Construction Materials

0732-2101

Dhaka International University

Department of Civil Engineering

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Reference Books:

1. Engineering Materials- Dr.M.A. Aziz

2. Concrete Technology – A.M. Neville

3. Building Materials- Guruchran Singh

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 BRICK
(Topics: Properties and Uses of Bricks, Efflorescence, Standard Tests of Bricks)

1. What is brick?
Definition: The bricks are obtained by moulding clay (consisting of a suitable percentage of alumina,
silica, lime, oxide of iron, and magnesia) in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying and
burning (at around 1150oC) these blocks.
The bricks seem to have been produced since the dawn of the civilization in the sun-dried form. The
Great Wall of China (210 BC) was built with both, burned and sun-dried bricks. The other examples of
use of bricks in early stage of civilization could be cited in Italy, Greece, India, Bangladesh and in other
places around the globe.

2. Advantages:
o The brick is popular in the places where stones are not easily available but where there is plenty of
clay.
o The brickwork is cheaper than the stonework.
o The construction method of brickwork is simple.

3. Disadvantages:
o The brickwork is less water tight than stonework
o The bricks absorb moisture from the atmosphere and dampness can enter the building
o The brickwork does not create a solid appearance in relation to the stonework, therefore for
monumental structures, the stonework is found to be more useful.
o The stonework is stronger than brickwork.
o The stonework is cheaper in places where stones are easily available.

4. Constituents of Brick Clay and Their Function

(i) Silica 55% (SiO2)
(ii)Alumina 30% (Aluminium Oxide):Al2O3
(iii)Iron Oxide 8% (Fe2O3)
(iv) Magnesia 5% (Magnesium Oxide): MgO
(v)Lime 1% (CaO + CO2)
(vi) Organic Matters 1%

5. Harmful Constituent of Bricks

• Iron Pyrites
• Alkalies
•

Stone Particles
• Vegetation and Organic Matter
• Lime

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6. Manufacturing of Bricks
Following considerations govern the selection of a brick field for the manufacture of bricks:
o It should be linked up with the communicating roads so that the materials can be
conveyed easily.
o It should be situated on a plain ground.
o It should be so selected that the earth for manufacturing good quality bricks is readily and easily
available
o It should offer all the facilities to the workers employed in the manufacturing process.

In the process of manufacturing bricks, the following four distinct operations are involved:
(1) Preparation of Clay
(2) Moulding
(3) Drying
(4) Burning

7. Qualities/Characteristics of Good Bricks

o Bricks should be uniform in color, size, and shape.
o They should be sound and compact.
o They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules, etc.
o They should not absorb more than 1/5 of their own weight of water when immerged in water for
24 hours (15 to 20% of dry weight)
o The compressive strength of bricks should be in the range of 5000 to 8000 psi
o The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium) should
not exceed 2.5 % in burnt bricks, because the presence of excess soluble salts causes
efflorescence.
o They should be neither over burnt or under burnt.
o They weight should be generally 6 lbs per brick and the weight per cft should not be less than 125
lbs.
o They should have low thermal conductivity.
o They should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
o Bricks should not change in volume when wetted.

8. Field Tests of Bricks

• Take a brick and try to make a mark on the surface by nail. If it is made easily, the quality of brick
is not good. If not, it is very hard and compact.

• Take a brick and strike it with a hammer, if it gives clear metallic sound, it is a good brick
• Take two bricks and form a tee (T) and drop from a height of 6 ft on a more or less solid surface.
If they break they are not good bricks.

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 ABC

ABC
• A brick is broken and its structure is examined. It should be homogeneous, compact and free from
defects such as holes, lumps etc.
• Presence of Soluble Salts: The soluble salts, if present in bricks, will cause efflorescence on the
surface of bricks. For finding out the presence of soluble salts in a brick, it is immersed in water
for 24 hours. It is then taken out and allowed to dry in a shade. The presence of gray or white
deposits on its surface indicate absence of soluble salts. If the white deposits cover 10 % surface,
the efflorescence is said to be slight and it is considered as moderate, when the white deposits
cover 50 % of the surface. If more than 50 % of the surface, the efflorescence is considered to be
heavy, and it is treated as serious, when such deposits are converted into powdery mass.

