel for SI engine. Fuel for CI engine.
3. Knocking is due to premature Knocking is due to ignition lag.
ignition.
4. Anti-knocking is improved by the Anti-knocking is improved by
addition of TEL. doping with ethyl nitrate.

52. Define carbon emission.

It is defined as the release of carbon into the atmosphere. Since green house
gas emissions are often calculated as carbon dioxide equivalents, they are often
referred as carbon emissions.
53. Define carbon footprint. [AU May 2023]
It is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including CO2 and CH4) that are
generated (emitted) by our direct and indirect activities.
54. How do you control carbon foot print? [AU Jan 2022]
 Switch lights off when you leave the room.
 Unplug your electronic devices when they are not in use.
 Drive less. Walk or take public transportation.
 Switch to renewable energy sources.
55. What is trans-esterification? [AU Dec 2022]
 The viscosity of the vegetable oils is reduced by the process known as trans-
esterification or alcoholysis.
 It is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol using acid or base
catalyst.
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PART-B

1. How coal is analyzed by proximate analysis? What are the quantities estimated in
this analysis? Write its significance. [AU May 2018, 2019, Jan 2022]

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS: It involves determination of moisture content, volatile matter,

ash content and fixed carbon in coal.

Moisture content:
1 g of powdered air-dried coal sample is taken in crucible and heated at 100-105°C in
an electric hot-air oven for 1 hr.
% of moisture = Loss in weight of the coal x 100
Weight of air-dried coal
Volatile matter:
The crucible with residual coal sample is covered with lid and heated at about 950 °C
for 7 min in a furnace.
% of volatile matter = Loss in weight of the coal x 100
Weight of air- dried coal
Ash content:
The crucible with residual coal sample is heated without lid at 700 oC+ 50°C for 30
min in a furnace.

% of ash = Weight of ash x 100

Weight of air-dried coal

Fixed carbon content: It is determined by subtracting the sum of moisture, volatile & ash
contents, (AU Dec 2019)
% of fixed carbon = 100 - (% of moisture content + volatile matter + ash)
SIGNIFICANCE:
i) Moisture content:
 Reduces the calorific value.
 Increases the transport cost.
 It consumes more heat for catch fire.
ii) Volatile matter:
 Reduces the calorific value.
 Escapes un-burnt.
 Burns with long smoky flame.
iii) Ash content:
v) Reduces the calorific value
vi) It involves additional cost in ash disposal.
vii) It increases the transporting & storage costs.

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iv) Fixed carbon content:

 Higher calorific value.
 % of fixed carbon helps in designing the furnace.

2. How coal is analyzed by ultimate analysis? Write its significance.

[AU Jun 2017, Jan 2018, Dec 2019]
Ultimate Analysis:
It involves determination of Carbon, hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulphur, Ash and Oxygen
content in coal.
i) Carbon & Hydrogen content:
Carbon content:
 A known amount of coal is burnt in presence of oxygen which gives CO2 &H2O.
 CO2 & H2O are passed into KOH & CaCl2 to absorbs CO2 & H2O
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O
CaCl2 + 7 H2O CaCl2 . 7 H2O

C + O2 CO2
12 44
Calculation: 44 g of CO2 contains 12g of Carbon

% of carbon = Increases in weight of KOH tube x 12 x100

Weight of coal sample taken x 44
Hydrogen content:

H2+1/2 O2 H2O
2 18
18 g of H2O contains 2g of Hydrogen

% of hydrogen = Increases in weight of CaCl2 tube x 2 x100

Weight of coal sample taken x 18

ii) Nitrogen content:

 A known amount of powdered coal sample is heated with conc.H2SO4 in presence of
K2SO4 to form a clear solution of ammonium sulphate.
 The solution is heated with excess of NaOH to form ammonia.
 The liberated ammonia is absorbed in a known volume of standard HCl.
 The volume of HCl consumed is then determined by titration with std NaOH.
2N + 3H2 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4
(NH4)2SO4 + 2 NaOH 2NH3+ Na2SO4+ 2H2O
NH3+HCl NH4Cl
Calculation:
1000 ml of 1N HCl ≡ 1 mole of HCl ≡ 1 mole of NH3≡1 mole of N2 ≡14 g of nitrogen

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% of Nitrogen = 1.4x Volume of acid consumed x Normality of HCl

Weight of coal sample
iii) Sulphur content:
 Coal sample is burnt completely in a bomb calorimeter.
 Sulphur is converted into sulphate, which is extracted with water.
 The extract is then treated with Bacl2 solution so that sulphates are precipitated
as Baso4.
 The precipitate is filtered, dried and weighed.
S + 2O2 SO4 2- + BaCl2 BaSO4
32 233
233 g of BaSO4 is obtained from 32g of sulphur.

% of sulphur in coal = weight of BaSO4 obtained x 32 x100

Weight of coal sample x 233
iv) Ash content:
Coal sample is heated at about 750oC for 30 min in a muffle furnace.
% of Ash = Weight of ash formed x 100
Weight of air-dried sample
v) Oxygen content:
% of oxygen in coal = 100 – (% of C+H+S+N+ash)
Significance:
Carbon and hydrogen contents:
 Higher % of carbon reduces the size of combustion chamber.
 Higher calorific value
Nitrogen content:
 Good quality coal should have very little nitrogen content.
Sulphur content:
 The combustion products of sulphur, i.e.,SO2 and SO3 are harmful.
 Sulphur in coal is not suitable for the preparation of metallurgical coke.
Oxygen content:
 High oxygen content shows high moisture content.
 The calorific value of the fuel is reduced.

3. What is metallurgical coke? How is it superior to coal? How is metallurgical coke

manufactured by Otto – Hoffman by-product method? [AU May 2023, 2024, Dec 2023]

Metallurgical coke:
When bituminous coal is heated in the absence of air, the mass becomes hard,
porous and coherent called metallurgical coke.

Significance of coke over coal:

 Percentage of fixed carbon in coke is more.

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 The mechanical strength and calorific value is high.

Otto – Hoffman’s by-product oven:

Objectives:
Otto – Hoffman designed the oven to
 Increase the thermal efficiency of carbonization process.
 Recover the valuable by-products.

Manufacture:
 The oven consists of a number of silica chambers (10-12 m long, 3-4 m height and
0.4- 0.45m wide) as shown in fig 4.1.
 Each chamber is provided with opening for charging and taking the coal.
 The air and producer gas are preheated by sending them through 2nd and 3rd hot
regenerators.
 The chambers are heated to 1200° C by burning the preheated air and the producer
gas mixture.
 Hot flue gases are passed through 1st and 4th regenerators until the temperature has
raised to 1000°C.
 The flow of fuel gas & flue gas are reversed for efficient heating.
 The system of recycling the waste flue gases is called “Regenerative System of Heat
Economy”.
 Time taken for complete carbonization is about 12-20 hours.
 Yield of coke is about 70%.

RECOVERY OF BY- PRODUCTS:

(i) Tar: Is recovered by using Liquor ammonia.
(ii) Ammonia: Is recovered by using Water.
(iii) Naphthalene: Is recovered by using Cooled water
(iv) Benzene Is recovered by using Petroleum
(v) Hydrogen sulphide: Purification of coal gas. H2S is removed by using Fe2O3.

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Fig 4.1 Otto – Hoffman’s by-product oven

ADVANTAGES:
 Carbonization time is less.
 Recovery of the valuable by products.

4. What is synthetic fuel? How synthetic petrol is manufactured by Bergius Process?

[AU Dec 2022, 2024]

The synthetic petrol is a liquid fuels obtained from solid coal by hydrogenation.
If coal is heated with hydrogen at high temperature and pressure, gasoline or
synthetic petrol is obtained.

