Advanced Placement Chemistry Course

Trimester 1 Teaching Notes

Student Name : _________________________________

Badge Number: _________________________________

Mr. Ramonsito C. Gulaya

2016-2017 Session
1
2
3
Chapter 1

Chemical Foundations

4
 Chapter 1: CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS
________________________________________________________________________

Chemistry: An Overview

Two of the fundamental concepts of chemistry are:

1) matter is composed of various types of atoms; and

2) one substance changes to another by reorganizing the way the atoms are
attached to each other. Atoms are attached to each other by bonds. In a
chemical change, bonds are broken and formed.

Hydrogen chloride is produced when hydrogen reacts with chlorine.

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is the process by which scientists solve problems in an

orderly way. The process includes the following general steps:

(1) Making observations (collecting data) which may be qualitative or

quantitative (measurement).

(2) Formulating hypotheses or possible explanations to an observation.

(3) Performing experiments, normally under controlled conditions, to test the

hypotheses.

A theory is a set of tested hypotheses and offers explanations to observations, while

a natural law is a statement that summarizes observed (measurable) behavior. A
law summarizes what happens; a theory is an attempt to explain why it happens.

5
 Units of Measurement

Measurement is a quantitative observation and involves comparison, i.e., a book

that is 2 kilograms is twice as heavy as an object that is 1 kilogram. For a
measurement to be meaningful, it must always consists of two parts: a number and
a unit.

The International System or SI, is based on the metric system. The fundamental
units are listed below:

Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd

6
Prefixes are used to change the size of the unit. These are listed below:

Prefix Symbol Exponential Notation

exa E 1018
peta P 1015
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro μ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
femto f 10-15
atto a 10-18

Other physical quantities are derived from fundamental quantities. These include,
among others, the following:

Physical Quantity Name Symbol Definition

Force newton N kg m s-2
Pressure pascal Pa N m-2
Energy/Heat/Work joule J Nm
Power watt W J s-1
Electrical potential volt V W A-1
Quantity of electricity coulomb C As
Frequency hertz Hz s-1

Uncertainty in Measurement

Measurement is reported by recording

all the certain digits plus the first
uncertain digit. These numbers are
called the significant figures of a
measurement. A measurement always
has some degree of uncertainty which
depends on the precision of the
measuring devise. What are the
readings for the two graduated
cylinders on the right?

A B

7
Practice

In analyzing a sample of polluted water, a chemist measured out a 25.00 mL sample with a
pipet. At another point in the analysis, the chemist used a graduated cylinder to measure 25 mL
of a solution. What is the difference between the measurements 25.00 mL and 25 mL?

The reliability of measurements is

described using precision (the degree
of agreement among several
measurements of the same quantity)
and accuracy (the agreement of a
particular value with the true value).
Poor precision results from poor
technique and is associated with
random error. Poor accuracy is a
result of procedural flaws or defective
equipment and is associated with
systematic error.

Practice

1. In an experiment to determine the density (in g/cm3) of water at 4℃, three

students obtained the following data:

Trial Ahmed Ali Mohammed

1 0.98 1.59 1.93
2 0.99 1.62 0.43
3 1.01 1.61 1.39

If the density of water at 4℃ is 1.00 g/cm3, describe the students’ results in terms of
accuracy and precision.

8
2. To check the accuracy of a graduated cylinder, a student filled the cylinder to the 25-mL
mark using water delivered from a buret and then read the volume delivered. Following
are the results of five trials:

Trial Volume Shown by Volume Shown by

Graduated Cylinder the Buret
1 25 mL 26.54 mL
2 25 mL 26.51 mL
3 25 mL 26.60 mL
4 25 mL 26.49 mL
5 25 mL 26.57 mL
Average 25 mL 26.54 mL

Is the graduated cylinder accurate?

3. Many times errors are expressed in terms of percentage. The percent error is the
absolute value of the difference of the true value and the experimental value, divided by
the true value and multiplied by 100.

|𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑋 100
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Calculate the percent error for the following measurements.

a. The density of an aluminum block determined in an experiment was 2.64 g/cm3. True
value is 2.70 g/cm3.

b. The experimental determination of iron in iron ore was 16.48%. True value is 16.12%.

c. A balance measured the mass of a 1.000 g standard as 0.9981 g.

9
 Significant Figures and Calculations

Calculating the final result for an experiment usually involves adding, subtracting,
multiplying, or dividing the results of various types of measurements. To determine
the correct number of significant figures in the final result, the following rules have
been developed:

(1) Nonzero integers always count as significant figures. 348 g has 3 significant
figures.

(2) Leading zeros precede all the nonzero digits. These do not count as
significant figures. 0.0086 cm has only 2 significant figures.

(3) Captive zeros are between nonzero digits. These always count as significant
figures. 308 g and 0.0106 cm have 3 significant figures each.

(4) Trailing zeros are at the right end of the number. They are significant only
if the number contains a decimal point. 100. m, 30.0 cm3 and 0.0200 g
have 3 significant figures each. 100 m and 20 g have only 1 significant
figures each.

(5) Exact numbers were not obtained using measuring devices but were
determined by counting or arise from definitions. They can be assumed to
have infinite number of significant figures.

Scientific notation is a way of writing numbers that accommodates values too

large or small to be conveniently written in standard decimal notation. In scientific
notation all numbers are written like this:
a × 10b
("a times ten to the power of b"), where the exponent b is an integer, and
the coefficient a is any real number. If the number is negative then a minus sign
precedes a (as in ordinary decimal notation).
The exponent b is chosen such that the absolute value of a remains at least one but
less than ten (1 ≤ |a| < 10). For example, 350 is written as 3.5×102.

Practice

Give the number of significant figures for each of the following results:

a. A student’s extraction procedure on tea yields 0.0105 g of caffeine.

b. A chemist records a mass of 0.050080 g in an analysis.

c. In an experiment a span of time is determined to be 8.050 X 10-3 s.

d. A kilogram is 1000 g.

10
To determine the appropriate number of significant figures in the result of a
calculation, the following rules have been developed:

(1) For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is
the same as the number of significant figures in the quantity having the
smaller number of significant figures. For example,

4.56 X 1.4 = 6.38 ~ 6.4

(2) For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal
places as the quantity having the least number of decimal places. For
example, consider the sum

12.11
18.0
1.013
31.123 ~ 31.1

The following rules should apply when rounding:

(1) In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through the final result then
round.

(2) If the digit to be removed is less than 5, the preceding digit stays the same.

(3) If the digit to be removed is equal to or greater than 5, the preceding digit
is increased by 1.

Practice

Carry out the following mathematical operation, and give each result with the correct number of
significant figures:

a. 1.05 X 10-3 ÷ 6.135

b. 21 – 13.8

c. As part of a laboratory assignment to determine the value of the gas constant (R), a
student measured the pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature (T) for a sample of
gas, where R = PV/T. The following values were obtained: P = 2.560, T = 275.15, and
V = 8.8. Calculate R.

11
 9.5+4.1+2.8+3.175
d. (Assume that this operation is taking the average of four numbers.)
4

Dimensional Analysis

Unit factor method, or more commonly dimensional analysis, is the best way to
convert a given result from one system of units to another. A unit factor, or
conversion factor, is a ratio of equivalent quantities that is equal to 1 but has
different units in the numerator and denominator. Any expression multiplied by this
unit factor will not change its value.

Given Quantity X Unit Factor = Required Quantity

Practice

1. What is the mass of 2.08 kg of beef in grams?

2. You want to order a bicycle with a 25.5-in frame, but the size in the catalog are given
only in centimeters. What size should you order? (1 in = 2.54 cm)

3. The speed limit on many highways in the United States is 55 mi/h. What number should
be posted in kilometers per hour? (1 mi = 1760 yd; 1 m = 1.094 yd)

4. An American car is advertised as having a mileage of 35 mil/gal. Convert this rating to

kilometers per liter. (1 L = 1.06 qt; 1 gal = 4 qt)

12
 Temperature

Temperature is the measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of an object. To

convert between celsius and kelvin:

Temperature (K) = temperature (⁰C) + 273.15

or
Temperature (⁰C) = temperature (K) – 273.15

To convert between celsius and fahrenheit:

5℃
(TF – 32⁰F) = TC
9℉
or
9℉
TF = TC x + 32⁰F
5℃

Practice

1. Normal body temperature is 98.6⁰F. Convert this temperature to Celsius and kelvin
scales.

2. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of -321⁰F. What is this temperature on the kelvin
scale?

3. Convert -40⁰F to Celsius scale.

13
 Density

Density is defined as

mass
Density =
volume

Practice

1. A chemist, trying to identify the main component of a compact disc cleaning fluid, finds
that 25.00 cm3 of the substance has a mass of 19.6625 g at 20⁰C. The following are the
names and densities of the compounds that might be the main component:

Compound Density in g/cm3 at 20⁰C

Chloroform 1.492
Diethyl ether 0.714
Ethanol 0.789
Isopropyl alcohol 0.785
Toluene 0.867

Which of these compounds is the most likely to be the main component of the compact
disc cleaner?

2. The density of pure silver is 10.5 g/cm3 at 20⁰C. if 5.25 g of pure silver pellets is added
to a graduated cylinder containing 11.2 mL of water, to what volume level will the water
in the cylinder rise?

14
 Classification of Matter

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. It exist in three states:

(1) Solid has a fixed volume and shape, and is slightly compressible.

(2) Liquid has a definite volume but no specific shape, i.e., it assumes the
shape of its container. It is also slightly compressible.

(3) Gas has no fixed volume or shape; it takes on the volume and shape of its
container. Gases are highly compressible; it is relatively easy to decrease
the volume of a gas.

Pure substances have constant composition and contain compounds or free

elements. A compound is a substance with constant composition that can be
broken down into elements by chemical processes. Elements are substances that
cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical or physical means.

Mixtures have variable compositions, and can be classified as homogeneous

(having visibly indistinguishable parts) or heterogeneous (having distinguishable
parts). Solution is a homogeneous mixture. Colloids and suspensions are
heterogeneous mixtures.

15
Practice

1. Match each description below with the following microscopic pictures. More than one
picture may fit each description. A picture may be used more than once or not at all.

a. A gaseous compound

b. A mixture of two gaseous elements

c. A solid element

d. A mixture of a gaseous element and a gaseous compound

16
 2. What is the difference between homogeneous and heterogeneous matter? Classify
each of the following as homogeneous or heterogeneous.

a. A door d. The water you drink

b. The air you breathe e. Fog

c. A cup of black coffee f. Your classmate seating next to

you

3. Classify each of the following as a mixture or a pure substance.

a. Water e. Brass (zinc and copper)

b. Blood f. Uranium

c. The oceans g. Softdrink

d. Iron h. Leather

A chemical change is one in which a given substance becomes a new substance or

substances with different properties and different composition. In a chemical change,
intramolecular bonds are broken and new intramolecular bonds are formed.

A physical change is a change in the

form of the substance, but not its
chemical composition. Intramolecular
bonds are not broken in a physical
change, instead the intermolecular
forces are the ones broken.

17
18
Mixtures can be separated into pure substances by physical methods which uses
physical change which does not break compounds into elements:

(1) Distillation is a process that depends on differences in the volatility (how

readily substances become gases) of the components.

(2) Filtration is used when a mixture consists of a solid and a liquid.

19
 (3) Chromatography is a series of methods that employ a system with two
phases of matter: a mobile phase (either a liquid or a gas) and a stationary
phase (solid). A mixture component with high affinity for the mobile phase
moves relatively quickly through the chromatographic system .

Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the

composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe matter.
Physical properties of matter are categorized as either intensive or extensive.
Extensive properties are those that depend on the amount of matter while
intensive properties are those that do not depend on the amount of matter.

Extensive properties : Mass, length, volume

Intensive properties : Density, malleability, ductility, conductivity

Chemical properties describe the behavior of a substance undergoing a chemical

change. Examples of these properties are: iron reacts with air to form rust; chlorine
reacts with sodium; magnesium can be burned.

Practice

1. Classify the following as physical or chemical changes.

a. Moth balls gradually vaporize in a closet.

b. Hydrofluoric acid attacks glass, and is used to etch calibration marks on glass
laboratory utensils.

c. Chemistry majors sometimes get holes in the cotton jeans they wear to lab because
of acid spills.

20
2. The properties of a mixture are typically averages of the properties of its components.
The properties of a compound may differ dramatically from the properties of the
elements that combine to produce the compound. For each process described below,
state whether the material being discussed is most likely a mixture or a compound, and
state whether the process is a chemical or a physical change.

a. An orange liquid is distilled, resulting in the collection of a yellow liquid and a red
solid.

b. A colorless, crystalline solid is decomposed, yielding a pale yellow-green gas and a

soft, shiny metal.

c. A cup of tea becomes sweeter as sugar is added to it.

21
Chapter 2

Atoms, Molecules and Ions

22
 Chapter 2: ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND IONS
________________________________________________________________________

Fundamental Chemical Laws

The law of conservation of mass (Priestly and Lavoisier, 1774) states that mass is
neither created nor destroyed.

The law of definite proportion (originally called “Proust’s law”, 1799) states that a given
compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass. Example, the
substance copper carbonate is always 5.3 parts copper to 4 parts oxygen to 1 part carbon
(by mass).

The law of multiple proportions (Dalton, 1803) states that when two elements form a
series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1
gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers.

Practice

1. The following data were collected for several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen:
Compound A 1.750 g N 1.000 g O
Compound B 0.8750 g N 1.000 g O
Compound C 0.4375 g N 1.000 g O
Show how these data illustrate the law of multiple proportion.

2. Consider 100.0 g samples of two different compounds consisting only of carbon and oxygen.
One compound contains 27.2 g of carbon and the other has 42.9 g of carbon. Show that these
data support the law of multiple proportions.

23
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory

In 1808, John Dalton presented his theory of atoms:

(1) Each element is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.

(2) The atoms of a given element are identical; the atoms of different elements are
different in some fundamental way or ways.

(3) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine with each other
in simple whole-number ratios.

(4) Chemical reactions involve rearrangement of the atoms – changes in the way they
are bound together. The atoms themselves are not changed in a chemical reaction.

In Dalton’s time, it is known that water is composed of 8 grams of oxygen for every 1 gram
of hydrogen. But since the formula of water was not known at the time, he cannot specify
the relative masses of oxygen and hydrogen unmistakably.

In 1809, Joseph Gay-Lussac found that 2 volumes of hydrogen react with 1 volume of
oxygen to form 2 volumes of gaseous water. In 1811, Amadeo Avogadro proposed that at
the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases contain the same
number of particles (Avogadro’s hypothesis). If Avogadro’s hypothesis is correct, Gay-
Lussac’s result can be expressed as follows:

These observations can best be explained by assuming that gaseous hydrogen and oxygen
are all composed of diatomic (two-atom) molecules: H2 and O2. A molecule is a collection of
atoms.

Practice

1. When a volume of H2 reacts with an equal volume of Cl2 at the same temperature and pressure,
what volume of product having the formula HCl is formed?

24
 2. A reaction of 1 liter of chlorine gas (Cl2) with 3 liters of fluorine gas (F2) yields 2 liters of a
gaseous product. All gas volumes are at the same temperature and pressure. What is the
formula of the gaseous product?

Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom

By about 2400 years ago0, the Greeks

proposed that all matter was composed of
four fundamental substances: fire, earth,
water, and air. However, Democritus and
Leucippos supported the idea that matter
is continuous, and thus infinitely divisible
into smaller pieces, or composed of small,
indivisible particles which Leucippos
referred to as atomos. However, the
Greeks in those days had no experiments
to test their ideas.

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered

cathode rays, a beam of light produced as
voltage was increased across an
evacuated tube connected to a spark coil
(called Crooke’s tube). Thomson found
that this beam was deflected by both
electrical and magnetic fields and
concluded that it is made up of small,
negatively charged particles which he
named electrons. With the discovery of
the electrons, Thomson postulated that an
atom consisted of a diffuse cloud of
positive charge with the negative
electrons embedded randomly in it. This
model is often called the plum pudding
model.

Millikan, in 1909, was able to measure the charge (-1.60 x 10-19 C) on an electron using
the oil drop experiment. Eventually, he also calculated a value for the mass (9.11 x 10 -28 g)
of a single electron.

25
Practice

In an experiment, it was found that the total charge on an oil drop was 5.93 X 10-18 C. How many
negative charges does the oil drop contain?

Ernest Rutherford performed a gold foil experiment where positively-charged alpha particles
are fired at metal foils. The particles passed through the foil with few deflections and with
very few deflected directly back toward the source. This suggested an atomic model with
mostly empty space between a nucleus, in which most of the mass of the atom was located
and which was positively-charged, and the electrons that defined the volume of the atom.

Further experiments showed that the nucleus was made up of still smaller particles called
protons, which have positive charge equal in magnitude to the electon’s negative charge.
The protons, however, could not account for the entire mass of the nucleus. In 1932,
James Chadwick discovered the particle called neutron which is neutral and would account
for the missing mass.

Modern View of Atomic Structure

The simplest view of the atom is that it consist of a tiny nucleus (with diameter of about
10-13 cm) and electrons that move about the nucleus at an average distance of 10 -8 cm
from it. The nucleus is tiny compared to the size of the atom but has extremely high
density. In fact, it accounts for almost all of the atom’s mass.

26
Although, atoms are composed of the same materials, different atoms have different
chemical properties. The number of electrons possessed by a given atom greatly affects its
ability to interact with other atoms. As a result, the atoms of different elements, which
have different number of protons and electrons, show different chemical behavior.

It is always true that atoms of an element have the same number of protons and electrons.
However, an element may have different types of atoms that have different number of
neutrons. These atoms are isotopes or atoms with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.