9. Sizes of Bricks
In Bangladesh, the standard size of bricks is 9.5" × 4.5" × 2.75". With mortar, the final size becomes
10" × 5" × 3". The sizes of the walls which are constructed in Bangladesh are 3", 5", 10", 15", 20", 25" and
30". By using, standard size bricks, these sizes of walls can be built very easily without any breaking of the
bricks.

10. Classification of Bricks

(i) First Class Bricks
o Uniform size and color
o Well and uniformly burnt
o Emit metallic sound when struck with a hammer or another brick
o No cracks, rain spots, or flaws on the surface
o Not absorb one sixth of their weight of water when kept under water for 24 hours
(i) Second Class Bricks
These bricks must possesses the hardness and color of first class bricks but are slightly irregular in
shape, size or rough on the surface.
(ii) Third Class Bricks
o Not sufficient burnt
o Uniform shape and size
o Can be used for un-important construction

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 (iii) First Class Bats
Broken pieces of first and second class bricks
(iv) Second Class Bats
Broken pieces of the third class bricks
(v) Picked Jhama Bricks
o Uniform vitrified throushout
o Good shape, heavy, selected quality
o Not spongy
(vi) Jhama Bricks
(vii) Jhama Bats
(viii) Special Bricks
(a) Perforated Brick (for lightweight structure and multistoried framed structures, perforation
may be rectangular, circular, square, or any other regular shape in cross-section)
(b) Hollow Bricks (also known as the cellular or cavity bricks. They are light in weight. They
reduce the transmission of heat, sound, and dampness.)
(c) Checkered Bricks (less slippery, used for garden walks, street pavements, etc.)

(Please see Fig. 3.7 of book by M. A Aziz)

11. Uses of Bricks

o Construction of walls of any size
o Construction of floors
o Construction of arches
o Making khoa (broken bricks of required size to use as an aggregate in concrete)
o Manufacture of surki (powdered bricks) to be used in lime plaster and lime concrete

Note: For 100 cft of brickworks 1200 nos. of bricks and 45 cft of mortar are repaired. 830 bricks will make
100 cft of khoa for concrete.

Frog Mark
A frog mark is a mark of depth of about 10 mm to 20 mm which is placed on raw brick during
moulding. It has two purposes:
o It indicates the trade name of the manufacturer
o Acts as a key for mortar

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 CEMENT

Cement is a cementing or binding material used in engineering construction. It is mainly used in

concrete work. It is manufactured from calcareous substance (compounds of calcium and magnesium) and is
similar in many respects to the strongly hydraulic limes but possessing far greater hydraulic properties. It
differs from lime in many respects.

o Particle size of cement : 10 ~ 20 μm

o 12 billion tons of concrete is newly placed in every year
o Normally cement concrete contains 15 % of cement
o It may be 20 % for a high strength concrete
o About 2 billion tons of cement is used in every year
o 1 ton CO2 is emitted for 1 ton cement product
o Making long term durable structures is essential to reduce CO2 emission from cement industries

Types of Cement
▪ Natural Cement
▪ Artificial Cement

Natural Cement
Manufactured by burning and crushing of natural stones containing 25 to 40 %. Clay and carbonate
of lime (CaCO3) remaining, sometimes magnesium carbonate is added. It is brown in color and sets quickly
when mixed with water. The best variety of natural cement is known as ‘Roman Cement’ in England.

Artificial Cement
Artificial cement is known as ordinary cement/ordinary Portland cement/ Normal Portland cement/
Normal cement/Normal setting cement/ Ordinary Portland. Artificial cement is said to be Portland Cement
due to its resemblance in color and quality to Portland stone which is found in Portland in
Englandabandently.