Bergius process: (Direct method)

 In this process, the finely powdered coal is made into a paste with heavy oil and a
catalyst powder (tin or nickel oleate) as shown in fig 4.2.
 The paste is pumped along with hydrogen gas into the converter and heated to 400 –
450˚C under a pressure of 200 – 250atm.
 Hydrogen combines with coal to form saturated higher hydrocarbons which undergo
further decomposition at higher temperature to give mixture of lower hydrocarbons.
 The mixture is led to a condenser where the crude oil is obtained.
 The crude oil is then fractionated to yield.
(i) Gasoline oil
(ii) Middle oil
(i) Heavy oil
 The middle oil is further hydrogenated in vapour phase in the presence of solid
catalyst to yield more gasoline.
 The heavy oil is used for making paste with fresh coal dust.
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Powdered Coal with heavy oil+H2 Mixture of hydrocarbons Crude oil

fractional
distillation

Gasoline

Fig 4.2 Bergius process

5. What is Knocking? Explain briefly about the knocking in petrol engine. How it is
expressed? How it is prevented? [AU Dec 2014,Jun 2015]
Knocking:
It is a kind of explosion occurs due to high pressure rise in an IC engine.
Premature instantaneous ignition of fuel air mixture in S.I engine leading to
production of an explosive sound is known as knocking.
The knocking results in loss of efficiency.
Causes of knocking in petrol engine:
 In a petrol engine, a mixture of gasoline vapour and air is compressed and ignited by
an electric spark.
 The products of combustion increase the pressure and push the piston down.
 But in some cases the rate of combustion is not uniform due to unwanted chemical
constituents of gasoline
 Due to which final portion of fuel-air mixture ignited instantaneously before ignited by
an electric spark.
 Thus the knocking occurs due to pre-ignition in petrol engine.
Chemical structure and knocking:
The knocking tendency of fuel decreases in the following order,
Straight – chain paraffins > branched – chain paraffins (i.e., iso – paraffins) > olefins >
cycloparaffins (i.e., naphthenes) > aromatics.

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The knocking characteristic of petrol is expressed by Octane number.

Octane Number or octane rating: [AU May 2019]

Octane number is defined as the percentage of iso octane present in a mixture of iso
octane and n – heptanes mixture which has the same knocking characteristics as that of
the test petrol when burnt in a standard test engine under standard condition.
 It has been found that n – heptane knocks very badly and hence its anti knock value
has been zero.
 Iso octane gives very little knocking and so it anti knock value has been given 100.

CH3
CH3-CH- CH2-C-CH3 CH3-CH2- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3 CH3
Iso octane (Octane No=100) n-heptane (Octane No=0)

6. How will you improve anti knock characteristics of petrol? Explain with
mechanism. [AU May 2019]
The octane number of fuel can be improved by
 Blending petrol of high octane number with petrol of low octane number.
 Addition of anti – knock agents like Tetra – Ethyl Lead (TEL), diethyl telluride (DET),
etc.
(It reduces the knocking tendency of hydrocarbon).

Mechanism of knocking:
 Knocking follows free radical mechanism leading to a chain growth which results in
explosion.
 The added TEL decomposes thermally to form ethyl free radical
 It combines with growing chain of hydrocarbon and thus it is stopped.

Disadvantages:
 When leaded petrol is used as a fuel, lead or lead oxide is formed after combustion.
 It deposited on the cylinder walls and spark plug.
 It is avoided by adding ethylene dibromide.
 It reacts with Pb/PbO to produce volatile lead bromide, which goes out along with
exhaust gases.

CH2-Br
Pb + CH2-Br PbBr2+ CH2=CH2

It creates pollution, so aromatic phosphates are used.

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7. Explain briefly about knocking in diesel engine. How it is expressed and improved?
Ignition delay of fuel in an I.C engine leads to production of an explosive violence
sound known as knocking.

Causes:
 In a diesel engine, air is first compressed.
 It raises the temperature of the engine and then oil is sprayed into the heated air.
 It raises the temperature and pressure which pushes the piston and power stroke
begins.
 Long ignition lag leads to accumulation of more vapours in the cylinder causes
explosion during ignition.
 If ignition lag is short, knock will not occur.
Chemical structure and knocking:
The knocking characteristics of diesel decreases in the order
Aromatics> branched – chain paraffins (i.e., iso – paraffins) > olefins > cycloparaffins
(i.e., naphthenes) > Straight – chain paraffins.
Knocking characteristics of diesel engine is expressed by Cetane Number.
Cetane Number or Cetane rating: [AU May 2019]
It is defined as the percentage of n-cetane in a mixture of n-cetane and 2 – methyl
naphthalene which has the same ignition lag as the diesel fuel under test.

CH3–(CH2)14–CH3 CH3
n – cetane
(cetane No= 100) 2 – methyl naphthalene (cetane No= 0)

Cetane number is used to express the knocking characteristics of diesel.

 Cetane (C16 H34) has a very short ignition lag and hence its cetane number is taken as
100.
 2 – methyl naphthalene has a long ignition lag and hence its cetane number is taken
as zero.
The cetane number of a diesel fuel can be increased by the addition of dopes like ethyl
nitrate, iso amyl nitrate, acetone peroxide, 2-ethylhexyl nitrate etc.

8. What are flue gases? How are they analyzed by Orsat’s method? [AU Dec 2022,
2023] [AU Jun 2019, 2022 , Jan 2018, 2019, May 2023]
Flue gases:
The mixture of gases (like CO2, O2, CO etc) coming out from the combustion chamber
is called flue gases.
The analysis of a flue gas would give an idea about the complete or incomplete
combustion process.
It is carried out by using Orsat’s apparatus.

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Description:
 It consists of a horizontal tube. At one end of this tube, U-tube containing fused CaCl2
is connected through a 3-way stop cock as shown in figure 4.3.
 The other end of this tube is connected with a graduated gas burette.
 The burette is surrounded by water – jacket to keep the temperature of gas constant.
 The lower end of the burette is connected to a water reservoir by means of a rubber
tube.
 The level of water in the burette can be raised or lowered by raising or lowering the
reservoir.
 The horizontal tube is also connected with three different absorption bulbs I, II and III
for absorbing CO2, O2, CO.

I – bulb - ‘potassium hydroxide’ - absorbs only CO2.

II – bulb - ‘alkaline pyrogallol’ - absorbs O2 and CO2
III – bulb - ‘ammoniacal cuprous chloride’ - absorbs CO, O2 and CO2
Working:
 The 3-way stop cock is opened to the atmosphere.
 The reservoir is raised, till the burette is completely filled with water and air is
excluded from the burette.
 The 3-way stop cock is connected to the flue gas supply.
 The volume of flue gas is adjusted to 100°cc by raising and lowering the reservoir.
 The 3-way stop cock is closed.

Fig 4.3 Orsat’s apparatus

Absorption of CO2:
 The stopper of the absorption bulb I containing KOH solution is opened.
 All the gas is passed into it by raising the level of water in the burette.
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CO2 in the flue gas is absorbed by KOH.

This process is repeated several times to ensure complete absorption of CO2.
The decrease in volume of flue gas in the burette indicates the volume of CO2 in 100cc
of the flue gas.
Absorption of O2:
 Stop cock of bulb –I is closed and stop cock of bulb – II is opened.
 The gas is again sent into the absorption bulb – II where O2 present in the flue gas is
absorbed by alkaline pyrogallol.
 The decrease in volume of the flue gas in the burette indicates the volume of O2.
Absorption of CO:
 Now stop cock of bulb II is closed and stop-cock of bulb III is opened.
 The remaining gas is sent into the absorption bulb III where CO present in the flue
gas is absorbed by ammonical cuprous chloride.
 The decrease in volume of the flue gas in the burette indicates the volume of CO.

Significance of flue gas analysis:

 Gives an idea about the complete or incomplete combustion process.
 Large volume of CO - the incomplete combustion due to short supply of O2.
 Large volume of O2 - complete combustion.

9. What is power alcohol? Explain briefly about its manufacturing process. Write its
advantage and disadvantages. Or how can power alcohol be helpful in fuel crisis?
[AU Jan 2022]
Power alcohol:
When ethyl alcohol is blended with petrol at concentration of 5-25%, it is called power
alcohol.
 The addition of ethyl alcohol to petrol increases its octane number.

Manufacture of ethyl alcohol:

Ethyl alcohol can be synthesized by fermentation of carbohydrates (sugar material).
 Fermentation of molasses (residue left after the crystallization of sugar) with yeast
generates alcohol.
 Fermentation of molasses yields only about 20% alcohol.
Yeast
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Glucose ethyl alcohol

Concentration of alcohol can be increased up to 95.6% by fractional distillation yields

rectified spirit.
Conversion of ethyl alcohol into power alcohol:
100% alcohol is prepared by removing last traces of water from the following steps:
 By adding benzene to rectified spirit and then distilled.

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 By adding starch or zeolites which adsorbs water.

Properties:
 It has high octane number (90).
 It has lower calorific value (7000kcal/kg).
Uses:
 It is used as a motor fuel.
Advantages:
 Power alcohol is cheaper than petrol.
 Octane number of ethyl alcohol is 90, so addition of ethyl alcohol increases the octane
number of petrol.
 Alcohol absorbs any traces of water if present in petrol.
 The polluting emissions of CO, hydrocarbon, particulates are reduced largely.

Disadvantages:
 Ethyl alcohol has calorific value 7000kcal/kg much lower than that of petrol
11500kcal/kg.
 Use of power alcohol reduces power output upto 35%.
 Its atomisation, at lower temperature causes starting trouble.
 It may undergo oxidation reaction to form acetic acid, which corrodes engine parts.