The symbol for a particular type of carbon

atom is written

where the atomic number Z (number of protons) is written as a subscript, and the mass
number A (the total number of protons and neutrons) is written as a superscript). The
particular carbon atom represented here is called “carbon twelve.”

Practice

1. Write the symbol for the atom that has an atomic number of 9 and a mass number of 19. How
many electrons, and how many neutrons does this atom have?

2. Complete the table

Number of Number of
Number of
Symbol Protons in neutrons in Net charge
electrons
Nucleus nucleus
238
92𝑈
20 20 2+
23 28 20
89
39𝑌
35 44 36
15 16 3-
53
26𝐹𝑒
2+

26 33 3+

27
 Molecules and Ions

Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together in a compound. Covalent bond
is a way in which atoms (usually nonmetals) can form bonds by sharing electrons. The
resulting collection of atoms is called a molecule.

The chemical formula is the simplest

method by which molecules can be
represented in which the symbols for the
elements are used to indicate the types of
atoms present and subscripts are used to
H2O
indicate the relative number of atoms.

More information about a molecule is

given by its structural formula, in which
the individual bonds are shown (indicated
by lines).

Ionic bond is a force of attraction

between oppositely charged ions (usually
metal and nonmetal) resulting from
complete transfer of electrons.

An ion is an atom or a group of atoms

that has a net positive or negative charge.
A cation is a positive ion while an anion
is an ion with a negative charge.

28
 An Introduction to the Periodic Table

The periodic table shows all the known elements and gives a good deal of information
about each. The letters in the boxes are the symbols for the elements. The number shown
above each symbol is the atomic number for that element.

Most of the elements are metals. Metals are efficient conductors of heat and electricity,
malleable, ductile, and (often) lustrous. Chemically, metals tend to lose electrons to form
positive ions. Transition metals are shown in the center of the periodic table.

Relatively few nonmetals appear in the upper-right corner of the table, except hydrogen, a
nonmetal that resides in the upper-left corner. Nonmetals lack the physical properties that
characterize the metals. Chemically, they tend to gain electrons in reactions with metals to
form negative ions. Nonmetals often bond to each other by forming covalent bonds.

Metalloids are elements found along the heavy line between metals and nonmetals. They
exhibit properties of both metals and nonmetals.

Elements in the same vertical columns (called groups or families) have similar chemical
properties. All of the alkali metals (Group 1) are very active and readily forms ions with a
+1 charge when they react with nonmetals. Alkaline earth metals (Group 2) form ions
with +2 charge when they react with nonmetals. The halogens (Group 17) form diatomic
molecules and react with metals to form ions with -1 charge. The noble gases (Group 18)
exist under normal conditions as monatomic (single-atom) gases and have little chemical
reactivity.

The horizontal rows of elements in the periodic table are called periods. The first period
contains H and He; the second period contains elements Li through Ne; and so on.

29
Practice

For each of the following sets of elements, label each as noble gases, halogens, alkali metals, alkaline
earth metals, or transition metals.

a. Ti, Fe, Ag
d. Ne, Kr, Xe
b. Mg, Sr, Ba
e. F, Br, I
c. Li, K, Rb

Naming Binary Ionic Compounds (Type I)

Binary ionic compounds contain a cation (always written first in the formula) and an
anion. In Type I binary ionic compounds, the metal present forms only a single type of
cation. In naming these compounds, the following rules apply:

(1) The cation is always named first and the anion second.

(2) The cation takes its name from the name of the element.

(3) The anion is named by taking the root of the element name and adding –ide.

Compound Ions Present Name

NaCl Na+, Cl- Sodium chloride
KI K+, I- Potassium iodide
Li3N Li+, N3- Lithium nitride
MgO Mg2+, O2- Magnesium oxide

Practice

1. Name each binary compound:

a) CaS

b) CsBr

c) AlCl3

d) LiH

30
 Formulas from Names

Practice

1. Given the following systematic names, write the formula for each compound:

(a) calcium oxide

(b) iron(II) oxide

(c) gallium bromide

Naming Binary Ionic Compound (Type II)

Type II binary ionic compounds contain metals that form more than one type of cation and,
thus, form more than one type of ionic compound with a given anion. The charge on the
metal ion must be specified using the Roman numeral. For example, the systematic names
for FeCl2 and FeCl3 are iron(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride, respectively.

I one II two III three IV four V five

VI six VII seven VIII eight IX nine X ten

Practice

1. Give the systematic name for the following:

(a) CuCl
(d) MnO2
(b) HgO
(e) PbCl2
(c) Fe2O3

31
 2. Given the following systematic names, write the formula for each compound:

a) Manganese(IV) oxide

b) Lead(II) chloride

Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions

Polyatomic ions are assigned special names that must be memorized to name the
compounds containing them. Oxyanions are anions that contain an atom of a given
element and different numbers of oxygen atoms.

Symbols and Names of Some Common Polyatomic Ions

NH4+ ammonium ion OH- hydroxide ion CN- cyanide ion
SO42- sulfate ion O22- peroxide ion CNO- cyanate ion
HSO4- hydrogen sulfate ion C2H3O2- acetate ion SCN- thiocyanate ion
SO32- sulfite ion ClO4- perchlorate ion CO32- carbonate ion
NO3- nitrate ion ClO3- chlorate ion HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate
NO2- nitrite ion ClO2- chlorite ion C2O42- oxalate ion
PO43- phosphate ion ClO- hypochlorite ion S2O32- thiosulfate ion
HPO42- hydrogen phosphate CrO42- chromate ion Hg22+ mercury(I) ion
H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate Cr2O72- dichromate ion
PO33- phosphite ion MnO4- permanganate ion

Practice

1. Give the systematic name for the following:

(a) Na2SO4 (f) Na2CO3

(b) KH2PO4 (g) NaHCO3

(c) Fe(NO3)3 (h) CsClO4

(d) Mn(OH)2 (i) NaOCl

(e) Na2SO3 (k) KBrO3

32
 2. Given the following systematic names, write the formula for each compound:

a) Sodium hydrogen carbonate

b) Cesium perchlorate

c) Sodium hypochlorite

Binary Covalent Compounds (Type III)

Binary covalent compounds are formed between two nonmetals. In naming them, the
following rules apply:

(1) The first element in the formula is

named first and the second
element is named as if it were an
anion.

(2) Prefixes are used to denote the

number of atoms present.
However, the prefix mono- is
never used for naming the first
element.

(3) The final o or a of a prefix is often

dropped when the element begins
with a vowel.

Some compounds like H2O and NH3 are always referred to by their common names, water
and ammonia, respectively.

Practice

(1) Name each of the following:

(a) PCl5 (d) N2O4

(b) PCl3 (e) N2O

(c) NO (f) N2O5

(2) From the following systematic names, write the formula for each compound:

a) Sulfur hexafluoride

b) Sulfur trioxide

c) Carbon dioxide

33
 (3) Give the systematic name for the following:

(a) P4O10 (c) Li2O2

(b) Nb2O5
(d)Ti(NO3)4

Acids

An acid can be viewed as a molecule with one or more H+ ions attached to an anion. If the
anion does not contain oxygen, the acid is named with the prefix hydro- and the suffix –ic
with word acid.

When the anion contains oxygen, the acidic name is formed from the root name of the anion
with the suffix of –ic or –ous. When the anion name ends in –ate, the suffix –ic is added to
the root name. If the anion has an –ite ending, the –ite is replaced by –ous.

Practice

1. Name the following acids:

(a) HCl
(d) HClO2
(b) HClO4
(e)HClO
(c) HClO3

Hydrates

Hydrates are salts that have formulas indicating the number of water molecules for every
formula unit of the salt. The number of water molecules is separated from the formula of
the salt with a dot.

Practice

1. Name the following:

(a) CaSO4.2H2O (c) MgSO4.7H2O

(b) CuSO4.5H2O (d)Na2SO4.10H2O

34
 Multiple Choice Questions
Chapters 1 & 2

1. In most of its compounds, this element exists as a monatomic cation.

A. O
B. Cl
C. Na
D. N

2. This element may form a compound with the formula CaXO4.

A. Se
B. Cl
C. P
D. Na

3. Which of the following elements may occur in the greatest number of different
oxidation states?
A. C
B. F
C. O
D. Ca

4. Choose the group that does not contain isotopes of the same element.
Number of Number of
protons neutrons
A. Atom I 18 18
Atom II 18 19
B. Atom I 37 42
Atom II 37 41
C. Atom I 82 126
Atom II 82 128
D. Atom I 18 18
Atom II 17 18

5. You are given an aqueous solution of NaCl. The simplest method for the
separation of NaCl from the solution is
A. evaporation of the solution to dryness
B. centrifuging the solution
C. osmosis of the solution
D. electrolysis of the solution

35
6. The determination that atoms have small, dense nuclei is attributed to

A. Rutherford
B. Becquerel
C. Einstein
D. Dalton

7. Which of the following substances will produce a colorless aqueous solution?

A. Zn(NO3)2
B. CuSO4
C. K2Cr2O7
D. Co(NO3)2

8. This element is a liquid at room temperature.

A. Hg
B. Th
C. Na
D. Cl2

9. What should you do if you spill sulfuric acid on the countertop?

A. Neutralize the acid with vinegar.
B. Sprinkle solid NaOH on the spill.
C. Neutralize the acid with NaHCO3 solution.
D. Neutralize the acid with an Epsom salt (MgSO4) solution.

10. Which of the following is a correct interpretation of the results of Rutherford's

experiments in which gold atoms were bombarded with alpha particles?
A. Electrons in atoms are aranged in shells.
B. Atoms have equal numbers of positive and negative charges.
C. Neutrons and protrons in atoms have nearly equal mass.
D. The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a small region.

11. During a laboratory activity, a student combined two solutions. In the laboratory
report, the student wrote “A yellow color appeared.” The statement represents the
student’s recorded
A. conclusion
B. observation
C. hypothesis
D. inference

36
12. The SI prefixes giga and micro represent, respectively:
A. 10-9 and 10-3.
B. 103 and 10-3.
C. 109 and 10-6.
D. 10-9 and 10-6.

13. A thermometer scale is calibrated (marked off) in tenths of a degree Celsius from
1.0 °C to 50.0 °C. Determine how many significant figures should be used to
express the outdoor temperature if that temperature is between 1°C and 9°C.
A. 3
B. 1
C. 5
D. 2

14. A piece of metal with a mass of 125 g is placed into a graduated cylinder that
contains 25.00 mL of water, raising the water level to 56.00 mL. What is the density
of the metal?
A. 1.51 g/cm3
B. 0.25 g/cm3
C. 5.00 g/cm3
D. 4.03 g/cm3

15. Given the following densities at 25°C:

Magnesium: 1.7 g/cm3 Graphite: 1.8 g/cm3 Iron: 7.9 g/cm3
A block of iron has a mass of 826 g. What is the mass of a block of magnesium that has
the same volume as the block of iron?

A. 3,800 g
B. 1,400 g
C. 180 g
D. 830 g

16. Which of the following is an example of a physical property?

A. neutralization of stomach acid with an antacid
B. lead becomes a liquid when heated to 601°C
C. corrosiveness of sulfuric acid
D. flammability of gasoline

37
17. Which of the following observations is not evidence for a chemical change?
A. producing bubbles after mixing solutions
B. giving a precipitate after mixing solutions
C. changing color after mixing solutions
D. adding water to dilute a solution

18. Which one of the following represents a chemical change?

A. melting butter
B. cutting a bar of sodium metal into pieces with a knife
C. bleach turns hair yellow
D. boiling water to form steam

19. Which of the following statements is correct?

A. Compounds cannot be decomposed into elements
B. Both elements and compounds are pure substances
C. Elements, but not compounds are pure substances.
D. Compounds, but not elements are pure substances.

20. Which of the following statements is correct?

A. A compound may contain only one type of atom.
B. A homogeneous mixture must be uniform.
C. A pure substance must contain only one type of atom.
D. A mixture containing two compounds must be heterogeneous.

21. Condensation refers to which conversion?

A. gas to solid
B. liquid to gas
C. gas to liquid
D. solid to liquid

22. Substances X and Y that were in a solution were separated in the laboratory using
the technique of fractional crystallization. This fractional crystallization is possible
because substances X and Y have different
A. boiling points
B. densities
C. crystal colors
D. solubility

38
23. A student calculates the density of an unknown solid. The mass is 10.04 grams,
and the volume is 8.21 cubic centimeters. How many significant figures should
appear in the final answer?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

24. Which mixture can be separated by using the equipment shown below?

A. NaCl (aq) and SiO2(s)

B. NaCl (aq) and C6H12O6 (aq)
C. CO2 (aq) and NaCl (aq)
D. CO2 (aq) and C6H12O6 (aq)

39
25. The diagram below represents a portion of a 100-milliliter graduated cylinder.

What is the reading of the meniscus?

A. 35.0 mL
B. 35 mL
C. 45.0 mL
D. 35.00 mL

26. Choose from the following list those properties that are chemical properties of table
sugar?

I. its density is 1.6 g/cm3

II. it is a white solid
III. it burns when heated
IV. it dissolves in water
V. it melts at 186oC
A. II and IV only
B. III only
C. II, III and IV
D. III and IV only

40
Use this segment of the periodic table to answer questions 27 – 29.

27. The labeled item which identifies the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
is:
A. #1
B. #2
C. #3
D. #4

28. The labeled item that identifies the group number is:
A. #1
B. #2
C. #3
D. #4

29. The labeled item that identifies the relative mass of an element is:
A. #1
B. #2
C. #3
D. #4

30. The scientist who determined the magnitude of the electric charge of the electron
was
A. John Dalton.
B. Robert Millikan.
C. Henry Moseley.
D. J. J. Thomson.

41
31. Rutherford's experiment with alpha particle scattering by gold foil established that
A. electrons have a positive charge.
B. atoms are made of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
C. electrons have a negative charge.
D. protons are not evenly distributed throughout an atom.

32. Millikan in his oil drop experiment, discovered ...

A. the low of multiple proportions.
B. neutrons
C. the electron’s charge.
D. the electron’s charge to mass ratio.

33. Atoms of the same element with different mass numbers are called
A. neutrons.
B. allotropes.
C. chemical families.
D. isotopes.

34. An atom of the isotope sulfur-31 consists of how many protons, neutrons, and
electrons?
(p = proton, n = neutron, e = electron)

A. 16 p, 16 n, 15 e
B. 32 p, 31 n, 32 e
C. 16 p, 31 n, 16 e
D. 16 p, 15 n, 16 e

35. The formula for calcium phosphate is

A. Ca2(PO4)3.
B. CaPO4.
C. Ca3(PO4)2.
D. Ca3(PO3)2.

42
36. The ammonium ion, NH 4 , is classified as which of the following?

A. monoatomic cation
B. monoatomic anion
C. polyatomic cation
D. polyatomic anion

37. What is the formula for the ionic compound composed of the bismuth ion, Bi 3+, and
the cyanide ion, CN-?
A. Bi2CN2
B. BiCN3
C. Bi3CN
D. Bi(CN)3

38. What is the systematic name for Co2S3?

A. dicobalt trisulfur
B. cobalt(II) sulfide
C. cobalt(II) sulfate
D. cobalt(III) sulfide

39. What is the chemical name of Ni(NO3)2?

A. Nickel nitride
B. Nickel nitrite
C. Nickel nitrogen oxide
D. Nickel(II) nitrate

40. Consider the formulas SIBr3 and SiBr4. These symbols represent species:
A. having the same composition
B. which contain different numbers of atoms
C. having the same molar mass.
D. having equal numbers of atoms.

41. Copper (II) oxide reacts with hydrogen gas producing copper metal and water. The
correct form of the chemical equation that describes this reaction is
A. Cu2O(s) + H2(g)  2Cu(s) + H2O(l)
B. Cu2O(s) + 2H(g)  2Cu(s) + H2(l)
C. CuO(s) + H2(g)  Cu(s) + H2O(l)
D. CuO(s) + 2H(g)  Cu(s) + H2O(l)

43
42. Which of the following statements is/are TRUE?
I. All molecules are compounds.
II. All compounds are molecules.
III. Elements can be molecules.
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and II only

43. A volume of 0.0075 L is equivalent to

I. 7.5 x 10-3 L
II. 75 mL
III. 7.5 x 103 L
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and II only

Questions 44– 45 refer to the following:

The density of a small piece of rock is determined by water displacement method.
When the 20.00 g rock is placed inside a measuring cylinder with 20.0 mL of water, the
level of the liquid inside rises by 10.0 mL.

44. What is the volume of the rock in mL?

A. 10.0
B. 10.00
C. 10
D. 2.0

45. What is the density of the rock in g/mL ?

A. 2
B. 2.0
C. 2.00
D. 0.50

44
46. Which of the following results in a physical change?
I. Souring of milk
II. Boiling of water
III. Making a cup of tea from a tea bag and hot water
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and II only
D. II and III only

47. Which of the following conclusions were made from the Rutherford’s gold foil
experiment?
A. All elements can be turned into gold.
B. The mass of an atom is evenly distributed.
C. Protons are positively-charged.
D. A massive positively-charged nucleus is at the center of the atom.

48. Which of the following atoms has 24 protons, 27 neutrons and 22 electrons?
A. 51Cr2+

B. 51Cr3+

C. 51Co2+

D. 46Cr2+

49. Which of the following statements best describes a pair of isotopes?

A. Both have the same atomic number.
B. Both have the same mass number.
C. Both have the same average atomic mass.
D. Both exist in the same state at room temperature.

50. Which formula represents the most likely compound between the elements
magnesium and nitrogen?
A. Mg2N3
B. Mg3N2
C. MgN2
D. Mg3N

45
51. Which of the following is INCORRECTLY named?
I. CoO: Cobalt (II) oxide
II. MgF2: Magnesium trifluoride
III. SiH4: Silver tetrahydride

A. I only
B. II only
C. I and II only
D. II and III only

52. A solid element has two valence electrons. That element must be

A. A halogen
B. A noble gas
C. A radioactive element
D. An alkaline earth metal

53. The number of electrons, protons, and neutrons in argon-40 is

A. 18 e, 18 p, 40 n
B. 40 e, 40 p, 18 n
C. 18 e, 22 p, 18 n
D. 18 e, 18 p, 22 n

54. Chemical properties of elements are defined by the

A. Electrons
B. Ionization energy
C. Protons
D. Neutrons

55. You have just discovered a new, fundamental particle of nature. When measuring
its mass, you obtain the following data for five samples:
A. 4.72 X 10-34 gram
B. 9.44 X 10-34 gram
C. 1.180 X 10-33 gram
D. 1.652 X 10-33 gram
E. 7.08 X 10-34 gram
56. If you make the same assumptions as that Millikan did, what is the maximum mass
of the new particle?
A. 4.72 X 10-34 g
B. 1.18 X 10-34 g
C. 9.44 X 10-34 g
D. 2.36 X 10-34 g

46
56. The chemical symbol for antimony is
A. Sn
B. Ti
C. Sb
D. K

57. What is the formula for an ionic compound formed from aluminum and chlorine?
A. AlCl
B. Al3Cl
C. Al3Cl3
D. AlCl3

58. In order to estimate the density of an unknown metal, a student performed the
following measurements:

Determination of the mass Determination of the volume

The density calculated is

A. 0.85
B. 0.70
C. 2.70
D. 0.69

59. If two objects have the same volume but one is made up of smaller and heavier
atoms, the one with small heavy atoms will
A. Be larger than the other
B. Be less dense than the other
C. Be more dense than the other
D. Float

47
60. Based on the given molecular observation, which statement is TRUE.

A. The candle floats at the surface of water

B. The water floats at the surface of wax
C. Water and wax are miscible
D. All statements are correct

61. Analyzing the graph, what would you expect the mass of 500 mL of water.

A. 500 g
B. 250 g
C. 50 g
D. None of the previous answers

48
62. From the chromatogram , we can conclude that Z contains

A. Only galactose and glucose

B. Fructose, glucose and maltose
C. Galactose, glucose and fructose
D. Galactose, glucose and an unknown sugar

63. which of the following represents a molecular compound

A. I and III
B. III and IV
C. II and IV
D. I and IV

64. The smallest part of a compound which still has the same properties of that
compound is called
A. A solid
B. A mixture
C. An atom
D. A molecule

49
65. Study the diagrams and choose the correct statement

A. Y represents a compounds and Z represents a mixture

B. X represents an element and W represents a mixture
C. X represents an element and Z represents a mixture
D. Y represents an element and W represents a mixture

66. Which of the following statements is/are not correct

A. In a physical change, the matter stays the same
B. In a physical change, the particles of the substance are not rearranged
C. In a chemical change, the original matter can be recovered
D. In a chemical change, the particles are broken apart and the atoms are
rearranged

67. Study the following diagram and choose the correct statement

A. Cold water floats on warm water

B. Warm water floats on cold water
C. Cold water and warm water do not mix
D. All the possibilities are correct

50
68. Consider the following experiments: Compound A + Compound B → Outcome
Compound A Compound B Outcome
(I) Iron nail Air/water Rusty nail
(II) Water Sucrose Sweetened water
(III) Copper Zinc Brass
(IV) Raw Egg Heat Boiled egg
These experiments can be classified as a
A. Chemical change I and II. Physical change III and IV
B. Chemical change I and IV. Physical change II and III
C. Chemical changes
D. Physical changes

69. You are given the following solutions. The simplest method for the separation of their
components is

A. Evaporation of the solution to dryness

B. Distillation
C. Electrolysis of the solution
D. Filtration of the solution

70. A thermometer scale is calibrated (marked off) in tenths of a degree Celsius from 1.0
°C to 50.0 °C. Determine how many significant figures should be used to express the
outdoor temperature if that temperature is between 1°C and 9°C.
A. 3
B. 1
C. 5
D. 2

51
71. Consider the following separation techniques

Which of the following mixtures could be separated into its components using both
techniques?
A. Sand + water+ ethanol
B. Salt + water + acetone
C. Oil + water + juice
D. Iron + sand + silica

72. The SI prefixes “giga” and “nano” represent, respectively:

E. 10-9 and 10-3.
F. 103 and 10-3.
G. 109 and 10-9.
H. 10-9 and 10-6

73. The oxides CO and CO2 must have the following carbon-to-oxygen mass ratio:
A) 12:16, 12:32
B) 12:12, 12:16
C) 12:8, 12:4
D) 12:12, 12:24

74. What is the charge of an ion with 29 protons and 28 neutrons?

A) 0
B) +1
C) +2
D) Unknown

52
75. A compound in which the nitrite-to-metal ion ratio is 2:1 has the following formula
A) M(NO2)2
B) M(NO2)4
C) M2NO2
D) MNO2

76. What was the key finding in Millikan oil drop experiment?
A) The charge of the electron.
B) All neutrons are located in a central nucleus.
C) The charge-to-mass ratio.
D) Atoms of the same element are identical.

77. What was the key finding in Rutherford’s famous “gold-foil” experiment?
A) Atoms are composed of positively and negatively charged particles.
B) Most of the mass of an atom is located in a central, dense core.
C) Alpha particles are attracted to a negatively charged plate.
D) The charge of the electron

78. When hydrogen ions in sulfuric acid are replaced by an iron (3+) ion, the resulting
compound has the following formula:
A) Fe2(SO4)3
B) Fe3SO4
C) FeSO
D) Fe3(SO4)2

79. What is the formula of ammonium perchlorate?

A) NH3ClO3
B) NH4ClO4
C) NH3ClO
D) NH3ClO2

80. Atom A has 30 protons, 32 neutrons and 30 electrons. Atom B has 30 protons, 28
neutrons and 30 electrons. A and B are then:
A) Isotopes
B) Isobars
C) Isomers
D) Isoneutrons

53
81.

82. The name for Cr(BrO3)3 is

A) Chromium (III) Bromite
B) Chromium (III) Perbromate
C) Chromium (III) Bromate
D) Chromium (III) Hypobromate

83. A compound contains 1.10 mol of Na, 0.55 mol of Se and 1.65 mol of O. what is the
simplest formula of this compound?
A) NaSeO
B) NaSe2O
C) Na2SeO3
D) Na2SeO6

84. Consider the Experiments I, II and III. Results of those are randomly denoted X,
Y and Z.

The correct matching “Experiment/Result” is:

A) I/X, II/Y and III/Z

54
 B) I/Y, II/X and III/Z
C) I/Z, II/Y and III/X
D) None of the above answers.

85. Ethyl alcohol (A) and dimethyl ether (B) have the same composition by mass (52%
carbon, 13% hydrogen and 35% oxygen), yet the two compounds have different
solubility in water. The correct explanation is:

A) Ethyl alcohol is more polar than dimethyl ether

B) The molar mass of dimethyl ether is larger than that of ethyl alcohol.
C) Ethyl alcohol is polar while dimethyl ether is non-polar.
D) The boiling point of dimethyl ether is higher than that of ethyl alcohol.

86. The mineral spinel is an ionic compound containing only the elements
magnesium, aluminum and oxygen. Its simplest formula is:

A) MgAlO3
B) Mg2AlO4
C) MgAl2O4
D) Mg2Al2O3

87. Magnesium nitride reacts with water to form ammonia and magnesium hydroxide.
Besides water, this statement refers to which chemical formulas?
A) Mg3N2, NH3 and Mg(OH)2
B) Mg(NO3)2, NH4+ and MgH2
C) Mg(NO3)2, NH3 and MgH2
D) Mg(NO2)2, NH4+ and Mg(OH)2

88. The mineral chromite, FeCr2O4, consists of a mixture of iron (II) oxide and
chromium (III) oxide. What is the ratio of iron (II) oxide to chromium (III) oxide in
chromite?
A) 1:1
B) 1:2
C) 2:3
D) 3:2

55
89. Which formula represents a peroxide?
A) K2O
B) K2O2
C) CaO
D) Ca2O2

56
Chapter 3

Stoichiometry

57
 Chapter 3: STOICHIOMETRY
________________________________________________________________________

Chemical stoichiometry is the area of study that considers the quantities of

materials consumed and produced in chemical reactions.

Atomic Masses

Atomic masses are determined using an equipment called mass spectrometer. The
modern system of atomic masses (sometimes called atomic weight, for historical
reasons) is based on 12C (“carbon twelve”) as the standard. In this system, 12C is
assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass units (amu), and the masses of all other
atoms are given relative to this standard.

Practice

The ratio of the masses of 12C and 13C is found to be

Mass 13C
= 1.0836129
Mass 12C

Determine the atomic mass of 13C.

58
The atomic masses in the periodic table are relative or average atomic masses as
they pertain to the average mass values of the isotopes of the given element
depending on its relative abundance in the earth’s crust and atmosphere.

Practice

(1) Natural carbon is composed of 98.89% 12C, and 1.11% 13C. The amount of 14C is
negligible at this level of precision. Calculate the average atomic mass for natural
carbon.

(2) The element europium exists in nature as two isotopes: 151Eu has a mass of 150.9196
amu and 153Eu has a mass of 152.9209 amu. The average atomic mass of europium is
151.96 amu. Calculate the relative abundance of the two isotopes.

(3) Chlorine exist mainly as two isotopes, 37Cl and 35Cl. Which is more abundant? Justify
your answer.

59
 Mole

The mole (abbreviated mol) is defined as the number equal to the number of carbon
atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure 12C, which is determined to be 6.02214 X 1023
(6.022 X1023 will be sufficient). This number is called Avogadro’s number. Just as
a dozen eggs is 12 eggs, a mole of eggs is 6.022 X 1023 eggs.

The mole is defined such that a sample of a natural element with a mass equal to
element’s atomic mass expressed in grams contains 1 mol of atoms. A 12.01 g
sample of natural carbon contains 6.022 X 1023 atoms (a mixture of 12C, 13C, and
14
C). A sample of 12.01 g of natural carbon contains 1 mol of atoms (6.022 X 10 23)
as 4.003 g of natural helium.

Practice

(1) What is the mass in grams of 6 atoms of americium?

(2) Compute the number of moles of atoms and the number of atoms in a 10.0 g sample of
aluminum.

(3) How many silicon atoms are present in 5.68 mg of a silicon chip?

(4) Calculate both the number of moles in a sample of cobalt containing 5.00 X 10 20 atoms
and the mass of the sample.

60
 Molar Mass

The molar mass (traditionally, molecular weight) of a substance is the mass in

grams of one mole of the compound. It is obtained by summing the masses of the
component atoms.

Practice

(1) The formula for juglone is C10H6O3. (a) Calculate the molar mass of juglone. (b) How
many moles of juglone does a sample of 1.56 X 10-2 g represent?

(2) Calcium carbonate, also called calcite, has the formula CaCO3. (a) Calculate the molar
mass of calcium carbonate. (b) A certain sample of calcium carbonate contains 4.86
mol. What is the mass in grams of this sample? (c) What is the mass of the CO32- ions
present?

(3) How many molecules of isopentyl acetate (C7H14O2) are in 1 μg of this compound?
How many atoms of carbon are present?

61
 Percent Composition of Compounds

The mass percents of the elements can be obtained by comparing the mass of each
element present in 1 mol of the compound to the molar mass of the compound.

mass of element in 1 mol of compound

% Element in compound = X 100
molar mass of the compound

Practice

(1) Compute the mass percent of each element in carvone (C10H14O).

(2) Penicillin, an antibiotic, has the formula C14H20N2SO4. Compute the mass percent of
each element.

(3) In 1987 the first substance to act as a superconductor at a temperature above that of
liquid nitrogen (77 K) was discovered. The approximate formula of this compound is
YBa2Cu3O7. Calculate the percent composition by mass of this material.

62
 Determining the Formula of a Compound

An empirical formula shows the ratio of the atoms in their lowest terms. The
molecular formula shows the actual number of each atom in the compound. For
example, ethylene (C2H2), cyclobutadiene (C4H4) and benzene (C6H6) can be
represented as (CH)n, where n is an integer.

Practice

(1) A white powder is analyzed and found to contain 43.64% phosphorus and 56.36%
oxygen by mass. The compound has a molar mass of 283.88 g/mol. What are the
compound’s empirical and molecular formulas?

(2) Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea, and chocolate, contains 49.48% carbon,
5.15% hydrogen, 28.87% nitrogen, and 16.49% oxygen by mass and has a molar mass
of 194.2 g/mol. Determine the molecular formula of caffeine.

(3) A hydrocarbon is burned producing 0.1467 g of carbon dioxide and 0.1201 g of water.
What is the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon?

63
 (4) A 0.755 g sample of hydrated copper(II) sulfate, CuSO4∙xH2O, was heated carefully until
it had changed completely to an anhydrous copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4) with a mass of
0.483 g. Determine the value of x. (This number is called the number of water of
hydration of copper(II) sulfate. It specifies the number of water molecules per formula
unit of CuSO4 in the hydrated crystal.)

Chemical Equations

A chemical change is a process represented by a chemical equation with the

reactants on the left of an arrow and the products on the right side. Besides
specifying the substances involved in the reaction, the equation often gives the
physical states of the reactants and products.

CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)

State Symbol
Solid (s)
Liquid (l)
Gas (g)
Dissolved in water (in aqueous solution) (aq)

In a chemical reaction, note that atoms have been reorganized. Bonds have been
broken, and new ones have been formed. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
All atoms present in the reactants must be present among the products. Making
sure that this rule is obeyed is called balancing a chemical equation for a
reaction. The relative numbers of reactants and products in a reaction are indicated
by the coefficients in the balanced equation.

To write and balance the equation for a chemical reaction,

(1) Determine what reaction is occurring. What are the reactants, the products
and the physical states involved?
(2) Write the equation that summarizes the reaction described in step 1.
(3) Balance the equation by inspection, starting with the most complicated
molecule(s). Determine what coefficients are necessary so that the number
of each type of atom appears on both reactant and product sides. Never
change the identities (formulas) of any of the reactants or products.

64
Practice

Give the balanced equation for each of the following:

(1) Ammonia gas (NH3) reacts with oxygen gas to form gaseous nitric oxide (NO) and water
vapor.

(2) Solid iron(III) sulfide reacts with gaseous hydrogen chloride to form solid iron(III)
chloride and hydrogen sulfide gas.

(3) Aqueous strontium hydroxide reacts with aqueous hydrobromic acid to produce water
and aqueous strontium bromide.

(4) Liquid phosphorus pentachloride is added to water to produce aqueous phosphoric acid
and hydrogen chloride gas.

(5) When 0.1156 g of a compound that contains only carbon , hydrogen, and nitrogen is
burned, 0.1638 g of carbon dioxide and 0.1676 g of water are collected together with
nitrous oxide (N2O).

(a) What is the empirical formula of the compound?

(b) What is the molecular formula if the molar mass of the compound is 93.18 g/mol?

(c) Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

65
 Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants and Products

To calculate masses of reactants and products in chemical reactions,

(1) Balance the equation for the reaction.

(2) Convert the known mass of the reactant or product to moles of that
substance.

(3) Use the balanced equation to set up the appropriate mole ratios.

(4) Use the appropriate mole ratios to calculate the number of moles of the
desired reactant or product.

(5) Convert from moles back to grams if required by the problem.

Practice

(1) Solid lithium hydroxide is used in space vehicles to remove exhaled carbon dioxide from
the living environment by forming solid lithium carbonate and liquid water. What mass
of gaseous carbon dioxide can be absorbed by 1.00 kg of lithium hydroxide?

66
 (2) In the following reaction

Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → 2Fe(l) + Al2O3(s)

what masses of iron(III) oxide and aluminum must be used to produce 15.0 g iron?
What is the maximum mass of aluminum oxide that could be produced?

Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant

The limiting reactant (or limiting

reagent) is the reactant that is
consumed first and that, therefore,
limits the amounts of the products that
can be formed. The reactant that is
not completely used up in the reaction
is the excess reactant.

To solve a stoichiometric problem involving masses of reactants and products:

(1) Write the balance equation for the reaction.

(2) Convert the known masses of substances to moles.

(3) Determine which reactant is limiting.

(4) Using the amount of limiting reactant and the appropriate mole ratios,
compute the number of moles of the desired product.

(5) Convert from moles to grams, using the molar mass.

67
Practice

(1) Nitrogen gas can be prepared by passing gaseous ammonia over solid copper(II) oxide at
high temperatures. The other products of the reaction are solid copper and water
vapor. If a sample containing 18.1 g of NH3 is reacted with 90.4 g of CuO, which is the
limiting reactant? How many grams of N2 will be formed?

(2) Consider the following unbalanced equation:

Ca3(PO4)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + H3PO4(aq)

What masses of calcium sulfate and phosphoric acid can be produced from the reaction
of 1.0 kg calcium phosphate with 1.0 kg concentrated sulfuric acid (98% H2SO4 by
mass)?

68
The amount of a product formed when the limiting reactant is completely consumed
is called the theoretical yield of that product. The actual yield of product is often
given as a percentage of the theoretical yield. This is called the percent yield:

Actual Yield
X 100% = percent yield
Theoretical Yield

Practice

(1) Suppose 68.5 kg CO is reacted with 8.60 kg H2, calculate the theoretical yield of
methanol. If 3.57 X 104 g CH3OH is actually produced, what is the percent yield of
methanol?

(2) Consider the following unbalanced reaction:

P4(s) + F2(g) → PF3(g)

How many grams of F2 are needed to produce 120. g of PF3 if the reaction has a 78.1%
yield?