10. What is Bio-diesel? How it is manufactured? Write its advantages and

disadvantages. [AU Dec 2017, AU May 2018]
Bio-diesel:
Bio-diesel is a mono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable oil or
fats.
Vegetable oils comprise of 90-95% triglycerides with small amount of diglycerides, free
fatty acids, phospholipids, etc. Triglycerides are esters of long chain fatty acids, like stearic
acid and palmitic acid.
Manufacture: trans-esterification (or) alcoholysis:
 The viscosity of the vegetable oils is reduced by the process known as trans-
esterification or alcoholysis.
 It is the process of exchanging the organic group R″ of an ester with the organic group
R′ of an alcohol using acid or base catalyst.
Alcoholysis is the displacement of alcohol from an ester by another alcohol.

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Process:
 Vegetable oil (sunflower oil, palm oil, soyabean oil, mustard oil, etc) with excess of
methanol in presence of acid/base catalyst give mono ethyl esters of long chain fatty
acid and glycerine.
 It is allowed to stand for some time and glycerine is separated.
 Methyl esters of fatty acids, thus formed, are called “Bio-diesel.
 Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or blended with diesel. Common blends
include B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20.

Advantages:

 Domestically produced from non-petroleum, renewable resources

 Less air pollutants (other than nitrogen oxides)
 Less greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., B20 reduces CO2 by 15%)
 Biodegradable, Non-toxic, Safe to handle.

Disadvantages:

 Lower fuel economy and power (10% lower for B100, 2% for B20)
 Currently more expensive.
 B100 generally not suitable for use in low temperatures. (gel formation)
 Decreases the horse power of engine.

11. Define Net and Gross calorific value. (AU Dec 2015)
Higher or Gross calorific value:
Gross calorific value (G.C.V) is defined as the total amount of heat produced, when a
unit quantity of the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion are cooled to
room temperature.
Net or Lower calorific value:
Net calorific value (N.C.V) is defined as the net heat produced when a unit quantity of
the fuel is completely burnt and the products of combustion are allowed to escape.

Dulong’s formula for the theoretical calculation of calorific value:

GCV=1/100[8080C+34500(H-O/8) +2240S] kcal/kg
NCV=GCV-9xHx587/100 kcal/kg Where H is in percentage.
a) Calculate the gross and net calorific value of coal having the following
composition, C=85%, H=8%, S= 1%, N=2%, ash=4%. [AU Jan 2022, Dec 2022]
GCV/HCV:
GCV = 1/100[8080C+34500(H-O/8)+2240S]kcal/kg
= 1/100[8080x85+34500(8-0/8)+2240x1]
= 1/100[686800+276000+2240]
= 1/100[965040]
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= 9650.4 kcal/kg
NCV/LCV:
NCV= GCV-9xHx587/100 kcal/kg
= 9650.4-(9x8x587/100)
= 9650.4-422.64
= 9227.76 kcal/kg

b) Calculate the gross and net calorific value of coal having the following
composition, C=84%, H=5.5%, S= 1.5%, N=6%, Oxygen=8.4%. (AU Dec 2022)
GCV = 1/100[8080C+34500(H-O/8)+2240S]kcal/kg
= 1/100[8080x84+34500(5.5-8.4/8)+2240x1.5]
= 1/100[678720+153525+3360]
= 1/100[835605]
= 8356.05 kcal/kg
NCV/LCV:
NCV=GCV-9xHx587/100 kcal/kg
= 8356.05-(9x5.5x587/100)
= 8356.05-290.565
= 8065.485 kcal/kg

12. Write short notes on: i) Carbon emission ii) Carbon foot print.
Carbon emission:
It is defined as the release of carbon into the atmosphere. Since green house gas
emissions are often calculated as carbon dioxide equivalents, they are often referred as
carbon emissions.
Sources:
Transportation, industry, electricity production, agriculture, commercial and residential.
Reduction of carbon emission:
 In industry, green house gases can be reduced by fuel switching, use of renewable
etc.
 Avoid of using HFC’s in refrigeration, air conditioning and foam blowing.
 In oil and gas production, the leakage of green house gases can be controlled by
reducing pressure from pipelines.

Carbon footprint:
It is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including CO2 and CH4) that are generated
(emitted) by our direct and indirect activities.
Individual carbon footprint:
It is sum of their direct and indirect carbon emissions over the course of a year.
i.e., Smaller your carbon foot print: better for the future
Bigger your carbon footprint: have bigger negative impact in environment.
Sources:
Climate change, green house gases, pollution, industry etc.
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Ways to reduced carbon footprint:

 Calculate your footprint
 Drive less
 Walk or take public transportation
 Switch to an electric (or) hybrid car
 Start a home garden
 Eat less meat
 Don’t waste water
 Reduce, reuse and recycle.
 Switch to renewable energy sources

Important university questions:

1. What is proximate analysis? Write its significances.

2. How coal is analyzed by ultimate analysis? Write its significances.
3. What is metallurgical coke? How it is manufactured by Otto-Hoffman oven method?
4. What is synthetic petrol? How it is manufactured by Bergius process?
5. Explain the mechanism of knocking of petrol.
6. What is power alcohol? How it is prepared? Write its advantages and disadvantages.
7. What is biodiesel? How it is produced? Write its advantages and disadvantages
8. With a neat diagram explain the analysis of flue gas by Orsat method. Mention its
significances.
9.Write short notes on: i) Carbon emission ii) Carbon foot print.

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UNIT-V-ENERGY SOURCES AND STORAGE DEVICES

PART – A
1. Define Mass Defect.
The difference between the calculated (mass of proton and neutron) and experimental
masses of nucleus is called mass defect it is denoted by Δm.
Δm = Total mass of protons – Experimental mass
and neutrons of the nucleus
(OR)
It is defined as the loss of mass during the formation of the nucleus of the isotope.
It is also defined as the total mass of the products is always less than that of the reacting
nuclei.

2. What is binding energy?

Binding energy is defined as the energy released when a given number of protons
and neutrons coalesce to form nucleus.
It is also defined as the energy required to split an atom’s nucleus into protons and
neutrons.

3. Calculate the mass defect of 20C40, which has atomic of 39.975 amu. The mass of
proton is 1.0078 amu and the mass of neutron is 1.0086 amu.
Formula:
Mass defect of Ca-atom = Zmp + Zme + (A - Z) mn - M
Note: Calcium atom is composed of 20 protons and 20 neutrons.
Given:
Z = 20; (A - Z) = 40-20 = 20; mH= 1.0078 amu; mn = 1.0086 amu; M = 39.975 amu;
Solution:
∆m= Zmp + (A - Z) mn - M
 ∆m = [ 20 mp +20 mn - M] [∵me = Neglected]
= [20 x 1.0078 + 20 x 1.0086 - 39.975]
= [20.156 + 20.172 – 39.975]
= 40.328 - 39.975
= 0.353 amu

4. Calculate the mass defect of 2He4", if it’s experimentally determined mass is

4.00390 amu. The masses of a proton, an electron and a neutron are 1.007825,
0.0005852 and 1.008668 amu respectively.
Formula:
Mass defect (∆m) = Zmp + Zme + (A - Z) mn - M
Note: 2He4
Z=2, A-Z = 4-2=2
Given:
mp= 1.007825 amu; me = 0.0005852 amu; mn = 1.008668 amu
Solution:
 ∆m = [(2 x 1.007825) + (2 x 0.0005852) + (2 x 1.008688) ] - [4.00390] amu
= [4.0341964 - 4.00390] amu
= 0.0302964 amu

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5. Calculate the mass defect and binding of the following fission reaction.
92U235 + 0n1 36Kr95 + 57Ba139 + 20n1
Given that atomic mass of U235= 235.124 amu;
Kr95= 94.945 amu; Ba139= 138.954 amu; 0n1 = 1.0099 amu
Solution:
Δm = Δmreactants− Δmproducts
∆m = [(U+n) - (Kr + Ba + 2n)]
= [235.124 + 1.0099] - [94.945 + 138.954 + (2 x 1.0099)]
= 236.1339 - (233.899 + 2.0198)
= 236.1339 - 235.9188
=0.2151 amu

6. What are non conventional energy sources?

Non conventional energy sources are natural sources which can be regenerated and
are inexhaustible. Eg: Wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy etc.

7. What are renewable and non-renewable energy resources?

Renewable or non-conventional energy resources: It can be regenerated
continuously and they are inexhaustible. Eg. Wind energy, solar energy, tidal energy etc.
Non-Renewable or conventional energy resources: It cannot be regenerated and
they are exhaustible. Eg. Coal, petroleum, etc.

8. What is nuclear fission? [ AU Dec 2015]

Nuclear fission is defined as “the process of splitting of heavier nucleus into two or
more lighter nuclei with simultaneous liberation of large amount of energy”.
92U235 + 0n156 Ba140 +36Kr93 +3 0n1 + Energy

9. Write some characteristics of nuclear fission.

 Two or more neutrons are produced by fission of each nucleus.
 All the fission fragments are radioactive, giving off beta and gamma radiations
 The atomic weight of fission products range from about 70 to 160.
 All fission reactions are self-propagating chain reaction.

10. What is nuclear fusion?

Nuclear fusion is defined as, “the process of combination of two or more lighter
nuclei into one heavier nucleus, with simultaneous liberation of large amount of
energy”.
1H2 +1H2 2He4 + energy

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11. Write any four differences between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
S.No Nuclear fission Nuclear fusion
1. It emits radioactive rays It does not emit any kind of
radioactive rays.
2. It occurs at ordinary temperature. It occurs at very high temperature.
3. Chain reaction takes place No chain reaction.
4. It emits neutrons. It emits positrons
5. It can be controlled. It cannot be controlled.

12. What is nuclear energy? Give an example. Write the drawbacks of nuclear energy
[AU Dec 2022]
The energy released by the nuclear fission is called nuclear fission energy or nuclear
energy. Eg: 92U235 + 0n1  56Ba140 +36Kr93 +30n1 + Energy
Drawbacks:
 It causes diseases like cancer, blindness, etc
 It causes genetic disorder(mutation), sterility, etc.
13. What is nuclear reactor?
The arrangement or equipment used to carry out fission reaction under controlled
conditions is called a nuclear reactor.

14. What is light water nuclear reactor?

Light-water nuclear reactor is the one, in which (U235) fuel rods are submerged in
water. Here the water acts as coolant and moderator.

15. What are the general components of a nuclear reactor?

Fuel rods, Control rods, Coolants, Moderators, Pressure vessel, Protective shield,
Turbine.

16. What are moderators? Give some examples. Write its role. [AU Jan 2019]
The substances used to slow down the speed of neutrons are called moderators.
Eg: Ordinary water, Heavy water, Graphite, Beryllium.
Moderators reduce the kinetic energy of fast moving neutrons (1 meV) to slow moving
neutrons (0.25 eV).

17. What are coolants? Give any two examples.

Coolants are liquid circulated in the reactor core to absorb the heat produced
during fission. Eg.: Ordinary water, Heavy water, liquid Metals (Na, K)

18. What is Breeder reactor? Write its significances. [AU May 2018]
Breeder reactor is the one which converts non-fissionable material (U238, Th232) into
fissionable material (U235, Pu239).
 Conversion of fertile nucleides (U238, Th232) into fissile nucleides (U235, Pu239).
 As the regeneration of fissile nucleides takes place, its efficiency is more.

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19. What are fissile nucleides and fertile nucleides?

 The fissionable nucleides such as U235& Pu239 are called fissile nucleides.
 The non-fissionable nucleides such as U238& Th232 are called fertile nucleides.

20. What is meant by solar energy conversion? How is it done?

Solar energy conversion is the process of conversion of direct sunlight into more
useful forms. This solar energy conversion occurs by the following two mechanisms.
 Thermal conversion- absorption of thermal energy in the form of IR radiation.
 Photo conversion-conversion of light energy directly into electrical energy.

21. What is photo galvanic cell (or) Solar cell?

Photo galvanic cell is the one, which converts the solar energy (energy obtained
from the sun) directly into electrical energy.
It consists of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type
semiconductor (such as Si doped with P).

22. What is the principle of photogalvanic cell or solar cell? [AU May 2023]
 Photo voltaic (PV) effect.
 When the solar rays fall on a two layers of semi conductor devices, a potential
difference between the two layers is produced.
 This potential difference causes flow of electrons and produces electricity.
23. What are the applications of solar cell? [AU Dec 2019,2023, May 2022]
 It is used in calculators, electronic watches, radio and TV.
 It can be used to drive vehicles.
 Solar cells, made of silicon, are used as a source of electricity in space craft and
satellites.
24. What is wind energy? How is it obtained?
 Moving air is called wind.
 Energy recovered from the force of the wind is called wind energy. It is harnessed by
using wind mills.

25. What are the merits/ advantages of wind energy?

 It does not cause any air pollution.
 It is very cheap and economic.
 It is renewable.
 It does not cause any pollution.

26. Write any four methods adopted for harnessing wind energy.
 Sky sail
 Ladder mill
 Kite ship (Large free flying sails)
 Sky wind power (Flying electric generator)
27. What are the advantages of wind energy?
 It does not cause air pollution.
 It is very cheap and economic.
 It is renewable.
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28. What are the drawbacks/disadvantages of wind energy?

 It produces unwanted sound.
 Wind forms located on the migratory routes of birds will cause hazards.
29. What are batteries? How are they classified?
A battery is an electrochemical cell, which produces electricity from a chemical
reaction. A battery consists of two or more cells connected in series or parallel. They are
classified into primary and secondary battery.

30. What are the requirements of battery?

 It should be compact and portable.
 Light in weight.
 Voltage should not vary.

31. What are the advantages of storage batteries?

 Light and compact
 It produces very high current.
 Rechargeable
 Effective at low temperature.

32. Differentiate primary battery and secondary battery. [AU May 2024]

S.No Primary battery Secondary battery

1 It is also called as irreversible It is also called as reversible battery
battery
2 It can be used only once. It can be used more than once.
3 Recharging is not possible. Recharging is possible.
4 Redox reaction occurs only once. Redox reaction can be reversed by
passing current.
5 Eg: alkaline battery, dry cell. Eg: NiCad battery, Lithium batteries.

33. What are fuel cells? Write its principle. [AU Jan 2019]
Fuel cell is a voltaic cell, which converts the chemical energy of the fuels
directly into electricity without combustion.
Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation products + Electrical energy.

34. What are the applications of H2 – O2 fuel cell? [AU May 2018]
 H2 – O2 fuel cells are used as auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines
or other military-vehicles.
 In case of H2–O2 fuel cells, the product of water is proved to be a valuable source of
fresh water by the astronauts.

35. What are advantages of fuel cells?

 It takes less time for operation.
 It is pollution free technique.
 It produces electricity and drinking water.
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36. What are disadvantages (or) limitations of H2-O2 fuel cells? [AU Dec 2019]
 It cannot store electric energy,
 Electrodes are expensive and short lived
 Storage and handling of hydrogen gas is dangerous.

37. Write the chemical reactions taking place at cathode and anode in a hydrogen-
oxygen fuel cell.
At anode: 2 H 2 + 4OH- 4H2O + 4e-
At cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4 e- 4OH-____
2H 2 + O2 2H2O Ecell = 0.8 to 1.0 V

38. What is lead acid storage battery?

Lead-acid storage battery or accumulator is a secondary battery which acts both as a
voltaic cell and electrolytic cell. Ecell = 6 to 12 V

39. State the reaction when a lead storage battery is recharged.

2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O (l) + Electrical Energy → Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42-(aq)

40. What is dry cell? Write its uses.

 Dry cell is also called Leclanche’s cell. It is a primary battery.
 It is used in transistors, calculators, torch lights, clock, etc

41. What are the disadvantages of using dry cell?

 It doesn’t have long life.
 The electrolyte NH4Cl is acidic which corrodes the Zn container.

42. What is a Solid State battery? Give an example.

Solid state battery is the battery in which instead of liquid or a paste electrolyte, a
solid electrolyte is used.
Eg: Lithium battery.

43. What is lithium ion battery?

A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (LIB) is a type of rechargeable battery in
which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during
discharge and back when charging.

44. What are the applications of lithium batteries? [AU Jan 2022]
Button sized Li battery is used in calculators, watches, cameras, mobile phones,
laptop, i-Pad, etc.

45. List any two advantages of lithium batteries. [AU Jan 2018, Dec 2019]
 It can be made into different shapes.
 Light weight
 High cell voltage.

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46. What is Super Capacitor? Write its advantages. [AU May 2024]
 Super capacitor is a high capacity capacitor with capacitance value much higher
than other capacitor.
 They store 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume and deliver charge much
faster than batteries.
Advantages
 Stores and release large amount of electricity.
 Life time is high
 Charged in seconds.
 Very low internal resistance
47. What is the Principle of super capacitor?
 Super capacitors stores energy electro statically by polarizing an electrolytic solution.
 Super capacitors will charge and discharge without any chemical reaction and there
is no dielectric as such.