69
Many samples of chemicals are not pure. We can define percent purity as follows:

Mass of pure compound in the impure sample

X 100% = percent purity
total mass of impure sample

Practice

(1) An iron ore sample contains Fe2O3 plus other impurities. A 752 g sample of impure iron
ore is heated with excess carbon producing 453 g of pure iron by the following reaction:

Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)

What is the mass percent of Fe2O3 in the impure iron ore sample? Assume that Fe2O3 is
the only source of iron and that the reaction is 100% efficient.

(2) Consider the reaction of magnesium hydroxide with phosphoric acid.

3Mg(OH)2 + 2H3PO4 → Mg3(PO4)2 + 6H2O

Calculate the percent purity of a sample of Mg(OH)2 if titration of 2.568 g of the sample
required 2.274 g H3PO4.

70
 Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 3

1. What mass of Au is produced when 0.0500 mol of Au 2S3 is reduced

completely with excess H2?
A. 9.85 g
B. 19.7 g
C. 24.5 g
D. 39.4 g

......C10H12O4S(s) + ...... O2(g) → ...... CO2(g) + ...... SO2(g) + …... H2O(g)

2. When the equation above is balanced and all coefficients are reduced to
their lowest whole-number terms, the coefficient for O2(g) is?
A. 6
B. 7
C. 12
D. 14

3. When hafnium metal is heated in an atmosphere of chlorine gas, the product

of the reaction is found to contain 62.2 percent Hf by mass and 37.4 percent
Cl by mass. What is the empirical formula for this compound?
A. HfCl
B. HfCl2
C. HfCl3
D. HfCl4

10 HI + 2 KMnO4 + 3 H2SO4  5 I2 + 2 MnSO4 + K2SO4 + 8 H2O

4. According to the balanced equation above, how many moles of HI would be

necessary to produce 2.5 mol of I2, starting with 4.0 mol of KMnO4 and 3.0
mol of H2SO4?
A. 20
B. 10
C. 8.0
D. 5.0

5. After completing an experiment to determine gravimetrically the percentage of water

in a hydrate, a student reported a value of 38 percent. The correct value for the
percentage of water in the hydrate is 51 percent. Which of the following is the most
likely explanation for this difference?
A. Strong initial heating caused some of the hydrate sample to spatter out of the
crucible.
B. The dehydrated sample absorbed moisture after heating.
C. The amount of the hydrate sample used was too small.
D. The crucible was not heated to constant mass before use.

71
6. Tungsten metal may be prepared by reducing WO 3 with H2 gas. How many
grams of tungsten may be prepared from 0.0500 mol of WO 3 with excess
hydrogen?
A. 5.58 g
B. 0.500 g
C. 9.19 g
D. 184 g

7. Manganese, Mn, forms a number of oxides. A particular oxide is 63.2% Mn.

What is the simplest formula for this oxide?
A. MnO
B. Mn2O3
C. Mn3O4
D. MnO2

8. Vanadium forms a number of oxides. In which of the following oxides is the

vanadium to- oxygen mass ratio 2.39:1.00?
A. VO
B. V2O3
C. V3O4
D. VO2

9. How many grams of nitrogen are in 25.0 g of (NH4)2SO4?

A. 5.30 g
B. 1.30 g
C. 0.190 g
D. 2.65 g

10. Nitrogen forms a number of oxides. Which of the following oxides is 64%
nitrogen?
A. N2O4
B. N2O3
C. N2O2
D. N2O

11. Sodium sulfate forms a number of hydrates. A sample of a hydrate is heated

until all the water is removed. What is the formula of the original hydrate if it
loses 43% of its mass when heated?
A. Na2SO4·H2O
B. Na2SO4·2H2O
C. Na2SO4·6H2O
D. Na2SO4·8H2O

72
12. Gold(III) oxide, Au2O3, can be decomposed to gold metal, Au, plus oxygen
gas, O2. How many moles of oxygen gas will form when 221 g of solid
gold(III) oxide is decomposed? The formula mass of gold(III) oxide is 442.
A. 0.250 mol
B. 1.50 mol
C. 1.00 mol
D. 0.750 mol

…… C4H11N(l) + …… O2(g)  …… CO2(g) + …… H2O(l) + …… N2 (g)

13. When the above equation is balanced, the lowest whole number coefficient
for O2 is:
A. 4
B. 16
C. 22
D. 27

2 KMnO4 + 5 H2C2O4 + 3 H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2 MnSO4 + 10 CO2 + 8 H2O

14. How many moles of MnSO4 are produced when 1.0 mol of KMnO4, 5.0 mol
of H2C2O4, and 3.0 mol of H2SO4 are mixed?

A. 4.0 mol
B. 5.0 mol
C. 2.0 mol
D. 1.0 mol

…… KClO3  …… KCl + …… O2

15. After the above equation is balanced, how many moles of O2 can be
produced from 4.0 mol of KClO3?
A. 2.0 mol
B. 5.0 mol
C. 6.0 mol
D. 3.0 mol

16. When the following equation is balanced, it is found that 1.00 mol of C 8H18
reacts with how many moles of O2?
…… C8H18 + …… O2  …… CO2 + …… H2O

A. 1.00 mol
B. 10.0 mol
C. 25.0 mol
D. 12.5 mol

73
17. A mole is:
A. the atomic mass (measured in a.m.u's).
B. another name for a molecule.
C. Avogadro's number of grams.
D. 6.022 x 1023 particles.

18. Which of the following represents the correct method for converting 11.0 g of
copper metal to the equivalent number of copper atoms?
 1 mole of Cu atoms   6.022  10 23 Cu atoms 
A. 11.0 g of Cu atoms    
 63.55 g   1 mole of Cu atoms 

B. 11.0 g of Cu atoms  1 mole of Cu atoms 

 63.55 g 

C. 11.0 g of Cu atoms  1 mole of Cu atoms   63.55 g of Cu 


  6.022  10 moles of Cu atoms 
23
 63.55 g

 1 mole of Cu atoms   1 mole of Cu atoms 

D. 11.0 g of Cu atoms    
  6.022  10 Cu atoms 
23
 63.55 g

19. The decomposition by heating of solid potassium chlorate yields solid

potassium chloride and oxygen gas as products. The balanced equation for
this reaction is
A. KClO2(s)  KCl(s) + O2(g)
B. 2 KClO3(s)  2 KClO2(s) + O(g)
C. 2 KClO3(s) 2 KCl(s) + 3 O2(g)
D. KClO3(s)  KCl(s) + 3 O(g)

20. Which of the following statements is true?

I. The molar mass of CaCO3 is 100.091 g mol-1.
II. 50 g of CaCO3 contains 9.033 × 1023 oxygen atoms.
III. A 200.182 g sample of CaCO3 contains 2 moles of CaCO3.
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I, II, and III

74
21. For the reaction Fe(CO)5 + 2PF3 + H2  Fe(CO)2(PF3)2(H)2 + 3CO, how
many moles of CO are produced from a mixture of 5.0 mol Fe(CO)5, 8.0 mol
PF3, and 6.0 mol H2?
A. 6.0 mol
B. 5.0 mol
C. 18 mol
D. 12 mol

22. Given the following equation:

2Al(s) + Fe2O3(s)  Al2O3(s) + 2Fe(s)

If in the above reaction, 0.500 mole of Al and 0.200 moles of Fe 2O3 are
mixed in a reaction vessel. Assuming that a maximum possible reaction
occurs, select from the following choices, the amounts of substances that
remain in the reaction vessel.
A. 0.200 mole Al2O3, 0.400 mole Fe
B. 0.200 mole Al2O3, 0.400 mole Fe, 0.100 mole Al
C. 0.250 mole Al2O3, 0.500 mole Fe, 0.0500 mol Fe2O3
D. 0.200 mole Al2O3, 0.500 mole Fe

23. Interpret the following sentence:

"Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid to produce sodium acetate,

carbon dioxide and water."
A. Na2CO3 + H2C2H3O2 → H2 + CO3 + Na2C2H3O2
B. NaCO3 + HC2H3O2 → NaHC2H3O2 + CO2 + H2O
C. NaHCO3 + H2O + CO2 → NaC2H3O2 + 2O2
D. NaHCO3 + HC2H3O2 → NaC2H3O2 + H2O + CO2

24. What is the coefficient of lead metal after balancing the following equation?
…… Al (s) + …… Pb (C2H3O2)2 (aq)  …… Al (C2H3O2)3 (aq) + …… Pb (s)
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

75
25. Boron obtained from borax deposits in Death Valley consists of two isotopes.
They are boron-10 and boron-11 with atomic masses of 10.013 a.m.u and
11.009 a.m.u, respectively. The atomic mass of boron is 10.81 a.m.u (see
periodic table). Which isotope of boron is more abundant, boron-10 or boron-
11?
A. Boron-10
B. Cannot be determined from data given
C. Boron-11
D. Neither, their abundances are the same.

26. What is the percent yield of CaO in the reaction: CaCO3  CaO + CO2 if
5.33 g of CaO are obtained when 10.0 g of CaCO3 are used?
A. 5.60 percent
B. 95.2 percent
C. 64.7 percent
D. 53.3 percent

27. What is the simplest formula for a compound composed of only carbon and
hydrogen and containing 14.3% H?
A. C2H2
B. CH4
C. C4H
D. CH2

28. What is the molar mass of Al(NO3)3?

A. 165.00
B. 56.99
C. 213.00
D. 88.99

29. A substance has an empirical formula of CH2. Its molar mass is determined
in a separate experiment as 83.5. What is the most probable molecular
formula for this compound?
A. C2H4
B. C6H2
C. C4H12
D. C6H12

76
30. In the reaction
2AgNO3 + CaCl2 → 2AgCl + Ca(NO3)2
How many grams of AgCl (molar mass = 143.5) will be produced when 20.0
g
AgNO3 (molar mass = 170) is reacted with 15.0 g CaCl2 (molar mass = 111)?
A. 16.9
B. 38.8
C. 33.8
D. 67.6

31. In the reaction

2AgNO3 + CaCl2 → 2AgCl + Ca(NO3)2
How many grams of which reactant will remain when 20.0 g AgNO 3 (molar
mass = 170) is reacted with 15.0 g CaCl2 (molar mass = 111)?
A. 6.53 g CaCl2
B. 6.53 g AgNO3
C. 45.9 g CaCl2
D. 8.47 g CaCl2

32. A 0.200-g sample of a compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen is burned, and 0.357 g of CO2 and 0.146 g of H2O are collected.
What is the percentage of carbon in this compound?
A. 56.0%
B. 73.0%
C. 48.7%
D. 24.3%

33. Solid aluminum reacts with bromine liquid to produce aluminum bromide.
Which of the following balanced chemical equation best represents the
reaction?
A. 4Al(s) + 3Br2(l) → 2Al2 Br3(s)
B. Al(s) + Br2(l) → AlBr3(s)
C. 2Al(s) + 3Br2(l) → 2AlBr3(s)
D. Al(s) + 3Br(l) → AlBr3(s)

34. A certain compound has the molar mass of 60g/mol. All of the following are
possible simplest formulas for this compound EXCEPT
A. CH2O
B. NH2O
C. CH4N2O
D. NH

77
35. When the following chemical equation is balanced:
…… P4O10 + …… Ca(OH)2 → …… Ca3(PO4)2 + …… H2O
The sum of all coefficients in its lowest term in the balanced equation is
A. 4
B. 8
C. 11
D. 15

36. A compound has an empirical formula, X2O5. If 56% of the compound by

mass is X, what element is X?
A. V
B. As
C. Nb
D. N

37. Which of the following samples contain the smallest number of molecules?
A. 1g OCF2
B. 1g C2H2
C. 1g CO2
D. 1g C4H10

38. How many molecules of carbon dioxide are there in 22 g of carbon dioxide?
A) 8.648 x 1023
B) 0.8452
C) 3.01 x 1023
D) 1.183

39. How many methane (CH4) molecules are there in a sample of 0.123 mol?
A) 2.46 x 10-2
B) 7.40 x 1022
C) 5
D) 2.04 x 1025

40. If 3.50 moles of CS2 reacted with an excess of oxygen, the maximum
number of moles of SO2 that could be produced is:
A) 3.50
B) 1.75
C) 7.00
D) 2.00

78
41. A 2.000 g sample of CoCl2.xH2O is dried in an oven. When the anhydrous
salt is removed from the oven, its mass is 1.565 g. What is the value of x?
A) 1
B) 2
C) 4
D) 6

42. In a chemical reaction, the mass of the products is:

A) Less than the mass if the reactants
B) Greater than the mass of the reactants
C) Equal to the mass of the reactants
D) Has no relationship to the mass of the reactants

43. How many liters of NH3, at STP, will react with 7 L of O2 to form NO2 and
water?

A) 2.12 L
B) 3.03 L
C) 7L
D) 4L

44. In a chemical reaction, the quantities that are preserved are:

A) The number of moles and the volume
B) The number of molecules and the volume
C) Mass and number of atoms
D) Mass and moles

45. Which of the following is NOT true about limiting and excess reagent?
A) The amount of product obtained is determined by the limiting reagent.
B) A balanced equation is necessary to determine which reactant is the
limiting reagent.
C) Some of the excess reagent is left over after the reaction is complete.
D) The reactant that has the less mass is the limiting reagent.

79
 Answer the questions from 47 to 49

Consider the reaction between NO (g) and O2 (g) represented below.

46. The stoichiometry coefficients for NO, O2 and NO2 in the balanced reaction
are respectively the following:
A) 2,1,2
B) 1,2,2
C) 4,2,4
D) 1,1.1

47. The limiting reagent of this reaction is

A) NO
B) O2
C) NO2
D) The reactants are in stoichiometric proportions (stoichiometric mixture)

48. How many liters of NO2 are produced, at STP, if 4 L of NO are used in this
reaction?
A) 2
B) 4
C) 6
D) 8

49. Phosphorus, P, is combined with chlorine, Cl2, to give a gaseous

compound with the formula PClx. If you start with 2 g of P and isolate 8 g
of PClx. What is the value of x?
A) 2
B) 3
C) 4
D) 5

80
50. For the reaction represented by the equation:

Calculate the percentage yield of carbon dioxide if 1000 g of methane react

with excess oxygen to produce 2300 g of carbon dioxide.
A) 89.14%
B) 83.83%
C) 91.59%
D) 96.78%

51. When iron rusts in air, iron (III) oxide is produced. How many moles of
oxygen react with 2.4 mol of iron in the rusting reaction?
A) 1.2 mol
B) 1.8 mol
C) 2.4 mol
D) 3.2 mol

81
Chapter 4

Types of Chemical Reactions

and
Solution Stoichiometry

82
 Chapter 4: TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND
SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
________________________________________________________________________

A solution is a homogeneous mixture. It is composed of a solute (the substance

dissolved) and a solvent (the dissolving medium). Aqueous solutions are
solutions in which water is the solvent.

Water, the Common Solvent

Water is a polar molecule. It is this

polarity that gives water its great
ability to dissolve compounds. When
an ionic solid dissolves in water, the
“positive ends” of the water molecules
are attracted to the negatively charged
anion and the “negative ends” are
attracted to the positively charged
cation. This process is called
hydration. The strong forces present
among the positive and negative ions
of the solid are replaced by the strong
ion-water interactions.

The solubility of ionic substances in water varies greatly. The differences in the
solubility of ionic compounds in water typically depend on the relative attractions of
the ions for each other and attractions of the ions for water molecules. NaCl is quite
soluble in water while AgCl is only very slightly soluble.

Water also dissolves many nonionic substances. Ethanol (C 2H5OH) is very soluble in
water. The molecule of ethanol contains a polar O-H bond like those of water. “Like
dissolves like” is a useful rule for predicting solubility.

Nonpolar molecules like fat do not interact effectively with polar water molecules and
therefore will not dissolve in pure water.

83
 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes

Electrical conductivity is the ability

of a solution to conduct an electric
current. Pure water is not an electrical
conductor. Solutions that conduct
current very efficiently contain strong
electrolytes. Solutions that conduct
only a small current contain weak
electrolytes. Solutions that permit no
current to flow contain nonelectrolytes.

Strong electrolytes are substances that are completely ionized when they are
dissolved in water. A salt consists of an array of cations and anions that separate
and become hydrated when the salt dissolves. NaCl is a strong electrolyte because it
produces hydrated Na+ and Cl- ions in the solution.

NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Studies of conductivity show that when HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HNO3, and H2SO4 are
placed in water, virtually every molecule ionizes. These substances are strong
electrolytes and are thus called strong acids.

HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

Strong bases are soluble ionic compounds containing the hydroxide ion (OH -).
When these compounds are dissolved in water, the cations and OH - ions separate
and move independently.

NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Weak electrolytes are substances that exhibit a small degree of ionization in water.

A weak acid is an acid that dissociates (ionizes) only to a slight extent in aqueous
solutions. The dissociation reaction for acetic acid in water can be written as:

HC2H3O2(aq) ⇌ H+(aq) + C2H302(aq)

Ammonia is called a weak base because the resulting solution is a weak electrolyte,
i.e., very few ions are formed.

NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

84
Nonelectrolytes are substances that dissolve in water but do not produce any ions.
Examples are ethanol and table sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11).

Practice

1. Show how each of the following strong electrolytes “breaks up” into its component ions
upon dissolving in water by drawing molecular-level pictures.

a. NaBr

f. FeSO4
b. MgCl2

g. KMnO4

c. Ni(NO3)3

h. HClO4

d. (NH4)2SO4

i. NH4C2H3O2 (ammonium acetate)

e. NaOH

85
 The Composition of Solutions

Concentration is an expression of the amount of chemicals present in the solutions.