48. Write the applications of super capacitors.

Super capacitors are used in many power management applications like,
 Regenerative braking system-Releasing the power in acceleration
 Consumer electronics.
 Energy harvesting.
 Remote power for sensors, LED, switches
49. What are the components of LIB?
Anode : Layers of porous carbon /Graphite
Cathode : Layers of Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)
Electrolyte: Polymer gel which can also act as separator.

50. What are the electrodes used in the fuel cells porous?
Compressed carbon containing a small amount of catalyst like, Pd, Ag is used in the
fuel cells porous.
51. What are the types of Supercapacitors? Give examples.
Supercapacitors are classified into three types:
1. Double layer capacitors
2. Pseudo capacitors
3. Hybrid capacitors
52. What is electrostatic double layer capacitor?

 These types of capacitor include two electrodes, a separator and an electrolyte.

 The electrolyte is the mixture that constitutes positive and negative ions dissolved in
water.
 The two electrodes are separated by a separator.

Examples: carbon electrodes, grapheme, activated carbon, graphite oxide.

53. What is Pseudo Capacitors? Give examples.

 Pseudo capacitors are also referred to as electrochemical pseudo-capacitors or

faradic Supercapacitors.

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 It stores electrical energy by electron charge transfer between electrode and an

electrolyte.
 This can be done by a redox reaction.
Examples: Metal oxides (Eg: RuO2 and MnO2) dopped with conducting polymers
(Eg: polyanilines, polypyrroles and polythiophenes)

54. What is Hybrid capacitor? Give examples.

The hybrid capacitors are developed by using the techniques of double-layer

capacitors and pseudo-capacitors.
One electrode with the capacity to display electrostatic capacitance and the
other electrode with electrochemical capacitance.
Examples: MnO2/AC, RuO2/grapheme, TiO2/AC
55. Give a brief note on the microbial fuel cell. [AU May 2022, 2023, Dec 2023]

Microbial fuel cell is a bio electrochemical device that converts bio-chemical energy to
electrical energy during the oxidation of substrate with the help of micro-organisms
under anaerobic conditions.
 It generates electricity by the use of electrons obtained from the anaerobic oxidation
of substrates such as acetate, glucose, lactate, ethanol, etc.
 MFC consists of two parts, an anode and a cathode, which are separated by a proton
exchange membrane (PEM).
56. State Critical Mass. [AU Jan 2022]

The minimum amount of fissionable material required to continue the nuclear

chain reaction is called critical mass.
 If the mass of the fissionable material is less than the critical mass, then it is
called sub-critical mass.
 If the mass of the fissionable material is greater than the critical mass, then it
is called super-critical mass.
57. Will the emf of the battery vary with size? Give reason. [AU Dec 2022]

No, the emf of the battery does not vary with size because the emf of the cell does not

depend on the size of the electrodes.

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Part – B
1. Define Mass Defect. How do you calculate Mass Defect?
The difference between the mass of the atom and the sum of the masses of protons,
electrons and neutrons is called as mass defect (Δm).
FOR AN ATOM
Consider an atom, ZXA,
where X is an atom,
Z is its atomic number and
A is its atomic mass/ mass number.
The mass defect for an atom can be calculated using equation,
Δm = [Z (mp + me) + (A – Z)mn] – matom,
Δm = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – matom since me is negligible
Where,
Δm = mass defect
mp = mass of a proton (1.007277 amu)
mn = mass of a neutron (1.008665 amu)
me = mass of an electron (0.000548597 amu)
matom = experimental mass of nuclide ZXA

FOR A NUCLEAR FISSION REACTION

Mass defect is defined as “the total mass of the products is always less than that of
the reacting nuclei” (i.e. parent nuclei).

The mass defect can be calculated by using the formula,

Δm = Δmreactants− Δm products
Where,
Δm = Mass defect
mreactants =Sum of the masses of reactants
mproducts = Sum of the masses of products

2. Define binding energy. How do you calculate binding energy?

It is also defined as the energy required to split an atom’s nucleus into protons and
neutrons.
Loss of mass during the formation of nucleus from nucleons gets converted into
energy. Binding energy is responsible for the stability of the nucleus. Higher the binding
energy, greater is the stability of the nucleus.
Δm = Δmreactants− Δmproducts
Calculation of binding energy,
The decrease in mass is called as mass defect which can be converted into energy
according to mass-energy relationship (Einstein equation, E=Δmc2)
The mass defect can be calculated by using the formula,
E = Δmc2
Where,
E = Binding energy of nucleus
Δm = mass defect
C = velocity of light (8x108m/s)
Stability of nucleus
The larger the value of the mass defect, the greater the nuclear binding energy and
the more stable the nucleus.

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3. Explain the construction and working of a Light water nuclear reactor with a neat
diagram. [AU Jan 2022, Dec 2023]

Nuclear reactor:
A device or equipment which is used to carry out fission reaction under controlled
conditions is called as nuclear reactor.
Light water nuclear reactor:
Light water nuclear reactor is a reactor that uses water as coolant and moderator.

Components of a nuclear reactor:

1. Fuel rods: Enriched U235 is used as fuel in the form of rods or strips.
Eg: U235, Pu239
2. Control rods: Cadmium or boron rods are used as control rods. These rods are
suspended between the fuel rods which can be raised or lowered to control the fission
reaction by absorbing the excess neutrons.
Eg: 43Cd113+ 0n1 43Cd114 + γ-ray
5B10 + on1 5B11 + γ-ray
3. Moderators: The substances used to slow down the neutrons are called as moderators.
The K.E of fast moving neutrons is reduced to slow neutrons as shown in fig 5.1.
Eg: ordinary water, heavy water, graphite

Fig 5.1 Functions of a moderator

4. Coolants: Coolant is used to absorb the heat produced during fission and cool the
nuclear core. The heat carried by out-going liquid is used to produce steam.
Eg: water, heavy water, liquid metal
5. Pressure vessel: It encloses the core and also provides the entrance and exit passages
for coolant. It can withstand pressure up to 200 kg/cm2.
6. Protective shield: The nuclear reactor is enclosed in a thick massive concrete shield of
about 10m.
7. Turbine: The steam generated in the heat exchanger is used to operate the turbine
which drives a generator to produce electricity.

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Fig 5.2 Light water nuclear power plant

Working:
 The fission of a U235 nucleus, in one fuel rod releases an average of 2.4 fast neutrons
per fission.
 These fast neutrons are slowed down by the moderator (water).
 The fission reaction is also controlled by inserting the control rods.
 The heat emitted during fission is absorbed by coolant (water).
 The heated coolant transfers heat to the heat exchanger containing sea water.
 The sea water is converted to steam. The steam drives the turbine, generating
electricity as shown in fig 5.2.

Problem on disposal of reactor wastes: Nuclear fission products are also radioactive in
nature, it emit dangerous radiation for several hundred years. So the waste is packed in
concrete barrels, which are buried deep in the sea.

4. What is Breeder reactor? Explain in detail. [AU Jan 2019, Dec 2022]

Breeder reactor is the one which converts non- fissionable (U238, Th232) into
fissionable material (U235, Pu239).
92U238 + n1 94Pu239 + 2e-
(non-fissionable) (fissionable)
Pu 239 + n 1 fission products + 3 0n1
In breeder reactor, three neutrons emitted in the fission of U238, only one is used in
propagating the fission chain and the other two are allowed to react with U 238.
Thus two fissionable atoms of Pu239 are produced for each atom of U238 consumed.
Therefore it produces more fissionable material than it consumes as shown in fig 5.3.
Hence Pu239 is a man made nuclear fuel and is known as secondary nuclear fuel.

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Fig 5.3 Principle of breeder reactor

Significance:
The non-fissionable nucleides (fertile nucleides) such as Th232, U238 converted into
fissionable nucleides (fissile nucleides) such as U235, Pu239.

5. Explain briefly about solar energy. (or) what is photo-voltaic cell? Explain the
construction and working of photovoltaic cell with diagram. [AU Dec 2023]
The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy. Solar energy
conversion is the process of conversion of direct sunlight into more useful forms. This solar
energy conversion occurs by the following two mechanisms.
 Thermal conversion. Eg: Solar water heater, solar heat collectors.
 Photo conversion. Eg: Solar Cell

Solar cell or photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell:

Solar cell is a device that converts solar energy directly into electrical energy.
PRINCIPLE:
 The basic principle involved in the solar cell is photovoltaic effect.
 When solar rays fall on the two layers of semiconductor material, a potential
difference between the two layers is produced.
 This potential difference causes flow of electrons and produces electricity.