Molarity (M), the most commonly used expression of concentration, is defined as
moles of solute per volume of solution in liters:

moles of solute
M = molarity =
liter of solution

A solution that is 1.0 M (read as molar) contains 1.0 mol of solute per liter of
solution.

Practice

(1) Calculate the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 1.56 g of gaseous HCl in
enough water to make 26.8 mL of solution.

(2) Give the concentration of each type of ion in the following solutions:

(a) 0.50 M Co(NO3)2

(b) 1 M Fe(ClO4)3

(3) Calculate the number of moles of Cl- ions in 1.75 L of 1.0 X 10-3 M ZnCl2.

(4) Typical blood serum is about 0.14 M NaCl. What volume of blood contains 1.0 mg
NaCl?

86
A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is accurately known .

Steps in preparing standard solutions:

1. Weigh the necessary solid substance using an analytical balance.
2. Put this substance in a volumetric flask.
3. Add slowly a small amount of distilled water and swirl until the solid dissolves.
4. Add distilled water up to the mark.
5. Stir vigorously until homogenized.

Practice

(1) To analyze the alcohol content of a certain solution, a chemist needs 1.00 L of an
aqueous 0.200 M K2Cr2O7 (potassium dichromate) solution. How much solid potassium
dichromate must be weighed out to make this solution?

(2) What volume of a 0.100 M solution of NaHCO3 contains 0.350 g of NaHCO3?

Dilution

Solutions are often purchased or prepared in concentrated form (called stock

solutions). Water is then added to achieve the molarity desired for a particular
solution. This process is called dilution.

Moles of solute after dilution = moles of solute before dilution

MdVd = McVc

87
Steps in Diluting Solutions:
1. Pipet the volume of the stock solution needed to get the desired number of moles
of solute.
2. Transfer to a volumetric flask. HOWEVER, WHEN DILUTING A STRONG ACID,
ALWAYS ADD ACID TO WATER! SAME FOR A STRONG BASE!
3. Add distilled water up to the mark.
4. Stir vigorously until homogenized

Practice

(1) What volume of 17.4 M stock solution of acetic acid is required to prepare 500. mL of
1.00 M acetic acid solution?

(2) Describe how you would prepare 2.00 L of each of the following solutions.

(a) 0.250 M NaOH from solid NaOH

(b) 0.250 M NaOH from 1.00 M NaOH stock solution

88
 Types of Chemical Reactions

Virtually all reactions can be put into one of the following types: precipitation
reactions, acid-base reactions, and oxidation-reduction reactions.

Precipitation Reactions

Precipitation reaction is a reaction

where an insoluble solid forms from a
mixture of two solutions. The solid
that forms is called a precipitate.

Simple rules for the solubility of salts in water:

(1) Most nitrate (NO3-) salts are soluble.

(2) Most salts containing the alkali metal ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+, Rb+) and the
ammonium ion (NH4+) are soluble.

(3) Most chloride, bromide, and iodide salts are soluble, except those containing
Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+

(4) Most sulfate salts are soluble except BaSO4, PbSO4, Hg2SO4, and CaSO4.

(5) Most hydroxide salts are only slightly soluble (tiny amount of solid that
dissolves is not noticeable). Although NaOH and KOH are soluble, Ba(OH) 2,
Sr(OH)2, and Ca(OH)2 are marginally soluble.

(6) Most sulfide (S2-), carbonate (CO32-), chromate (CrO42-), and phosphate
(PO43-) salts are only slightly soluble.

Practice

Using the solubility rules above, predict what will happen when the following pairs of solutions
are mixed:

(a) KNO3(aq) and BaCl2(aq) (d) BaCl2(aq) and Na3SO4(aq)

(b) Na2SO4(aq) and Pb(NO3)2(aq) (e) AgNO3(aq) and Na3PO4(aq)

(c) KOH(aq) and Fe(NO3)3(aq) (f) NaOH(aq) and Fe(NO3)3(aq)

89
 Describing Reactions in Solution

Overall or formula equation shows the reactants and products of the reaction but
does not give a correct picture of what actually occurs in solution.

K2CrO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → BaCrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

The complete ionic equation better represents the actual forms of the reactants
and products in solution. All substances that are strong electrolytes are represented
as ions. The ions that do not participate directly in the reaction are called spectator
ions.

2K+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq) → BaCrO4(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3-(aq)

The net ionic equation includes only those solution components directly involved in
the reaction.

Ba2+(aq) + CrO42-(aq) → BaCrO4(s)

Practice

1. Write the formula equation, the complete ionic equation, and the net ionic equation for
the following reactions:

a. Aqueous potassium chloride is added to aqueous silver nitrate to form a silver

chloride precipitate plus aqueous potassium nitrate.

b. Aqueous sodium hydroxide is mixed with aqueous hydrochloric acid to form liquid
water and aqueous sodium chloride.

c. Solid copper(II) chloride is added to a solution of potassium hydroxide producing solid

copper(II) hydroxide and aqueous potassium chloride.

90
 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions

Solving stoichiometry problems for reactions in solutions:

(1) Identify the species present in the combined solution, and determine what
reaction occurs.
(2) Write the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction.
(3) Calculate the moles of reactants.
(4) Determine which reactant is limiting.
(5) Calculate the moles of product or products, as required.
(6) Convert to grams or other units, as required.

Practice

(1) When aqueous solutions of Na2SO4 and Pb(NO3)2 are mixed, PbSO4 precipitates.
Calculate the mass of PbSO4 formed when 1.25 L of 0.0500 M Pb(NO3)2 and 2.00 L of
0.0250 M Na2SO4 are mixed.

(2) What mass of Na2CrO4 is required to precipitate all of the silver ions from 75.0 mL of a
0.100 M solution of AgNO3?

(3) How many grams of silver chloride can be prepared by the reaction of 100.0 mL of 0.20
M silver nitrate with 100.0 mL of 0.15 M calcium chloride? Calculate the concentrations
of each ion remaining in solution after precipitation is complete.

91
 Acid-Base Reactions

An acid is a proton donor. A base is a proton acceptor. An acid-base reaction is

often called a neutralization reaction.

For a strong acid and a strong base, the net ionic equation is:

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)

For acetic acid, a weak acid, and a strong base, the net ionic equation is:

HC2H3O2(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l) + C2H3O2-(aq)

The hydroxide ion is such a strong base that for purposes of stoichiometric
calculations it can be assumed to react completely with any weak acid that we will
encounter.

To perform calculations for acid-base reactions:

(1) List the species present in the combined solution before any reaction
occurs, and decide what reaction will occur.
(2) Write the balanced net equation for this reaction.
(3) Calculate the moles of reactants. For reactions in solution, use the volumes
of the original solutions and their molarities.
(4) Determine the limiting reactant where appropriate.
(5) Calculate the moles of the required reactant or product.
(6) Convert to grams or volume (of solution), as required.

Practice

(1) What volume of a 0.100 M HCN solution is needed to neutralize 25.0 mL of 0.350 M
NaOH?

(2) In a certain experiment, 28.0 mL of 0.250 M HNO3 and 53.0 mL of 0.350 M KOH are
mixed. Calculate the amount of water formed in the resulting reaction. What is the
concentration of H+ or OH- ions in excess after the reaction goes to completion?

92
 Acid-Base Titrations

Volumetric analysis is a technique for determining the amount of a certain

substance by doing a titration. A titration involves delivery (from a buret) of a
measured volume of a solution of known concentration (the titrant) into a solution
containing the substance to be analyzed (the analyte). Equivalence point (or
stoichiometric point) is the point in the titration where enough titrant has been
added to react exactly with the analyte. An indicator is a substance added at the
beginning of titration that changes color at (or very near) the equivalence point. The
endpoint of the titration is the point when the indicator actually changes color.

When the analyte is a base or an acid,

the required titrant is a strong acid or
strong base, respectively. This
procedure is called an acid-base
titration. An indicator very commonly
used for acid-base titration is
phenolphthalein, which is colorless in
an acidic solution but pink in a basic
solution. The procedure where the
concentration of a sodium hydroxide
solution is determined accurately is
called standardizing the solution.

Practice

(1) Faisal, a CPC student, carries out an experiment to standardize a sodium hydroxide solution. To
do this, he weighs out a 1.3009 g sample of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHC8H4O4, often
abbreviated as KHP). KHP (molar mass 204.22 g/mol) has one acidic hydrogen. Faisal dissolves
the KHP in distilled water, adds phenolphthalein, and titrates the resulting solution to the
endpoint. The difference between the final and initial buret readings indicate that 41.20 mL of
the sodium hydroxide solution is required to react exactly with the 1.3009 g KHP. Calculate the
concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution.

(2) Ibrahim, a CPC student, titrates an unknown amount of KHP with 20.46 mL of a 0.1000 M NaOH
solution. How many grams of KHP were titrated by the sodium hydroxide solution?

93
 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Reactions in which one or more electrons are transferred are called oxidation-reduction
reactions or redox reactions. Oxidation states (also called oxidation numbers) indicate
whether an atom has more or fewer electrons than when the atom is in its neutral state.

The oxidation state of . . . . Examples

An atom in an element is zero. Na(s), O2(g), O3(g), Hg(l)
A monatomic ion is the same as its charge. Na+, Cl-, Mg2+, O2-
Fluorine is -1 in its compounds. HF, PF3
Oxygen is usually -2 in its compounds H2O, CO2
(except peroxides, containing O22-, in which oxygen is -1) H2O2, Na2O2
Hydrogen is +1 in its covalent compounds and -1 in its H2O, HCl, NH3
ionic compounds. LiH, CaH2

Practice

Assign oxidation states to all the atoms in the following:

(a) Br2 (e) UO22+

(b) MnO4- (f) SF4

(c) KNO3 (g) Ca(NO3)2

(d) K2Cr2O7 (h) Na2S2O3

Oxidation is an increase in oxidation state (a loss of electrons). Reduction is a decrease

in oxidation state (a gain of electron). In the reaction

2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced. In addition, Cl 2 is called the oxidizing agent
(electron acceptor) and Na is the reducing agent (electron donor).

94
Practice

1. Metallurgy, the process of producing a metal from its ore, always involves oxidation-reduction
reactions. In the metallurgy of galena (PbS), the principal lead containing ore, the first step is
the conversion of lead sulfide to its oxide (a process called roasting):

2PbS(s) + 3O2(g) → 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)

The oxide is then treated with carbon monoxide to produce the free metal:

PbO(s) + CO(g) → Pb(s) + CO2(g)

For each reaction, identify the atoms that are oxidized and reduced, and specify the oxidizing
and reducing agents.

A special technique for balancing the equations of redox reactions that occur in aqueous
solutions is called the half-reaction method.

(1) Write separate equations for the oxidation and reduction half-reactions.

(2) For each half-reaction,

(a) Balance all the elements except hydrogen and oxygen.
(b) Balance oxygen using H2O.
(c) Balance hydrogen using H+.
(d) Balance the charge using electrons.

(3) If necessary, multiply one or both balanced half-reactions by an integer to equalize

the number of electrons transferred in the two half-reactions.

(4) Add the half-reactions, and cancel identical species.

(5) Check that the elements and charges are balanced.

95
Practice

(1) Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) is a bright orange compound that can be reduced to a blue
violet solution of Cr3+ ions. Under certain conditions, K2Cr2O7 reacts with ethyl alcohol (C2H5OH)
as follows:

H+(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) + C2H5OH(l) → Cr3+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Balance this equation using the half-reaction method.

(2) Balance the following oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs in acidic solution:

CH3OH(aq) + Cr2O72-(aq) → CH2O(aq) + Cr3+(aq)

96
If the redox reaction occurs in basic solution:

(1) Use the half-reaction method as specified for acidic solutions to obtain the final
balanced equation as if H+ ions were present.
(2) To both sides of the equation, add a number of OH- ions that is equal to the number
of H+ ions. (This will eliminate H+ by forming H2O).
(3) Form H2O on the side containing both H+ and OH- ions, and eliminate the number of
H2O molecules that appear on both sides of the equation.
(4) Check that elements and charges are balanced.

Practice

(1) Silver is sometimes found in nature as large nuggets; more often it is found mixed with other
metals and ores. An aqueous solution containing cyanide ion is often used to extract the silver
using the following reaction that occurs in basic solution:

Ag(s) + CN-(aq) + O2(g) → Ag(CN)2-(aq)

Balance this equation using the half-reaction method.

(2) Balance the following oxidation-reduction reaction that occurs in basic solution:

NO2-(aq) + Al(s) → NH3(g) + AlO2-(aq)

97
 Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions

Common Oxidizing Agents Reduced to

Permanganate (MnO4-) 2+
Mn (acid); MnO2 (base)
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) H2O (acid)
Dichromate (Cr2O72-) Cr3+ (acid)
Chromate (CrO42-) Cr3+ (acid)
Iron(III) (Fe3+) Fe2+
Tin(IV) (Sn4+) Sn2+
Fluorine (F2) F-
Iodine (I2) I-

Common Reducing Agents Oxidized to

Sulfite (SO32-) SO42- (acid)
Metal (M0) M+
Iron(II) (Fe2+) Fe3+
Oxalate (C2O42-) CO2 (acid)

Practice

1. FeSO4 (product Fe3+) reacts with KMnO4 (product Mn2+).

a. Write the balanced net ionic equation for the reaction.

b. Calculate the mass in grams of FeSO4 that will be oxidized by 24.0 mL of 0.250 M
KMnO4 in a solution acidified with sulfuric acid.

98
2. A 0.345 g sample of anhydrous BeC2O4 , which contains an inert impurity, was dissolved in
sufficient water to produce 100. mL of solution. A 20.0 mL portion of the solution was
titrated with KMnO4(aq). The products of the reaction that occurred are Mn2+ and CO2. The
volume of 0.0150 M KMnO4(aq) required to reach the equivalence point was 17.80 mL.

a. Write the balanced net ionic equation.

b. Identify the reducing agent in the titration reaction.

c. For the titration at the equivalence point, calculate the number of moles of each of the
following that reacted.

(i) MnO4-(aq)

(ii) C2O42-(aq)

d. Calculate the total number of moles of C2O42-(aq) that were present in the 100. mL of
prepared solution.

e. Calculate the mass percent of BeC2O4(s) in the impure 0.345 g sample.

99
3. A reaction, where a given element is both oxidized and reduced, is called a
disproportionation reaction. One such reaction involves the reaction of chlorine gas
with dilute sodium hydroxide to form sodium chloride, sodium chlorate and water. The
ionic equation for this reaction is as follows :

Cl2(g) + OH−(aq) → Cl−(aq) + ClO3−(aq) + H2O(l)

a. Balance this equation by the half-reaction method.

b. 9.00 g of Cl2 is added to 250. mL of 2.00 M NaOH solution.

I. Identify the limiting reactant.

II. How many grams of H2O is produced?

100
 Hints in Writing Equations

I. Look for Two Uncombined Elements

There’s only one thing you can do with uncombined elements: combine them. Just make
sure that you give each element in the product compound a sensible oxidation state.

(A) Hydrogen gas is burned in air.

H2 + O2 → H2O Note: Air always means oxygen.

(B) Solid sulfur is burned in oxygen.

S + O2 → SO2

(C) A piece of solid zinc is heated in chlorine gas.

(D) Solid magnesium is heated in nitrogen gas.

(E) A piece of solid barium is placed in oxygen gas.

(F) A piece of solid sodium is placed in hydrogen gas.

II. Look for a Single Reactant

If there is only one reactant, all it can do is break up in a decomposition reaction.
Decomposition reactions usually produce simple salts and oxide gases.

(A) A solution of hydrogen peroxide is placed under a bright light.

H2O2 → H2O + O2

(B) Solid calcium carbonate is heated in the presence of a catalyst.

(C) Solid potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of a catalyst.

(D) A sample of solid ammonium carbonate is heated.

(E) A piece of solid potassium nitrate is heated.

101
III. Look for Acid-Base Neutralization
There are a few variations on this but you can follow all of them through to get the standard
proton donor-proton acceptor equations that you should be used to dealing with.

(A) An acid and a base

1. Equal molar amounts of potassium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid are mixed.

H+ + OH- → H2O

2. Solutions of nitric acid and sodium hydroxide are mixed.

3. A solution of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution of acetic acid.

4. Solutions of hydrofluoric acid and potassium hydroxide are mixed.

5. Solutions of ammonia and nitric acid are mixed.

6. Solutions of ammonia and sulfuric acid are mixed.

7. Solutions of ammonia and hydrofluoric acid are mixed.

8. Solutions of ammonia and carbonic acid are mixed.

IV. Look for a Mixture of Two Salt Solutions

You have to predict which salt precipitates. If you are familiar with the solubility rules, these
aren’t too bad.

(A) Solutions of calcium nitrate and sodium sulfate are mixed.

Ca2+ + SO42- → CaSO4

(B) A solution of silver nitrate is added to a solution of potassium iodide.

102
 (C) Solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium phosphate are mixed.

(D) A solution of ammonium sulfide is added to a solution of magnesium iodide.

(E) A solution of barium chloride is mixed with a solution of silver(I) sulfate.

V. Look for the Combustion of a Carbon Compound

Carbon compounds always burn to form oxide gases. Even if you can’t get the reactant
formula from the name of a hydrocarbon compound, you can probably get the two products
points by knowing that it produces carbon dioxide and water when it burns.

(A) Ethane is burned in air.

C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

(B) Methanol is burned in oxygen.

(C) Carbon disulfide is burned in excess oxygen.

Note: The word “excess” indicates that there is

enough oxygen to form CO2 rather than just CO.

(D) Propane is burned in air.

VI. Look for a Solid Transition Metal Placed in Solution

This will be a redox reaction and the solid metal will always be oxidized. Look for two
variations:

(A) The solution is a neutral transition metal salt solution. The metal ion in solution will be
reduced.

1. Solid manganese flakes are placed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate.

Mn + Cu2+ → Mn2+ + Cu

2. A piece of solid nickel is placed in a solution of silver nitrate.

3. A bar of zinc is immersed in a solution of silver nitrate.

103
4. Iron filings are placed in a solution of iron(III) sulfate.

Note: Here, differing oxidation states of iron are

both changed to an intermediate state.

104
 Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 4

1. A 1.0 L sample of an aqueous solution contains 0.10 mol of NaCl and 0.10
mol of CaCl2. What is the minimum number of moles of AgNO3 that must be
added to the solution in order to precipitate all of the Cl¯ as AgCl(s)?
(Assume that AgCl is insoluble.)
A. 0.10 mol
B. 0.20 mol
C. 0.30 mol
D. 0.40 mol

. . . Li3N(s) + . . . H2O(l) ---> . . . Li+ (aq) + . . . OH¯(aq) + . . . NH3(g)

2. When the equation above is balanced and all coefficients reduced to lowest
whole number terms, the coefficient for OH¯(aq) is
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

3. A yellow precipitate forms when 0.5 M NaI(aq) is added to a 0.5 M solution of

which of the following ions?
A. Pb2+(aq)
B. Zn2+(aq)
C. CrO42¯(aq)
D. SO42¯(aq)

4. A 40.0 mL sample of 0.25 M KOH is added to 60.0 mL of 0.15 M Ba(OH) 2.

What is the molar concentration of OH¯(aq) in the resulting solution?
(Assume that the volumes are additive)
A. 0.10 M
B. 0.19 M
C. 0.28 M
D. 0.40 M

5. What is the final concentration of barium ions, [Ba2+], in solution when 100.
mL of 0.10 M BaCl2(aq) is mixed with 100. mL of 0.050 M H2SO4(aq)?
A. 0.00 M
B. 0.012 M
C. 0.025 M
D. 0.075 M

105
6. When 100 mL of 1.0 M Na3PO4 is mixed with 100 mL of 1.0 M AgNO3, a
yellow precipitate forms and [Ag+] becomes negligibly small. Which of the
following is a correct listing of the ions remaining in solution in order of
increasing concentration?
A. [PO43¯] < [NO3¯] < [Na+]
B. [PO43¯] < [Na+]<[NO3¯]
C. [NO3¯] < [PO43¯] < [Na+]
D. [Na+] < [NO3¯] < [PO43¯]

7. The volume of distilled water that should be added to 10.0 mL of 6.00 M

HCl(aq) in order to prepare a 0.500 M HCl(aq) solution is approximately
A. 50.0 mL
B. 60.0 mL
C. 100. mL
D. 110. mL

8. How many milliliters of 0.100 M H2SO4 are required to neutralize 50.0 mL of

0.200 M KOH?
A. 25.0 mL
B. 30.0 mL
C. 20.0 mL
D. 50.0 mL

9. A sample of oxalic acid, H2C2O4, is titrated with standard sodium hydroxide,

NaOH, solution. A total of 45.20 mL of 0.1200 M NaOH is required to
neutralize completely 20.00 mL of the acid. What is the concentration of the
acid?
A. 0.2712 M
B. 0.1200 M
C. 0.1356 M
D. 0.2400 M

Choose one of the following for questions 10 – 12.

(A) Cu2+
(B) CO32−
(C) Fe3+
(D) Al3+

10. This ion will generate gas bubbles when hydrochloric acid is added. B

11. This ion initially gives a white precipitate when dilute sodium hydroxide is
added to a solution containing this ion. The precipitate will dissolve in excess
sodium hydroxide. D

12. Aqueous solutions of this ion are blue. A

106
13. Which of the following best represents the balanced net ionic equation for the
reaction of lead(II) carbonate with concentrated hydrochloric acid?
A. Pb2CO3 + 2 H+ + Cl− → Pb2Cl + CO2 + H2O
B. PbCO3 + 2 H+ + 2 Cl− →PbCl2 + CO2 + H2O
C. PbCO3 + 2 H+ → Pb2+ + CO2 + H2O
D. PbCO3 + 2 Cl− → PbCl2 + CO32−

14. A sample of copper metal is reacted with concentrated nitric acid in the
absence of air. After the reaction, which of these final products are present?
A. CuNO3 and H2O
B. Cu(NO3)3, NO, and H2O
C. Cu(NO3)2, NO, and H2O
D. CuNO3, H2O, and H2

___H3PO4(aq) + ___ Fe(OH)2(s) ___Fe3(PO4)2(s) + ___ H2O(l )

15. After the above chemical equation is balanced the lowest whole-number
coefficient for water is:
A. 3
B. 1
C. 9
D. 6

16. Potassium metal will react with water to release a gas and a potassium
compound. Which of the following is a false statement?
A. The solution is acidic.
B. The gas is hydrogen.
C. The potassium compound is water soluble.
D. The potassium compound will react with hydrochloric acid.

17. Which of the following solids is not soluble in water, but is soluble in dilute
nitric acid (HNO3)?
A. NaOH
B. BaCO3
C. AgCl
D. (NH4)3PO4

18. How many moles of Pb(NO3)2 must be added to 0.10 L of a solution that is 1.0
M in MgCl2 and 1.0 M in KCl? The compound PbCl2 precipitates.
A. Moles
B. 0.20 moles
C. 0.50 moles
D. 0.15 moles

107
19. When 50.0 mL of 1.0 M AgNO3 is added to 50.0 mL of 0.50 M HCl, a
precipitate of AgCl forms. After the reaction is complete, what is the
concentration of silver ions in the solution?
A. 0.50 M
B. 0.0 M
C. 1.0 M
D. 0.25 M

20. A student mixes 50.0 mL of 0.10 M Pb(NO 3)2 solution with 50.0 mL of 0.10
M KCl. A white precipitate forms, and the concentration of the chloride ion
becomes very small. Which of the following correctly places the
concentrations of the remaining ions in order of decreasing concentration?
A. [NO3−] > [Pb2+] > [K+]
B. [NO3−] > [K+] > [Pb2+]
C. [K+] > [NO3−] > [Pb2+]
D. [Pb2+] > [NO3−] > [K+]

21. A solution is prepared for qualitative analysis. The solution contains the
following ions: Co2+, Pb2+, and Al3+. Which of the following will cause no
observable reaction?
A. Dilute NH3(aq) is added.
B. Dilute K2CrO4(aq) is added.
C. Dilute HNO3(aq) is added.
D. Dilute K2S(aq) is added.

22. Chlorine gas is bubbled through a colorless solution and the solution turns
reddish. Adding a little methylene chloride to the solution extracts the color
into the methylene chloride layer. Which of the following ions may be present
in the original solution?
A. Cl−
B. I−
C. SO42−
D. Br−

23. The addition of concentrated NaOH(aq) to a 1.0 M (NH4)2SO4 solution will

result in which of the following observations?
A. The solution becomes neutral.
B. The formation of a brown precipitate takes place.
C. Nothing happens because the two solutions are immiscible.
D. The odor of ammonia will be detected.

108
24. Which of the following solutions will give a yellow precipitate when a 0.1
M Na2CrO4 solution is added to a 0.1 M solution of the ion listed?
A. K+(aq)
B. Pb2+(aq)
C. NO3−(aq)
D. OH−(aq)

14 H+ + 6 Fe2+ + Cr2O72-  Cr3+ + 6 Fe3+ + 7 H2O

25. This reaction is used in the titration of an iron solution. What is the
concentration of the iron solution if it takes 45.20 mL of 0.1000 M Cr 2O72−
solution to titrate 50.00 mL of an acidified iron solution?
A. 0.5424 M
B. 0.1000 M
C. 1.085 M
D. 0.4520 M

26. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in the tetrathionate ion,
S4O62—, is
A. -2
B. +2
C. +2.5
D. +4

27. Which of the following changes require an oxidizing agent?

I. NH3 → N2H4
II. NO2 → N2O4
III. NO3— → N2O
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and II only

28. Which of the following ionic compounds is insoluble in water?

A. PbCl2
B. KBr
C. Li2S
D. Na2CO3

109
29. Which of the following is/are NOT changed when distilled water is added to
300 mL of a 1.0 M NaOH solution?
I. Molarity of NaOH solution
II. Moles of NaOH
III. Volume of the NaOH solution
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and II only

30. An additional 300 mL of distilled water is added to 200 mL of a 1.00 M HCl

solution. Assuming that the volumes are additive, what is the volume of 1.00
M NaOH needed to completely neutralize the acid in the original solution?
A. 250. mL
B. 200. mL
C. 300. mL
D. 400. mL

31. Which of the following compounds is least soluble in water?

A. copper (II) chloride
B. aluminum acetate
C. iron (III) hydroxide
D. potassium sulfate

32. 50 milliliters of a HNO3 solution are exactly neutralized by 150 milliliters of a

0.50 M solution of KOH, what is the concentration of HNO3?
A. 1.0 M
B. 1.5 M
C. 3.0 M
D. 0.50 M

33. A substance that conducts an electrical current when dissolved in water is

called
A. a catalyst
B. a metalloid
C. a non-electrolyte
D. an electrolyte

34. A 10.0 % solution of NaCl means that in 100 g of solution there is

A. 5.85 g NaCl
B. 90 g NaCl
C. 10 g NaCl
D. 58.5 g NaCl

110
35. What is the concentration of an NaOH solution if it takes 16.25 mL of a 0.100
M HCl solution to titrate 25.00 mL of the NaOH solution?
A. 0.0165 M
B. 0.151 M
C. 0.065 M
D. 0.100 M

36. Given the reaction:

HCl (aq) + LiOH (aq)  HOH (l) + LiCl (aq)
The reaction is best described as
A. neutralization
B. synthesis
C. decomposition
D. oxidation-reduction

37. A student was given four unknown solutions. Each solution was checked for
conductivity and tested with phenolphthalein. The results are shown in the
data table below.

Based on the data table, which unknown solution could be 0.1 M NaOH?
A. (A)
B. (B)
C. (C)
D. (D)

38. 5.0 ml of a 0.20 M solution of KI is reacted with 4.0 ml of a 0.30 M solution of

Pb(NO3)2.
2 KI + Pb(NO3)2 PbI2 + 2KNO3
How many grams of solid PbI2 will be formed?
A. 0.23 g
B. 0.35 g
C. 0.46 g
D. 0.55 g

111
39. If you need 1.00 L of 0.125 M H2SO4, how would you prepare this solution?
A. Add 950. mL of water to 50.0 mL of 3.00 M H2SO4.
B. Add 500. mL of water to 500. mL of 0.500 M H2SO4.
C. Dilute 36.0 mL of 1.25 M H2SO4 to a volume of 1.00 L.
D. Dilute 20.8 mL of 6.00 M H2SO4 to a volume of 1.00 L.

40. Which reaction is an example of an oxidation reduction reaction?

A. AgNO3 + KI → AgI + KNO3
B. Cu + 2AgNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag
C. 2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O
D. Ba(OH)2 + 2HCl → BaCl2 + 2H2O

41. Given the reaction for the corrosion of aluminum:

4Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3
Which half-reaction correctly represents the oxidation that occurs?
A. Al + 3e– → Al3+
B. Al → Al3+ + 3e–
C. O2 + 4e– → 2O2–
D. O2 → 2O2– + 4e–

42. In any redox reaction, the substance that undergoes reduction will
A. lose electrons and have a decrease in oxidation number
B. lose electrons and have an increase in oxidation number
C. gain electrons and have a decrease in oxidation number
D. gain electrons and have an increase in oxidation number

43. How many milliliters of a 6.00 M aqueous NaCl solution should be taken and
diluted with sufficient water to make 2.00 L of a 0.300 M NaCl solution?
A) 10.0
B) 30.0
C) 60.0
D) 100

44. Equal volumes of 0.20 mol/L NaCl and 0.3 mol/L CaCl 2 are mixed together.
What is the concentration of chloride ions in the mixture?
A) 0.5
B) 0.4
C) 0.3
D) 0.25

112
45. What volume of a 0.500 M solution of Na2CO3 contains enough carbonate
ions to completely precipitate 0.015 mol of Ba2+ ions?
A) 300 mL
B) 90.0 mL
C) 30.0 mL
D) 10.0 mL

46. The net ionic equation for the reaction that occurs from mixing a solution of
barium chloride with a solution of potassium sulfate is:
A) K+(aq)+ Cl-(aq)  KCl(aq)
B) BaCl2(aq)  Ba2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq)
C) Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)  BaSO4(s)
D) BaSO4(s)  Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

47. According to general solubility guidelines, which compound is not soluble in

water?
A) CaCO3
B) LiBr
C) CuCl2
D) Mg(NO3)2

48. Which combination of solutions will result in the formation of a precipitate?

A) Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2CO3(aq)
B) Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + NaCl (aq)
C) KNO3 (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq)
D) NH4NO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)

49. In the standardization of NaOH using potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP),

the procedure states that the weighed phthalate sample should be dissolved
in 20 mL of distilled water and then titrated with the NaOH. A student added
40 mL of water instead of the stated amount. The effect of this deviation from
the procedure on the ultimate molarity of the NaOH will be:
A) The resulting molarity will be too low because of this change in procedure.
B) The resulting molarity will be too high because of this procedure.
C) The resulting molarity will be unaffected by this change in procedure.
D) It is impossible to predict the effect of this change in procedure.

113
50. Oxalic acid (MM = 90 g/mol) is a diprotic acid found in clover leaves, and
reacts with sodium hydroxide according to:
H2C2O4 + 2 NaOH  Na2C2O4 + 2 H2O2
Analysis of clover leaves yielded the following data:
Weight of clover leaves: 1.0 g
Molarity of NaOH: 0.1 M
Initial burette reading: 0.5 mL
Final burette reading: 24.5 mL
The calculated percentage of oxalic acid in the leaf sample is:
A) 12.7
B) 21.6
C) 10.8
D) 1.2

51. How many milliliters of a 6.00 M aqueous NaCl solution should be taken and
diluted with sufficient water to make 2.00 L of a 0.300 M solution
A) 10.0
B) 30.0
C) 60.0
D) 100

52. An acidic solution is 50.0 percent by weight of acid HA (MM = 45 g/mol) and
has a density of 1.8 g/mL. What is the molarity of HA in the solution?
A) 5.5
B) 15.6
C) 20
D) 40

53. 20.0 mL sample of aqueous H2SO4 solution of unknown concentration is

titrated with a 3.00 M solution of NaOH. If 30.0 mL of NaOH are required to
reach the pink phenolphthalein end point, what is the molarity of H 2SO4 in
the original solution?
A) 0.75 M
B) 1.25 M
C) 2.25 M
D) 4.50 M

114
54. The vanadium in a sample of ore is converted to VO 2+. The VO2+ ion is
subsequently titrated with MnO4- in acidic solution to form V(OH)4+ and
Manganese (II) ion. The unbalanced titration reaction is
MnO4- (aq) + VO2+ (aq) + H2O (l)  V(OH)4+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + H+(aq)
To titrate the solution, 20 mL of 0.5M of MnO4- was required. If the mass
percent of vanadium in the ore was 50%, what was the mass of the ore
sample? Hint: balance the reaction prior to calculation.
A) 2.50 g
B) 3.55 g
C) 5.09 g
D) 7.57 g

55. What volume of 0.05 M Ba(OH)2 is required to neutralize exactly 20 mL of

0.2 M H3PO4?
A) 40 mL
B) 60 mL
C) 90 mL
D) 120 mL

56. For the reaction

Cu(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2NO3- (aq)  2NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + Cu2+ (aq)
The oxidizing agent and the reducing agent are, in that order:
A) Cu, NO3-
B) Cu, H+
C) H+, Cu
D) NO3-, Cu

57. If 200.0 mL of 0.300 M lead nitrate are mixed with 350.0 mL of 0.500 M
calcium chloride, how many grams of precipitate are formed?
A) 8.34 g
B) 16.68 g
C) 33.36 g
D) 54.25 g

115
58. The incomplete equation for the reaction between NO3 - and Br- in acid
medium is:
2NO3- (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 2Br- (aq)  2NO2 (g) + Br2 (l) + 2 H2O (l)
When the reaction is balanced in basic solution, the number of H2O molecules is:
A) 2 on the left
B) 4 on the left
C) 2 on the right
D) 4 on the right

116
Chapter 5

Gases

117
 Chapter 5: GASES
________________________________________________________________________

Pressure

A gas uniformly fills any container, is easily compressed, and mixes completely with
any other gas. One of the most obvious properties of a gas is that it exerts pressure
on its surroundings.

The barometer is a device used to measure atmospheric pressure, the pressure

exerted by the gaseous mixture that we call air. The units of pressure commonly
used are mm Hg (millimeter of mercury) which is often called torr (in honor of
Torricelli). These units are used interchangeably by chemists. A related unit is the
standard atmosphere (abbreviated atm).

760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 1 atm

Since pressure is defined as

force
Pressure =
area

its unit in the SI system is newtons per square meter (N/m2) and is called the pascal
(Pa), which is defined as

101,325 Pa = 1 atm

Practice

1. The pressure of a gas is measured as 49 torr. Represent this pressure in both

atmospheres and pascals.

118
 2. Freon-12 (CF2Cl2) is commonly used as the refrigerant in central home air conditioners.
The system is initially charged to a pressure of 4.8 atm. Express this pressure in mmHg,
in torr, and in Pa.

Another instrument used for measuring pressure is the manometer.

A sealed-tube manometer, (a) above, can be used to measure pressures below

atmospheric pressure. The tube above the mercury is evacuated. When there is a
vacuum in the flask, the mercury level in both arms of the U-tube are equal. If a
gaseous sample is introduced into the flask, the mercury levels are different. The
difference h1 is a measure of the pressure of the gas inside the flask.