Fig 5.4 Solar cell

WORKING:
 Solar cell consists of p-type semiconductor (Si doped with B) and n-type
semiconductor (Si doped with P).
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 They are in close contact with each other as shown in fig 5.4.
 The electrons start to diffuse from n-type to p-type. Similarly, holes diffuse from p-
type region to n-type region.
 When the solar rays fall on the outer layer of p-type semiconductor, the electrons in
the valence band get promoted to the conduction band by absorbing light energy.
 Since the conduction electron can cross p-n junction into the n-type semiconductor,
a potential difference between two layers in created.
 This potential difference causes flow of electrons and hence electric current is
produced.

APPLICATIONS:
 Solar cells are used for lighting purposes.
 When large numbers of solar cells are connected in series, it forms a solar battery. It
produces more electricity which is enough to run water pump, street-light etc.
 Solar cells are used in calculators, watches, radio.
 Solar cells are used to drive vehicles.
 Solar cells can be used as a source of electricity in space craft and satellites.
ADVANTAGES:
 Solar cells are eco-friendly.
 Solar power is used where there is no easy way to get electricity to remote places,
forest and hilly regions.
 Their lifetime is long.
 Maintenance cost is low.
 Solar energy can be store in battery.
DISADVANTAGES:
 Doesn’t work at night.
 Installation and maintenance cost is high.
 During cloudy and rainy days, production of electricity is affected.
 Very expensive to build solar power stations.

6. What are the different methods of harnessing solar energy? (Or) How do thermal
and photo conversion of solar energy useful for mankind? [AU May 2018]
Methods of harvesting solar energy:
i) Solar Water Heater:
Heat energy from the sun can be utilized to heat water. Solar water heater consists of
an insulated box inside of which is painted with black. It is also provided with a glass lid
to receive and store solar heat. Inside the box there is black painted copper coil through
which cold water is allowed to flow in, which gets heated up and flows out into a storage
tank. From the storage tank water is then supplied through pipes.

ii) Solar Cooker:

Solar cooker makes use of solar heat by reflecting the solar radiation using a mirror
directly on a glass sheet which covers the black insulated box within which the raw food
is kept. The food cooked in solar cookers is more nutritious due to slow heating.

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iii) Solar Furnace:

This uses huge array of mirrors arranged in concave reflectors to concentrate the
solar energy into a small space and produce very high temperature upto 3000˚C.

iv) Solar Heat Collectors:

Solar heat collectors consists of natural materials like stones, bricks (or) materials
like glasses which can absorb heat during day time and release it slowly at night. It is
generally used in cold places.

7. Explain briefly about the recent developments in solar cell materials.

[AU May 2022]
A typical solar cell consists of semiconducting materials solar-to-electricity efficiency,
innovative solar energy materials, such as p- and n-type silicon. In order to achieve
maximum at low cost, are being used.
Types of solar cell:

Fig 5.5 Classification of Solar cell

Types of highly investigated solar cell materials
Some types of highly investigated semiconducting materials now used are
a) Crystalline Si
b) Thin films
c) Perovskite Solar Cells (PVSCs)
d) Solar paints
e) Transparent solar windows
f) Thermoradiative PV devices
g) Solar distillation

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a) Crystalline silicon (c-Si)

Crystalline silicon (c-Si) is the most widely used semiconducting material in solar
panels. But, its efficiency is only 30%. So, solar cells with low-cost and high-efficiency
materials are emerging as shown in fig.5.5.
Examples
 III-V multi junction materials: (efficiency > 30%)
 Hybrid tandem III-V/Si solar cells: (efficiency > 30%)
 Six-junction III–V solar cells under concentrated light: (efficiency > 47.1%)
 Si-based bifacial technology: (efficiency is 11% more compared to standard panels)
Si PVCs are used in integrated circuits, transistors, etc.
b) Thin films
Thin-film technology has always been cheaper but less efficient than conventional
C-Si technology.
Advantages of thin film solar cells are
 Low material consumption, light weight, large area modules
 Monolithic integration, tuneable material properties
 Transparent modules flexibility and ease of installation
Examples
 Cadmium-telluride (CdTe) - (efficiency upto 21%)
 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)- 10.2% for single-junction cells and 12.7% for multi-
junction cells
 Micro-crystalline silicon (μc-Si) - 11.9% for single-junction cells and 14.0% for multi-
junction cells
 Gallium - arsenide (GaAs)- (Efficiency 18.4–28.8%)
 Copper - Indium - Gallium - Selenide (CIGS) - Efficiency upto 22.3%.
c) Perovskite solar cells
 Perovskite solar cells (PVSCs) are Perovskite structured compound.
 It is a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material.
 It is used as the light-harvesting active layer.
Advantages of Perovskite solar cells are
 Low fabrication cost, high efficiency, light weight, thin.
 Low temperature processing
 Flexible solar modules
Examples
Combined Perovskite and Si-PV materials shows a record efficiency of upto 28%

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d) Solar paints
Solar paint is also known as photovoltaic paint because it works the same as any
other photovoltaic cell by collecting the energy from the sunlight and converting it to
electricity.
Solar paint can be applied to surfaces of almost any shape or size, and to numerous
surface types including plastic, fabrics, and even car bodies
Types of solar paint:
1. Solar paint Hydrogen –Eg- molybdenum-sulphide
2. Quantum dot solar cells- Eg: mix of metals like CIGS – copper, iridium, gallium, selenide
3. Perovskite solar paint – Eg- calcium titanium oxide mineral
e) Transparent solar windows
These are transparent solar panels that can literally generate electricity from
windows in offices, homes, car’s sunroof, or even smart phones. They possess highly
innovative applications.
Types
 Partially Transparent Solar Panels- efficiency is 5- 7.2%
 Fully Transparent Solar Panels- efficiency is less than 5%

f) Thermoradiative PV devices (or) Reverse solar panels

 It is direct conversion process from heat to electricity via photons.
 They can generate electricity at night by utilizing the heat irradiated from the panels
to the optically coupled deep space, which serves as a heat sink as shown in fig 5.6.
 Here, we are using thermal radiation cells instead of photovoltaic solar cells.

Fig. 5.6 Thermo radiative PV devices

g) Solar distillation
 Solar distillation is a process in which the energy of the sun is directly used to
evaporate freshwater from sea or brackish water as shown in fig 5.7.
 A solar still works on two scientific principles: evaporation and condensation.
 The salts and minerals do not evaporate with the water.

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Fig. 5.7 Solar distillation process

Advantages:

 It is relatively cheap and low-maintenance system.

 There are no energy costs.
 There are no moving parts.

Disadvantages:

 Rate of distillation is usually very slow (6 litres of water per sunny day).
 It is not suitable for larger consumptive needs.

8. How is Wind energy harnessed? What are its advantages and limitations?
[AU May/June 2018, Jan 2022, Dec 2022, May 2023]

 Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of wind is called wind
energy.
 The wind energy is harnessed by using wind mills as shown in fig 5.8.
 The energy in the wind can be utilized by building a tall tower with large propeller
blades on the top.
 The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the windmill makes it rotating
continuously.
 This rotation is coupled to the turbine and electricity is produced.
 The best place to install windmill is at the top of the rounded hills, open plains,
coastal areas, gaps in mountains and the other places where the wind is strong and
reliable.

When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in a definite
pattern, it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of electricity.
Other methods for harnessing wind energy are skysail, ladder kill, kite ship, sky
wind power.
Advantages:

 Wind energy is renewable, non-polluting and eco-friendly.

 Wind is free, windmills need no fuel, produces no waste, cheap and economic.
 The cost of production is low.
 A good method of supply electrical energy to remote areas.
 The land beneath the wind mills can be used for farming. It can be a tourist
attraction.

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Fig. 5.8 Wind Mill

Disadvantages:
 Windmills cannot be installed in low wind zones where wind blows at low speed.
 Wind is not always predictable, some days have no wind. So electricity production is
affected.
 Wind mills located on the migratory routes of birds will cause hazards.
 It produces unwanted sound.
 Windmills get damaged during storm.

9. Explain briefly about geo-thermal energy. [AU May 2023]

The energy harnessed from the heat within the Earth is called geothermal energy.
 Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20°C – 75°C per km, when we move
down the earth surface.
 In order to harness the geothermal energy, a hydrothermal convection system is
used.
 In this process, a hole is drilled deep under the earth, through which a pipe is
inserted.
 The steam trapped in the rocks is routed through this pipe to the surface of the
earth.
 The steam rotates a turbine that activates a generator, which produces electricity as
shown in fig 5.9.

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Fig. 5.9 Geo-thermal energy

Four main kinds of geothermal resources:

 Hydrothermal
 Geo pressured
 Hot dry rock
 Magma.

Types of Geothermal Energy:

Geothermal Heated Homes: Geothermal heat pump is connected to a large system of coils
that extracts the heat from the ground. This heat is then circulated inside the home with
the help of traditional ducts.

Geothermal Power Plants: Thermal energy present beneath the earth’s surface can be
used to generate electricity.

Hot Springs: Hot springs are formed when the water present underground comes in
contact with a hot rock.

Geothermal Geysers: the water flows in the form of a vertical column that is several feet
high.

Green Houses: The heat produced by the earth is responsible for the maintenance of
temperature inside the greenhouse.

Fumarole: Fumarole is basically an opening near a volcano or hot spring.

Spas: Health and wellness related activities make use of geothermal energy.

Types of Geothermal power plant:

1. Dry steam power plant

It uses steam directly from a geothermal reservoir to drive generator's turbines.

2.Flash steam Power Plant:

When the steam cools, it condenses to water and is injected back into the ground to be
used again. Most geothermal power plants are flash steam plants.
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3.Binary Cycle Power Plant:

It transfers the heat from geothermal hot water to another liquid. The heat
causes the second liquid to convert it into steam, which is used to drive a generator's
turbine.

Advantages:

 Geothermal energy is free and abundant.

 It is non-polluting and environment-friendly.
 The cost for maintenance and repair is negligible.
 No residue or by-product is generated.
 Power generation level is higher for geothermal than for solar and wind energies

Disadvantages:

 Transportation is difficult.
 Emission of toxic gases.
 High installation cost.
 It is available in limited regions.

Applications:

In cold countries, the geothermal energy is used directly for the melting of ice on the
roads, heating houses in winters, greenhouses, public baths, etc.

10. What is Fuel cell? Discuss briefly about the construction and working of
Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. [AU June 2019, 2024, Jan 2022, Dec 2022]

It is a voltaic cell which converts the chemical energy of the fuel directly into
electrical energy without combustion.
Fuel + Oxygen Oxidation products + Electricity
Eg. Hydrogen – Oxygen fuel cell.
H2 – O2 fuel cell:
Description:
 It consists of two porous electrodes made up of compressed carbon with a catalyst
(Pd, Pt).
 These electrodes are dipped in electrolytic solution of 25% of KOH or NaOH.
 The two electrodes are connected externally to a voltmeter.
Anode: H2/Porous carbon with small amount of catalyst (Pt,Pd,Ag).
Cathode: O2/Porous carbon with small amount of catalyst (Pt,Pd,Ag).
Electrolyte: 25% KOH solution
Cell representation: C, H2/KOH/O2,C
EMF of the cell is 0.8 -1.0V
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Working: Hydrogen is passed through the anode compartment where it is oxidized.

The oxygen is bubbled through the cathode compartment where it gets reduced
as shown in fig 5.10.

Fig. 5.10 H2 – O2 fuel cell

When the fuel cell operates, the following reactions will occur.
At anode:(Oxidation )Hydrogen combines with hydroxide ions to form water.
H2 → 2H+ + 2e-
2H+ + 2OH- → 2H2O___
Overall anode reaction:
H 2 + 2OH- → 2H2O + 2e-
Multiply by 2 2 H 2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-
At cathode: The electron liberated at the anode is absorbed by oxygen and water to
produce OH- ion.
O2 + 4 e- → 2O2-
2O2- + 2H2O → 4OH-
Overall cathode reaction:
O2 + 2H2O + 4 e- → 4OH-

Overall cell reaction:

2H 2 + O2 → 2H2O + Energy
Ecell = 0.8 to 1.0 V
Applications:
 It is used as an auxiliary energy source in space vehicles, submarines or other
military vehicles.
 The water produced by the cell can be used by the astronauts.

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Advantages:
 Fuel cells are efficient
 Pollution free technique.
 Produces drinking water

Disadvantages:
 It cannot store energy.
 Electrodes are expensive.
 Storage and handling of hydrogen gas is dangerous.
11. Explain the construction and working of Microbial fuel cell. [AU May 2024]

Microbial fuel cell is a bio electrochemical device that converts bio-chemical energy
to electrical energy during the oxidation of substrate with the help of micro-organisms
under anaerobic conditions.

 It generates electricity by the use of electrons obtained from the anaerobic oxidation
of substrates such as acetate, glucose, lactate, ethanol, etc.
 MFC consists of two parts, an anode and a cathode, which are separated by a proton
exchange membrane (PEM) as shown in fig 5.11.

Description:

Anode : Carbon paper or carbon cloth or graphite (it provides area for bacterial growth)
Cathode : Platinum material
Electrolyte: Phosphate buffer
Catalyst: Micro-organisms (electricigens)
Substrates: Acetate, glucose, lactate, ethanol
Cell representation: C/ phosphate buffer, acetate/Pt
EMF of the cell: 1.23 V
Working:

Fig. 5.11 Microbial fuel cell

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Anode compartment (anaerobic chamber):

Micro-organisms are used as catalyst to break down organic substances into

protons, electrons and carbon dioxide.

nCH2O + nH2O → nCO2 + 4nH+ + 4ne-

Note: Microorganisms that oxidize organic compounds and transfer electrons to the anodes
of MFCs are called electricigens.

Cathode compartment (aerobic chamber):

The protons and electrons released from the anode chamber are passed to the
cathode chamber through the PEM and an external circuit respectively.

At cathode, the protons and electrons combined with oxygen to form water.

nO2 + 4nH+ + 4ne− → 2nH2O(E0=1.23 V)

Advantages

 It generates electricity from biowastes and organic matter.

 It can convert the energy of the substrate to electrical energy.
 Domestic waste water can be treated.
 It removes toxic chemicals.

Disadvantages

 The generated power density is low.

Applications

 Used in the generation of electricity or power and bio-electricity.

 Used in biosensor
 Used in to convert carbon rich wastewater into methane gas
 Used in the treatment of wastewater
 Used in the desalination process
 Plays an important role in the field of microbiology, soil chemistry and electrical
engineering, treatment process.

12. Explain the construction and working of Dry cell.

It is also called as Leclanche’s cell. It is a primary battery.
Description:
Anode : Cylindrical body made of Zinc
Cathode : Graphite or Carbon rod.
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Electrolyte: MnO2, NH4Cl and ZnCl2 mixed to get a paste using starch and water.
Cell representation: Zn/MnO2/C
EMF of the cell: 1.5 V
It is shown in fig 5.12.
Diagram:

Fig. 5.12 Leclanche’s cell

Working:
When the battery operates the following reactions will occur,
At Anode : ( oxidation) Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e−
At Cathode :(Reduction) NH4+(aq) + MnO2(s) + 2e− → MnO(OH)−(aq) + NH3(g)

Overall cell reactions

Zn(s) + NH4+(aq) + MnO2(s) → Zn2+(aq) + MnO(OH)−(aq) + NH3(g)

The liberation of NH3 gas disrupts the current flow which is prevented by a reaction NH3
with Zn2+ to form Zn (NH3)2Cl2.
ZnCl2 + 2NH3 [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2
Disadvantages:
 Zn corrodes in acidic medium.
 No longer life.
Uses:
It is used in calculator, watches, transistors, torch light, toys, clock, etc.

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13. Write in detail about Lead acid storage battery (or) Lead acid accumulator.
[AU Jan 2018, 2019, 2022 May 2018, 2019, 2023, Dec 2019,2022]
A lead acid storage cell is a secondary battery. It can operate both as voltaic cell and
as an electrolytic cell.
Description:
Anode: Lead (Pb) plates are connected in parallel
Cathode: Lead oxide (PbO2) plates are connected in parallel
Electrolyte: Dil. H2SO4 (Density = 1.3g/ml)
Cell representation: Pb/ H2SO4/PbO2 anode / electrolyte / cathode
EMF of the cell: 6 -12V
It is shown in fig 5.13.
Working:

Fig. 5.13 Lead acid storage cell

Working: (Discharging)
 Oxidation (loss of electron) takes place at anode.
 Reduction (gain of electrons) takes place at cathode
When the battery operates, the following reactions occurs at anode, Pb is oxidized to
Pb and at cathode Pb4+ is reduced to Pb2+.
2+

At Anode: Pb(s) + SO42-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e−

At cathode: PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)+ 2e− → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Overall cell reaction: (Discharging)

Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO42-(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) + Electrical Energy

 During discharging both Pb and PbO2 are converted to PbSO4and the concentration
of H2SO4 decreases.
 If the density of H2SO4 falls below 1.2g/ml, battery needs to be recharged.

Recharging:
 During recharging the battery act as an electrolytic cell.

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 Charging is done by passing electric current in opposite direction.