An open-tube manometer is shown above, (b) and (c). If the flask is open to the
atmosphere, the mercury levels are equal.

Practice

(1) If a sealed-tube manometer had a height difference of 6.5 cm between the mercury
levels, what is the pressure in the flask in torr, pascal, and atmosphere?

(2) Calculate the pressures in the flasks in (b) and (c), if h2 = 141 mm and h3 = 238 mm and
the atmospheric pressure is 760 mm.

119
 Boyle’s Law

Volume Pressure Pressure X Volume

(mL) (mm Hg) (mm Hg X mL)
117.5 12.0 14.1 X 102
87.2 16.0 14.0 X 102
70.7 20.0 14.1 X 102
58.8 24.0 14.1 X 102

Note that as the volume drops by about a half, the pressures doubles. In other
words, there is an inverse relationship between pressure and volume. This behavior
can be represented by the equation

1
PV = k or V=k( )
P

which is called Boyle’s law and where k is a constant for a given sample of air at a
specific temperature. The above equation can also be written as

P1V1 = k = P2V2 or P1V1 = P2V2

A gas that strictly obeys Boyle’s law is called an ideal gas.

Practice

1. Consider a 1.53 L sample of gaseous sulfur dioxide (SO2) at a pressure of 5.6 X 103 Pa. If
the pressure is changed to 1.5 X 104 Pa at a constant temperature, what will be the new
volume of the gas?

2. A mole of NH3 gas at a temperature of 0⁰C occupies a volume of 89.28 L at a pressure of

0.2500 atm. What will be the new volume of the gas sample if the pressure is tripled at
the same temperature?

120
 Charles’s Law

A plot of the volume of a gas (at

constant pressure) versus its
temperature (⁰C) gives a straight line.
The volume of the gas extrapolates to
zero at -273⁰C. On the Kelvin
temperature scale this point is defined
as 0 K leading to the following
relationship:

K = ⁰C + 273

The volume of the gas is directly proportional to temperature and extrapolates to

zero when the temperature is 0 K. This behavior is represented by the equation
known as Charles’s law,

V
V = bT or =b
T
where T is in Kelvin and b is the proportionality constant.

An equivalent statement is
V1 V2
b= =
T1 T2

O K is called the absolute zero, and at temperatures below this point, the
extrapolated volume would become negative which is not possible. This temperature
has never been reached.

Practice

1. A sample of gas at 15⁰C and 1 atm has a volume of 2.58 L. What volume will this gas
occupy at 38⁰C and 1 atm?

2. A balloon is filled to a volume of 7.00 X 102 mL at a temperature of 20.0⁰C. The balloon

is cooled to a temperature of 1.00 X 102 K at the same pressure. What is the final
volume of the balloon?

121
 Gay-Lussac’s Law

Gay-Lussac's name is associated with

another gas law, the so-called
pressure law, which states that: The
pressure of a gas of fixed mass and
fixed volume is directly proportional to
the gas's absolute temperature.
Simply put, if a gas's temperature
increases then so does its pressure, if
the mass and volume of the gas are
held constant.

The law has a particularly simple mathematical form if the temperature is measured
on an absolute scale, such as in kelvins. The law can then be expressed
mathematically as:
P
P = cT or =c
T
where P is the pressure of the gas, T is the temperature of the gas (measured in
kelvin), and c is a constant.
For comparing the same substance under two different sets of conditions, the law
can be written as:

Practice

1. A container is filled with an ideal gas to a pressure of 40.0 atm at 0⁰C.

a. What will be the pressure in the container if it is heated to 45⁰C?
b. At what temperature would the pressure be 1.50 X 102 atm?
c. At what temperature would the pressure be 25.0 atm?

2. A flask that can withstand an internal pressure of 2500 torr, but no more, is filled with a
gas at 21.0⁰C and 758 torr. At what temperature will it burst?

122
 Avogadro’s Law

For a gas at constant temperature and pressure, the volume is directly proportional
to the number of moles of gas. This is called Avogadro’s law and stated
mathematically as

V = an

where V is the volume of the gas, n is the number of moles of the gas particles, and
a is a proportionality constant. Since a is a constant, an alternative representation is

V1 V2
=a=
n1 n2

This relationship is obeyed closely by gases at low pressures.

Practice

1. Suppose we have a 12.2 L sample containing 0.50 mol oxygen gas (O2) at a pressure of 1
atm and a temperature of 25⁰C. If all this O2 were converted to ozone (O3) at the same
temperature and pressure, what would be the volume of the ozone?

2. Consider the following chemical equation.

2NO2(g)→ N2O4(g)
If 25.0 mL of NO2 gas is completely converted to N2O4 gas under the same conditions,
what volume will the N2O4 occupy?

123
 The Ideal Gas Law

Boyle’s law, Charles’s law, and Avogadro’s law, which show how the volume of a gas
depends on pressure, temperature, and number of moles of gas present, can be
combined in the form of the ideal gas law:

PV = nRT

where R is the combined proportionality constant called the universal gas constant.
When the pressure is expressed in atmospheres and the volume in liters, R has the
value 0.0821 L∙atm/K∙mol. The ideal gas law is an equation of state for a gas, where
the state of the gas is its condition at a given time.

A gas that obeys this equation is said to behave ideally. The ideal gas equation is
best regarded as a limiting law – it expresses behavior that real gases approach at
low pressures and high temperature.

Practice

(1) A sample of hydrogen gas (H2) has a volume of 8.56 L at a temperature of 0⁰C and a
pressure of 1.5 atm. Calculate the number of moles of H2 molecules present in this gas
sample.

(2) A sample of ammonia gas (NH3) has a mass of 4.5 X 10-3 g and occupies a volume of 7.0
mL at 86⁰C. What is the pressure exerted by this gas at the given conditions?

(3) The density of a gas was measured at 1.50 atm and 27.0⁰C and found to be 1.95 g/L.
Calculate the molar mass of the gas.

124
For samples of gases where pressure, temperature, and volume all change but the
number of moles remain constant, we use the ideal gas law in the form

P1 V1 P2 V2
= nR =
T1 T2

Practice

1. A sample of diborane gas (B2H6), a substance that bursts into flame when exposed to air,
has a pressure of 345 torr at a temperature of -15⁰C and a volume of 3.48 L. If
conditions are changed so that the temperature is 36⁰C and the pressure is 468 torr,
what will be the volume of the sample?

2. A sealed balloon is filled with 1.00 L of helium at 23⁰C and 1.00 atm. The balloon rises
to a point in the atmosphere where the pressure is 220. torr and the temperature is -
31⁰C. What is the change in volume of the balloon as it ascends to that point in the
atmosphere?

3. An ideal gas is contained in a cylinder with a volume of 5.0 X 102 mL at a temperature of

30.⁰C and a pressure of 710. Torr. The gas is then compressed to a volume of 25 mL,
and the temperature is raised to 820.⁰C. What is the new pressure of the gas?

125
 Gas Stoichiometry

The volume occupied by 1 mol of an ideal gas at 0⁰C (273 K) and 1 atm is given by

L atm
nRT (1.00 mol)(0.0821 )(273 K)
K mol
V= = = 22.4 L
P 1.00 atm

This volume of 22.4 L is the molar volume of an ideal gas at the conditions 0oC and 1
atm, called the standard temperature and pressure (abbreviated STP).

Practice

(1) A sample of nitrogen gas has a volume of 1.75 L at STP. How many moles of N2 are
present?

(2) Quicklime (CaO) is produced by the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

(CaCO3). Calculate the volume of CO2 at STP produced from the decomposition of 1.52
g CaCO3 by the reaction
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

(3) A sample of methane gas having a volume of 2.80 L at 25 oC and 1.65 atm was mixed
with a sample of oxygen gas having a volume of 35.0 L at 31 oC and 1.25 atm. The
mixture was then ignited to form carbon dioxide and water. Calculate the volume of
CO2 formed at a pressure of 2.50 atm and a temperature of 125oC.

126
 4. Hydrogen cyanide is prepared commercially by the reaction of methane, CH4(g),
ammonia, NH3(g), and oxygen, O2(g), at high temperature. The other product is water.
a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction.
b. What volume of HCN(g) can be obtained from 20.0 L CH4(g), 20.0 L NH3(g), and 20.0 L
O2(g)? The volumes of all gases are measured at the same temperature and
pressure.

The ideal gas equation can be expressed as

m
nRT (molar mass)RT mRT dRT
P= = = =
V V V (molar mass) molar mass

Thus
dRT
Molar mass =
P
If the density (d) of a gas at a given temperature and pressure is known, its molar
mass can be calculated.

Practice

1. The density of a gas was measured at 1.50 atm and 27⁰C and found to be 1.95 g/L.
Calculate the molar mass of the gas.

2. A compound has the empirical formula CHCl. A 256-mL flask, at 373 K and 750. torr,
contains 0.800 g of the gaseous compound. Give the molecular formula.

3. Uranium hexafluoride is a solid at rom temperature, but it boils at 56⁰C. determine the
density of uranium hexafluoride at 60⁰C and 745 torr.

127
 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures

For a mixture of gases in a container,

the total pressure exerted is the sum
of the pressures that each gas would
exert if it were alone. This statement,
known as Dalton’s law of partial
pressures, can be expressed as
follows:

PTOTAL = P1 + P2 + P 3 + …

where the subscripts refer to the

individual gases (gas 1, gas 2, and so
on). The symbols P1, P2, P3 and so on
represent each partial pressure.

The total pressure of the mixture can be represented as

RT
PTOTAL = nTOTAL( )
V

where nTOTAL is the sum of the number of moles of the various gases.

Practice

1. Mixtures of helium and oxygen can be used in scuba diving tanks to help prevent “the
bends.” For a particular dive, 46 L He at 25⁰C and 1.0 atm and 12 L O2 at 25⁰C and 1.0
atm were pumped into a tank with a volume of 5.0 L. Calculate the partial pressure of
each gas and the total pressure in the tank at 25⁰C.

2. Consider the flasks in the following diagram. What are the final partial pressures of
gases A, B, and C after the stopcocks (valves) between the three flasks are opened if all
three gases are at the same pressure (1 atm)? Assume the final volume is 2.50 L. What
is the total pressure in torr?

128
Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of a given component in a mixture
to the total number of moles in the mixture. For a given component in a mixture,
the mole fraction X1 is
n1 P1
X1 = =
ntotal Ptotal
Practice

(1) The partial pressure of oxygen was observed to be 156 torr in air with a total
atmospheric pressure of 743 torr. Calculate the mole fraction of O2 present.

(2) The mole fraction of nitrogen in the air is 0.7808. Calculate the partial pressure of N2 in
air when the atmospheric pressure is 760 torr.

(3) The partial pressure of CH4(g) is 0.175 atm and that of O2(g) is 0.250 atm in a mixture of
the two gases.
a. What is the mole fraction of each gas in the mixture?
b. If the mixture occupies a volume of 10.5 L at 65⁰C, calculate the total number of
moles of gas in the mixture.
c. Calculate the number of grams of each gas in the mixture.

A mixture of gases results whenever a

gas is collected by displacement of
water. Together with the gas collected,
water vapor is present in the space
above the liquid and exerts pressure.
This pressure , which is dependent on
temperature, is called the vapor
pressure of water.

129
Practice

1. A sample of solid potassium chlorate (KClO3) was heated in a test tube and decomposed
by the following reaction
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)
The oxygen produced was collected by displacement of water at 22⁰C at a total pressure
of 754 torr. The volume of the gas collected was 0.650 L, and the vapor pressure of
water at 22⁰C is 21 torr. Calculate the partial pressure of O2 in the gas collected and the
mass of KClO3 in the sample that was decomposed.

2. Nitric acid is produced commercially by the Ostwald process. In the first step ammonia
is oxidized to nitric oxide:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Assume that this reaction is carried out in the apparatus diagrammed below.

2.00 L NH3
1.00 L O2
0.500 atm
1.5 atm

The stopcock between the two reaction containers is opened, and the reaction proceeds
using proper catalysts. Calculate the partial pressures of the gases remaining in the
container after the reaction. Assume 100% yield for the reaction, assume the final
volume of the container is 3.00 L, and assume the temperature is constant.

130
 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases

The kinetic molecular theory (KMT) is a simple model that attempts to explain
properties of an ideal gas. Its postulates can be stated as follows:

(1) The particles are so small compared with the distances between them that
the volume of the individual particles can be assumed to be negligible (zero).
(2) The particles are in constant motion. The collisions of the particles with the
walls of the container are the cause of the pressure exerted by the gas.
(3) The particles are assumed to exert no forces on each other; they are
assumed neither to attract nor repel each other.
(4) The average kinetic energy of a collection of gas particles is assumed to be
directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.

If the volume of a gas is decreased,

the pressure increases (Boyle’s law).
Based on the KMT, a decrease in
volume means that the gas particles
will hit the wall more often thus
increasing pressure.

For a given sample of an ideal gas at a constant volume, the pressure will be directly
proportional to the temperature. When the temperature of a gas increases, the
speeds of its particles increase. The particles will hit the wall with greater force and
greater frequency resulting in increased gas pressure.

For a given sample of a gas at constant pressure, the volume of the gas is directly
proportional to the temperature in Kelvin (Charles’s law). When the gas is heated to
a higher temperature, the speeds of the molecules increase and thus they will hit the
walls more often and with more force. To keep the pressure constant, the volume of
the container has to increase which will compensate for the increase particle speed.

The volume of the gas at a constant temperature and pressure depends directly on
the number of gas particles present (Avogadro’s law). An increase in the number of
gas particles at the same temperature would cause the pressure to increase if the
volume were held constant. Increasing the volume would return the pressure to its
original value.

The observation that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of
the pressures of the individual gases (Dalton’s law of partial pressures) is expected
because the KMT assumes that all gas particles are independent of each other and
that the volumes of the individual particles are unimportant.

131
The relationship between the Kelvin temperature and average kinetic energy of the
gas particles can be represented by

3
(KE)avg = ( ) RT
2

The Kelvin temperature is an index of the random motions of the particles of the gas,
with higher temperature meaning greater motion.

Practice

1. Calculate the average kinetic energy of the CH4 and N2 molecules at 273 K and at 546 K.

In the equation from the kinetic

molecular theory, the average velocity
of the gas particles is a special kind of
average. The symbol u2 means the
average of the squares of the particle
velocities. The square root of u2 is
called the root mean square velocity
and is defined as

3RT
urms = √
M

where R has the value 8.3145 J/K mol

and M is the mass of a mole of gas in
kilograms.

Practice

1. Calculate the root mean square velocity for the atoms in a sample of helium gas at 25⁰C.

132
 Although urms for oxygen at 25⁰C is
approximately 490 m/s, the majority
of O2 molecules do not have this
velocity. The actual distribution of
molecular velocities for oxygen at 25⁰C
is shown above. As the temperature is
increased, the curve peak move
toward higher values and the range of
velocities becomes much larger.

Effusion and Diffusion

Diffusion is the term used to describe

the mixing of gases. The rate of
diffusion is the rate of the mixing of
gases. Effusion is the term used to
describe the passage of a gas through
a tiny orifice into an evacuated
chamber. The rate of effusion
measures the speed at which the gas
is transferred into the chamber.

The relative rates of effusion of two gases at the same temperature and pressure is
given by

Rate of effusion for gas 1 √M2

=
Rate of effusion for gas 2 √M1

where M1 and M2 represent the molar masses of the gases. This is called the
Graham’s law of effusion.

Practice

1. Calculate the ratio of the effusion rates of hydrogen gas (H2) and uranium hexafluoride
(UF6), a gas used in the enrichment process to produce fuel for nuclear reactors.

133
 Real Gases

Ideal gas behavior can be thought of as the behavior approached by real gases at
low pressures and/or high temperatures. The ideal gas law describe the behavior of
a hypothetical gas consisting of volumeless entities that do not interact with each
other.

A real gas consists of atoms or molecules that have finite volumes. Therefore, the
volume available in a real gas is less than the volume of the container because the
gas particles themselves take up space. Thus the volume actually available to a
given gas molecule is given by the difference V - nb, where V is the volume of the
container, n is the number of moles of the gas and b is an empirical constant (one
determined by fitting the equation to the experimental results)

Attractions occur among the particles in a real gas. The effect of these attractions is
to make the observed pressure Pobs smaller than it would be if the gas did not
interact. When gas particles come close together , attractive forces occur which
cause the particles to hit the wall very slightly less often than they would in the
absence of these interactions. The size of the correction factor depends on the
concentration of gas molecules defined in terms of moles of gas particles per liter.

The pressure corrected for the attractions of the particles has the form

n 2
Pobs = P` - a ( )
V

where a is a proportionality constant, and can be determined from observing the

actual behavior of that gas. Inserting the corrections for both the volume of the
particles and the attractions of the particles gives the van der Waals equation:

n 2
[Pobs + a( ) ] X (V – nb) = nRT
V

The values for the weighting factors a and b are determined for a given gas by
fitting experimental behavior.

Gas a (atm L2/mol2) b (L/mol)

H2 0.244 0.0266
N2 1.39 0.0391
O2 1.36 0.0318
CO2 3.59 0.0427
He 0.0341 0.0237

134
The gases H2, N2, CH4 and CO2 show
different behavior when compressibility
𝑃𝑉
(𝑅𝑇) is plotted versus P. The plot for H2
never drops below the ideal value in
contrast to all the other gases. This must
mean that H2 molecules have very low
attractive forces for each other. Also
notice that although the compressibility
for N2 dips below 1.0, it does not show as
much deviation as the compressibility for
CH4, which in turn does not show as
much deviation for CO2. Based on this
behavior we can conclude that the
importance of intermolecular interactions
increases in this order:

H2 < N2 < CH4 < CO2

135
 Multiple Choice Questions
Chapter 5

1. A rigid metal tank contains oxygen gas. Which of the following applies to the
gas in the tank when additional oxygen is added at constant temperature?
A. The volume of the gas increase.
B. The pressure of the gas decreases.
C. The average speed of the gas molecules remains the same.
D. The total number of gas molecules remains the same.