 The electrode reactions get reversed.
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) + Electrical Energy → Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) +2SO42-(aq)
Advantages:
 Construction is easy
 It produces very high current.
 Self-discharging rate is low.
Disadvantages:
 Disposal of battery is environmentally unfriendly.
 Spillage and fumes of acid causes long term corrosion of vehicle body.
 Noxious fumes given off whilst charging.
 Heavy weight and need more space.
Uses:
 It is used to supply current mainly in automobiles such as cars, buses, trucks etc.
 It is used to power the electric motors in diesel-electric (conventional) submarines.
 It is a used in gas engine ignition, telephone exchanges, hospitals, power stations
etc.
14. How is Lithium ion battery constructed? Describe its functioning.
[AU Dec 2019,May 2022, 2023,2024]
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery (LIB) is a secondary battery.
 It is a solid state battery.
Principle:
It is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the
negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging.
Construction:
It consists of layers of lithium transition metal oxide as cathode and layers of porous
carbon based material as anode.
Anode : Layers of porous carbon /Graphite
Cathode : Layers of Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2)
Electrolyte: Polymer gel which can also act as separator.
Cell representation: C/polymer gel/ LiCoO2
EMF of the cell: 3.7 V
Working:
During Charging:

Fig. 5.14 Lithium ion cell during charging

 During charging lithium ions (Li+) move from the cathode to the carbon-based
material of the anode through an electrolyte as shown in fig 5.14.
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 The electrons move from the cathode to the anode through wire.
 The lithium ions and electrons combine at the anode and deposited as Li.

LiCoO2 + C + Electrical energy → Li1-xCoO2 + CLix

During Discharging:

Fig. 5.15 Lithium ion cell during discharging

 During discharging lithium ions (Li+) move from anode to cathode through an
electrolyte as shown in fig 5.15.
 The electrons move from the anode to the cathode through wire.
 The lithium ions are transported between positive and negative electrodes by
oxidizing the transition metal (Co) from Co3+ to Co4+ during charge and reducing from
Co4+ to Co3+during discharge.

Li1-xCoO2 + CLix → LiCoO2 + C + Electrical energy

Advantages:
 Light in weight and compact.
 Prepared in any shape and size.
 Higher voltage than other types of cells.
 Relatively low self discharge.
Disadvantages:
 It is costly.
 Prolonged exposure to heat reduces battery life.
Uses:
 It is used in mobile phones, laptop computers, note PC, portable LCD TV, etc.

15. What are capacitors and super capacitors? Explain in detail about the
construction and working of super capacitors.
Capacitors:
 Capacitor is an energy storage device.
 It is made up of two conductors separated by an insulator called dielectric.
 Capacitance is the ability of a capacitor to store energy. Capacitance is directly
proportional to surface area of the plates and indirectly proportional to distance
between the plates.

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Super Capacitor
 Super capacitor is a high capacity capacitor with capacitance value much higher
than other capacitor.
 They store 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume and deliver charge much
faster than batteries.

Principle:
 Super capacitors stores energy electrostatically by polarizing an electrolytic solution.
 Super capacitors will charge and discharge without any chemical reaction and there
is no dielectrics as such.

Construction:
It consists of two electrodes (made of metal coated with porous substance like
powdered activated carbon, graphene, aerogel and barium titanate).
These electrodes are separated by an ion permeable membrane (separator) and
dipped in an electrolyte connecting both the electrodes as shown in fig 5.16.

Working:
 When the electrodes are connected to the power source, the ions in the electrolyte
move towards opposite charged electrodes.
 The positive ions in the electrolyte move towards negative plate and the negative ions
in the electrolyte move towards positive plate.
 Therefore there is a formation of a layer of ions on the both side of plate. This is
called Helmholtz Electrical Double Layer.
 An electric field is created between them.
 Super capacitors are also called as Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC).
 Due to this double layer formation super capacitors have enormous surface area and
lesser separation, which gives the ability to store much more charge.

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1. Power source 2.Collector 3. Polarized electrode 4. Helmholtz double layer 5.

Electrolyte 6. Separator
Fig. 5.16 Typical construction of Super capacitor

Types:

Advantages
 Stores and release large amount of electricity.
 Life time is high
 Charged in seconds.
 Very low internal resistance
Disadvantages:
 Low energy density.
 High self-discharge.
 High cost.
 Cannot be used for continuous power supply.
Applications:
Super capacitors are used in many power management applications like,
 Regenerative braking system
 Releasing the power in acceleration
 Starting power in start/stop systems
 Back-up power in any application where quick discharge is required.
 Consumer electronics.
 Kitchen appliances.
 Energy harvesting.
 Wind energy.
 Remote power for sensors, LED, switches
 Energy efficiency and frequency regulations

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16. Explain briefly about the principle, components and working of electric vehicles.

[AU May 2024]

Electric vehicles are the vehicles that are powered on electric motor instead of an
internal combustion (IC) engine. It is also referred to as battery electric vehicles (BEV).

Principle:
Electric Vehicles work by plugging into a charge point and taking electricity from the
grid. They store electricity in rechargeable battery that power on electric motor, which
rotates the wheels.
Components of EV

The followings are important and essential components of an electrical vehicle.

(i) Battery: It provides electricity to power the vehicles.

(ii) DC/DC converter: It converts higher voltage DC power from battery to lower voltage DC
power.

(iii) Power Inverter: It converts the direct current (DC) on the battery into an alternating
current (AC) and then this alternating current is used by an electric motor.

(iv) Electric motor: It drives the vehicle's wheels.

(v) Transmission (F): It transfers mechanical power from the electric motor to drive the
wheels.

(vi) Charge port: It allows the vehicle to connect to an external power supply to recharge
the battery.

 Onboard charger: The term “off-board” refers to charging systems are native to the
vehicle itself.
 Off board charger: The term “off-board” refers to charging systems are not native to
the vehicle

(vii) Power electronics controller: It controls the flow of electrical energy from battery to
motor and controls the speed.

(viii) Thermal system (cooling): It maintains the proper operating temperature range of
the engine, motor etc.

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Various steps of working:

Step I : Controller takes and regulates electrical energy from battery to inverter.

Step II: The inverter then sends a certain amount of electrical energy to the motor.

Step III: The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy (rotation).

Step IV: Rotation of the motor rotor rotates the transmission, so the wheels turn and then
the vehicle moves.

Step V: When the brakes are pressed, the motor becomes an alternator and produces
power, which is sent back to the battery.

Advantages

 Electric cars are energy efficient.

 Electric vehicles accelerate faster than the traditional fuel engines
 It feels lighter to drive
 Its performance is high and has low maintenance
 It can be fuelled for very low price
 It is more convenient and easy to recharge
 Running costs are very low as they have less moving parts for maintaining
 It emits no exhaust gases

Disadvantages

 Electric cars can travel less distance.

 It takes longer time for charging.
 These are more expensive and battery packs may need to be replaced.
 Electric charging stations are still in the developing stages.
 Initial investments are very high.

17. Explain the different types of electric vehicles.

Types of electric vehicles

a) Battery electric vehicles(BEVs)

b) Hybrid electric vehicles(HEVs)
c) Plug-in electric vehicles (PHEVs)
d) Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

a) Battery electric vehicles (BEVs)

It is also called as electric vehicles (EVs). The EV runs purely on electricity and gets
all its power when it is plugged in to charge.

b) Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)

 It has both an IC engine and an electric motor to drive the vehicle.

 The electric battery is charged using the combustion engine through regenerative
braking system.
 Regular hybrids vehicles cannot plug into the grid to recharge.
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c) Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs)

 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) have both an IC engine and electric motor
to drive the vehicle.
 Once the battery is empty, the IC engine operates to run the wheels.
 They can recharge their battery through regenerative braking system and also by
plugging into an outside source.
d) Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

In this type of vehicles, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted directly into

electrical energy to run this vehicle on the vehicle itself.

IMPORTANT UNIVERSITY QUESTIONS:

1. What is Nuclear Reactor? With the neat block diagram explain the components and
working of Nuclear Reactor/Light Water Nuclear Reactor.
2. With a neat sketch explain the working of light water nuclear power plant.
3. What is binding energy? How is it calculated?
4. Write notes on recent developments in solar cell materials.
5. Explain the nuclear chain reaction with suitable example.
6. Describe briefly about breeder reactor.
7. Discuss the principle and function of dry cell.
8. Discuss briefly about the construction and working of lithium ion battery.
9. Explain briefly about the construction and working of lead-acid battery.
10.Discuss briefly about the construction and working of Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
11.Write a note on wind energy.
12.Write a note on solar cells.
13.Write a note on super capacitor.
14. Explain briefly about principle, components and working of electric vehicles.
15. Explain the construction and working of Microbial fuel cell.
16. Explain briefly about geo-thermal energy.

************************** ALL THE BEST ************************

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