2. A hot-air balloon, shown above, rises. Which of the following is the best
explanation for this observation?
A. The pressure on the walls of the balloon increases with increasing
temperature.
B. The difference in temperature between the air inside and outside the
balloon produces convection currents.
C. The cooler air outside the balloon pushes in on the walls of the balloon.
D. The air density inside the balloon is less than that of the surrounding air.

NH4NO3(s)  N2O(g) + 2 H2O(g)

3. A 0.03 mol sample of NH4NO3(s) decomposes completely according to the

balanced equation above. The total pressure in a 1 L flask measured at 400
K is closest to which of the following? ( The value of the gas constant, R, is
0.082 L.atm.mol-1.K-1)
A. 3 atm
B. 1 atm
C. 0.5 atm
D. 0.1 atm

136
4. Equal numbers of moles of He(g), Ar(g), and Ne(g) are placed in a glass
vessel at room temperature. If the vessel has a pinhole-sized leak, which of
the following will be true regarding the relative values of the partial pressures
of the gases remaining in the vessel after some of the gas mixture has
effused?
A. PHe < PNe < PAr
B. PHe < PAr < PNe
C. PNe < PAr < PHe
D. PAr < PHe < PNe

5. Which of the following gases deviates most from ideal behavior?

A. SO2
B. Ne
C. CH4
D. N2

6. A sample of argon gas is sealed in a container. The volume of the container

is doubled. If the pressure remains constant, what happens to the absolute
temperature?
A. It does not change.
B. It is halved.
C. It is doubled.
D. It is squared.

7. A sealed, rigid container is filled with three ideal gases: A, B, and C. The
partial pressure of each gas is known. The temperature and volume of the
system are known. What additional information is needed to determine the
masses of the gases in the container?
A. the average distance traveled between molecular collisions
B. the intermolecular forces
C. the volume of the gas molecules
D. the molar masses of the gases

8. Two balloons are at the same temperature and pressure. One contains 14 g
of nitrogen and the other contains 20 g of argon. Pick the false statement
from the following list.
A. The density of the nitrogen sample is less than the density of the argon
sample.
B. The average speed of the nitrogen molecules is the same as the
average speed of the argon molecules.
C. The average kinetic energy of the nitrogen molecules is the same as the
average kinetic energy of the argon molecules.
D. The volume of the nitrogen container is the same as the volume of the
argon container.

137
9. An experiment to determine the molecular mass of a gas begins by heating a
solid to produce a gaseous product. The gas passes through a tube and
displaces water in an inverted, water-filled bottle. Which of the following
necessary items may be determined after the experiment is completed?
A. vapor pressure of water
B. temperature of the displaced water
C. barometric pressure in the room
D. mass of the solid used

10. The true volume of a real gas is larger than that calculated from the ideal gas
equation. This occurs because the ideal gas equation does NOT correct for:
A. the attraction between the molecules
B. the shape of the molecules
C. the volume of the molecules
D. the mass of the molecules

11. Aluminum metal reacts with HCl to produce aluminum chloride and hydrogen
gas. How many grams of aluminum metal must be added to an excess of
HCl to produce 33.6 L of hydrogen gas, if the gas is at STP?
A. 18.0 g
B. 35.0 g
C. 27.0 g
D. 4.50 g

12. A reaction produces a gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,

and water vapor. After one reaction the mixture was analyzed and found to
contain 0.60 mol of carbon dioxide, 0.30 mol of carbon monoxide, and 0.10
mol of water vapor. If the total pressure of the mixture was 0.80 atm, what
was the partial pressure of the carbon monoxide?
A. 0.080 atm
B. 0.34 atm
C. 0.13 atm
D. 0.24 atm

13. A sample of methane gas was collected over water at 35C. The sample was
found to have a total pressure of 756 mm Hg. Determine the partial pressure
of the methane gas in the sample (vapor pressure of water at 35C is 41 mm
Hg).
A. 760 mm Hg
B. 41 mm Hg
C. 715 mm Hg
D. 797 mm Hg

138
14. A sample of oxygen gas with a volume of 8.00 L at 127C and 775 mm Hg is
heated until it expands to a volume of 20.00 L. Determine the final
temperature of the oxygen gas, if the pressure remains constant.
A. 727C
B. 318C
C. 1000C
D. 160C

15. The average kinetic energy of nitrogen molecules changes by what factor
when the temperature is increased from 30C to 60C?
A. (333 – 303)
B. 2
C. 1⁄2
D. √303 − 333

16. A 1.15-mol sample of carbon monoxide gas has a temperature of 27C and
a pressure of 0.300 atm. If the temperature is lowered to 17C, at constant
volume, what would be the new pressure?
A. 0.290 atm
B. 0.519 atm
C. 0.206 atm
D. 0.338 atm

17. An ideal gas sample weighing 1.28 grams at 127C and 1.00 atm has a
volume of 0.250 L. Determine the molar mass of the gas.
A. 322 g /mol
B. 168 g/mol
C. 0.00621 g/mol
D. 80.5 g/mol

18. Increasing the temperature of an ideal gas from 50C to 75C at constant
volume will cause which of the following to increase for the gas?
I. the average distance between the molecules
II. the average speed of the molecules
III. the average molecular mass of the gas
A. III only
B. I only
C. II only
D. II and III only

139
19. If a sample of CH4 effuses at a rate of 9.0 mol per hour at 35C, which of the
following gases below will effuse at approximately twice the rate under the
same conditions?
A. CO
B. He
C. O2
D. F2

20. A steel tank containing argon gas has additional argon gas pumped into it at
constant temperature. Which of the following is true for the gas in the tank?
A. There is no change in the number of gas atoms.
B. There is an increase in the volume of the gas.
C. There is a decrease in the pressure exerted by the gas.
D. The gas atoms travel with the same average speed.

2 N2O5(s)  4NO2(g) + O2(g)

21. A 2 L evacuated flask has a 0.2 mol sample of N 2O5(s) sealed inside it. The
flask is heated to decompose the solid and cooled to 300 K. The N 2O5(s) is
completely decomposed according to the balanced equation above. What is
the nearest value to the final total pressure of the gases in the flask? (The
value of the gas constant, R, is 0.082 L atm mol−1K−1.)
A. 0.6 atm
B. 6 atm
C. 0.05 atm
D. 1.2 atm

22. A glass container is filled, at room temperature, with equal numbers of moles
of H2(g), O2(g), and NO2(g). The gases slowly leak out through a pinhole.
After some of the gas has effused, which of the following is true of the
relative values for the partial pressures of the gases remaining in the
container?
A. H2 <NO2 < O2
B. NO2 < H2 < O2
C. H2 = NO2 = O2
D. H2 < O2 < NO2

23. Choose the gas that probably shows the greatest deviation from ideal gas
behavior.
A. He
B. O2
C. SF4
D. SiH4

140
24. Determine the formula for a gaseous silane (SinH2n+2) if it has a density of
5.47 g per L at 0C and 1.00 atm.
A. SiH4
B. Si2H6
C. Si3H8
D. Si4H10

Ca + 2 H2O  Ca(OH)2 + H2

25. Calcium reacts with water according to the above reaction. What volume of
hydrogen gas, at standard temperature and pressure, is produced from
0.200 mol of calcium?
A. 5.60 L
B. 2.24 L
C. 3.36 L
D. 4.89 L

26. Which of the following gases would occupy the largest volume at 25 oC and 1
atm pressure?
A. 28 g of N2
B. 16 g of CH4
C. 19.0 g of NH3
D. 32.0 g of O2

27. Which gas would have the largest density at STP?

A. F2
B. C2H6
C. NO
D. H2S

28. Methane, CH4, has four times the mass of helium. Which of the following
statements is/are TRUE?
I. At 100oC both gases have the same kinetic energy
II. Helium diffuses four times as fast as methane.
III. At STP, methane has a density four times that of helium.
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and III only

141
29. A 100 mL sample of methane, CH4, effuses through a pinhole in 25 seconds.
A similar sample of oxygen gas would effuse in
A. 18 s
B. 25 s
C. 35 s
D. 45 s

30. Equal volumes of oxygen gas, O2 and ozone, O3 under the same conditions
of temperature and pressure would have equal
A. Masses
B. Molar masses
C. Number of atoms
D. Number of molecules

31. What volume of hydrogen gas, at STP, will a 0.100-g sample of magnesium
(molar mass = 24.31) produce when reacted with an excess of HCl? (Mg +
2HCl → MgCl2 + H2)
A. 100.5 mL
B. 46.1 mL
C. 184 mL
D. 9.2 mL

32. At STP, a 5.00-L flask filled with air has a mass of 543.251 g. The air in the
flask is replaced with another gas, and the mass of the flask is then
determined to be 566.107 g. The density of air is 1.290 g/L. What is the gas
that replaced the air?
A. Ne
B. O2
C. Ar
D. Xe

33. A gas mixture contains twice as many moles of O 2 as N2. Addition of 0.200
mol of argon to this mixture increases the pressure from 0.800 atm to 1.10
atm. How many moles of O2 are in the mixture?
A. 0.355
B. 0.178
C. 0.533
D. 0.200

34. The number of moles of an ideal gas in a 2.50-L container at 300 K and a
pressure of 0.450 atm is (R = 0.0821 L atm mol-1 K-1)
A. 0.0457
B. 21.9
C. 4.93 X 10 -5
D. 2.03 X 104
142
35. A gas has a density, at STP, of 3.48 g/L. The most reasonable formula for
this compound is
A. C2H6
B. HF
C. CCl4
D. C6H6

SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3 (g)

36. A mixture of gases containing 0.20 mol of SO2 and 0.1 mol of O2 in a 4.0 l
flask reacts to form SO3. If the temperature is 25oC, what is the pressure in
the flask after the reaction is complete?
0.4(0.082)(298)
A. atm
4
0.3(0.082 )(298 )
B. atm
4
0.2(0.082 )(298 )
C. atm
4
0.2(0.082 )(25)
D. atm
4

37. Which is not a property of gases?

A. They have low densities
B. They are easily compressed
C. Their atoms or molecules are held together by strong attractive forces
D. They fill the entire volume of their container

38. As the temperature is raised from 20°C to 40°C, the average kinetic energy
of neon atoms changes by a factor of
A. ½
B. [square root of] (313/293)
C. 313/293
D. 2

143
39. Imagine two flasks of identical volume at the same temperature. One
contains 2 grams of H2 and the other contains 28 grams of N2. Which of the
following properties are the same for the two flasks? (Atomic weights: N =
14.01, H = 1.008).
I. Pressure
II. average KE
III. density
IV. number of molecules
V. average velocity
A. I, II & IV
B. IV
C. III & IV
D. II & V

40. Charles' Law states that when the temperature goes down, the volume goes
________. The relationship between T and V is _________ proportional.
A. down, directly
B. down, inversely
C. up, directly
D. up, inversely

41. Avogadro's Law states: equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature
and pressure, contain ___________.
A. the same mass in grams
B. the same number of moles
C. a number of moles proportional to the molar mass of the gas.
D. all of the above

42. A sample of ammonia gas at 1.20 atm is compressed from 500 mL to 250
mL If the temperature remains constant, what is the new pressure of the
gas?
A. 0.600 atm
B. 1.00 atm
C. 1.20 atm
D. 2.40 atm

144
43. The physical property of being able to compress gases easily can be
explained by which of the following ideas from the Kinetic Molecular Theory
of gases?
A. Gases are made up of small particles (either atoms or molecules) that
are constantly moving.
B. The distance between particles is large compared with the size of the
particles. A gas is mostly empty space.
C. There are no attractive forces between particles. The particles move
independently of each other.
D. The particles collide with each other and with the walls of the container
without incurring a loss of energy.

44. Sample of N2 gas is contaminated with a gas (A) of unknown molecular

o
weight. The partial pressure of each gas is known to be 200 torr at 25 C. The
gases are allowed to effuse through a pinhole, and it is found that gas (A)
escapes at a rate one third that of N2. What is the molecular weight of gas
A? (Atomic weight: N = 14.01).
A. 3.11
B. 84.0
C. 9.33
D. 252

45. What is the volume of 1.00 mole of an ideal gas at 25 oC and one
atmosphere pressure?
A. 0.0409 L
B. 2.05 L
C. 22.4 L
D. 24.5 L

46. A sealed vessel contains 0.200 mol of oxygen gas, 0.100 mol of nitrogen
gas, and 0.200 mol of argon gas. The total pressure of the gas mixture is
5.00 atm. The partial pressure of the argon is
A. 0.200 atm
B. 0.500 atm
C. 1.00 atm
D. 2.00 atm

47. At constant temperature, the behavior of a sample of a real gas more closely
approximates that of an ideal gas as its volume is increased because the
A. collisions with the walls of the container become less frequent
B. average molecular speed decreases
C. molecules have expanded
D. average distance between molecules becomes greater

145
48. The system shown above is at equilibrium at 28°C. At this temperature, the
vapour pressure of water is 28 mmHg. The partial pressure of O 2(g) in the
system is
A. 28 mm Hg
B. 56 mm Hg
C. 133 mm Hg
D. 161 mm Hg

49. A sample of an ideal gas is cooled from 50.0°C to 25.0°C in a sealed

container of constant volume. Which of the following values for the gas will
decrease?
I. The average molecular mass of the gas
II. The average distance between the molecules
III. The average speed of the molecules
A. I only
B. II only
C. III only
D. I and III

50. Equal masses of three different ideal gases, X, Y, and Z, are mixed in a
sealed rigid container. If the temperature of the system remains constant,
which of the following statements about the partial pressure of gas X is
correct?
A. It is equal to 1/3 the total pressure
B. It depends on the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules
of X, Y, and Z.
C. It depends on the relative molecular masses of X, Y, and Z.
D. It depends on the average distance traveled between molecular
collisions.

146
51. A valve separates two tanks, one containing 7.6 liters of oxygen at 4.0
atmospheres and the other containing 4.0 liters of carbon dioxide at 11.0 atm.
When the valve is opened and the two gases are allowed to come together,
what is final pressure?
A) 9.5 atm
B) 3.6 atm
C) 1.8 atm
D) 6.4 atm

52. In which flask do the molecules have the highest average velocity?

A) Flask 2
B) Flask 1
C) All the same
D) Flasks 2 and 3

53. Which flask(s) is/are likely to exhibit ideal behavior?

A) Flasks 2 and 3 because methane and oxygen are nonpolar molecules.

B) Flask 1 because NH3 has the lowest molar mass.
C) Flask 3 because O2 has the greatest molar mass.
D) Flask 1 because NH3 is a polar molecule.

147
54. Which flask(s) contain(s) the greatest number of molecules?

A) All the same

B) Flask 2
C) Flask 3
D) Flask 2 and 3

55. A 3.00 liter mixture of CO2 and O2 gas, total pressure 740 Torr and
temperature 50°C, is scrubbed with a water spray at 20°C so as to dissolve all
the CO2 and remove it from the gas phase. If the final observed gas volume
at 740 Torr and 20°C is 2.50 liters, what percent of the molecules in the
original mixture must have been CO2? Assume that the vapor pressure of
water at 20°C is 17.55 mmHg.
A) 8.2%
B) 10.2%
C) 18.6%
D) 28.1%
A)

56. What is the ratio of effusion of O2 and SO2?

A) 1.2
B) 1.4
C) 1.6
D) 1.8

57. A gaseous compound is 30.4% nitrogen and 69.6% oxygen by mass. A 5.25-
gram sample of the gas occupies a volume of 1.00 L and exerts a pressure of
1.26 atm at -4.0℃. What is its molecular formula?
A) NO
B) NO2
C) N3O6
D) N2O4

148
 𝑛2 𝑎
58. The van der Waals constant, b, in the relationship (𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 is
𝑉2
the factor that corrects for
A) Deviations in the gas constant, R.
B) The attractive forces between gas molecules.
C) The attractive forces between gas molecules.
D) The volume occupied by the gas molecules.

59. Which of the following gases is expected to have the smallest value for its van
der Waals constant “b”?
A) Ne
B) O2
C) Cl2
D) H2O

60. Consider the following reaction:

2NH3 (g) + 3O2 (g)  N2O3 + 3 H2O

2.0 moles of ammonia and 1.5 moles of oxygen are placed in 24.0 L
container at a temperature of 25. 0℃ . The above reaction goes to
completion, and is accompanied by a temperature increase up to 47.0℃ .
What is the final pressure?
A) 1.56 atm
B) 1.6 atm
C) 3.2 atm
D) 3.65 atm

61. A 5.00 L container contains CH4, H2, N2 and Xe at 35 ℃ with a total pressure
of 2 atm. If there are equal moles of each gas, what is the partial pressure of
H2?
A) 0.20 atm
B) 0.25 atm
C) 0.50 atm
D) 1.0 atm

62. The true pressure of a particular real gas is less than that calculated from the
ideal gas equation. This occurs because the ideal gas equation does NOT
correct for:
A) The attraction between the molecules.
B) The shape of the molecules.
C) The volume of the molecules.
D) The mass of the molecules.

149
63. A mixture of 0.75 mol H2 (g) and 0.75 mol N2 (g) is introduced into a 15.0 liter
container having a pinhole leak at 30℃. After a period of time which of the
following is true?
A) The partial pressure of H2 exceeds that of N2 in the container.
B) The partial pressure of N2 exceeds that of H2 in the container.
C) The partial pressures of the two gases remain equal.
D) The partial pressure of both gases increase above their initial values.

150