Raw materials or composition of Portland Cement

1. Calcareous materials --- which are the compounds of calcium and magnesium. (lime stone)
2. Argillaceous materials ---- which are mainly silica, alumina and oxides of iron (clay or shale)

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 Mineral constituents of Portland Cement

Constituents Oxide-composition Abbreviation Composition (%)

1. Tricalcium silicate 3 CaO. SiO2 C3S 45 ~ 55
2. Dicalcium silicate 2CaO. SiO2 C2S 20 ~ 30
3. Tricalcium Aluminate 3CaO. Al2O3 C3A 9 ~ 13
4. Tetra Calcium Alumino ferrite 4CaO. Al2O3 Fe2O3 C4AF 8 ~ 20
5. Calcium Sulphate (Gypsum) CaSO4 . 2H2O 2~6
6. Other Compounds 2~8

Oxide Components and their effects (acid & alkaline constituents)

▪ Lime (CaO): More than 60 % cement is lime. Hydration reaction occurs with the presence of lime.
A deficiency in lime reduces the strength of cement and causes it to set quickly. Excess will make
cement unsound and cause its to expand and disintegrate.

▪ Silica (SiO2): It produces hydrates with lime and helps to create a dense structure.
▪ Alumina (Al2O3): It produces hydrate with lime. Excess will cause expansion. clinker temperature
is lowered by the presence of requisite quantity of a alumina.

▪ Magnesia (MgO): It should not present more than 2 % in cement. Excess is harmful and reduce the
strength of the cement.
▪ Iron Oxide (Fe2O3): It imparts color to cement. At very high temperature it reacts with calcium and
aluminium to form C4AF ( it hydrates with lime and alumina) which imparts hardness and strength
to cement.

▪ Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4. 2H2O): It regards setting action of cement. Excess will cause
expansion.
▪ Sulphur Trioxide (SO3): Excess will cause unsoundness or expansion.
▪ Alkalies: Excess will cause expansion/efflorescence. Especially with the presence of reacting
aggregates it will also reduce strength.

Oxide Compounds
Constituents Composition (%)
1. Calcium Oxide (CaO) 60 ~ 67
2. Silica (SiO2) 17 ~ 25
3. Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.1 ~ 4.0
4. Alumina (Al2O3) 3~8
5. Iron Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5 ~ 6
6. Sulphur Trioxide (SO3) 1~3
7. Potassium Oxide (k2O) 0.3 ~ 1.0
8. Sodium Oxide (Na2O) 0.4 ~ 1.3

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Hydration of Cement

Hydration: The term ‘Hydration’ is applied to all reactions of cement to water. All the cement constituent
compounds are in a hydrous (dry) state. After addition of water in cement, C3A & C4AF react immediately
with water and then C3S is next to hydrate. C2S is the slowest constituent component to hydrate and the
process continuous for several days. The main strength is developed from the hydration of C3S and C2S. C2S
is responsible for the progressive strength of cement.

Hydration of Silicate
C3S + H2O → CSH + CH
C2S + H2O → CSH + CH

Strength of Cement
The strength of cement is very important to design a structure. Cement can not tested alone
because it is very fine material. Generally it is mixed with sand/ aggregates. It is tested for compressive
strength. tensile strength and flexural strength. Cement is very weak in tension but very strong in

compression. The tensile strength is generally 1 th of compressive strength. Test is carried out at 1, 3, 7,
10
14, 28 days. For fly ash slag cement, it is carried out at 51, 91 days.

Setting of Cement
The term ‘setting’ is used to describe the stiffening of the cement paste. Setting refers to change of
cement paste from a fluid to a rigid state. Setting differs from hardening of cement. The term hardening
refers to the gain of strength of a set cement paste. Although during setting the paste acquires some strength.

Initial setting refers to a rapid rise in temperature. At initial setting, the cement paste gain certain
degree of consistency. Final setting refers to the peak temperature. At final setting, the cement paste losses
the workability. Setting time of cement is strongly effected by the temperature type of cement. fineness etc.

Type of Cement Setting time

Ordinary cement High
Fly ash cement slow
Slag cement slow

False Setting
False setting indicates abnormal premature stiffening of cement with in a few minutes of mixing
with water. Remixing of the paste without addition of further amount of water restores plastic of the paste
until it sets in the normal manner and without a loss of strength. Some causes of a false setting are:

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 ▪ Hydration of gypsum: If gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) is added with hot clinkers semi hydrate (CaSO4.
½ H2O) or anhydrate (CaSO4) are formed and when the cement is mixed with water these hydrate to
form gypsum again. Thus setting takes place with a resulting stiffening of the paste.

▪ Excess amount of Alkalies in the paste: During storage, they may carbonate, alkali carbonates
react with CH to form CaCO3. This precipitates and induces a rigidity of the paste.

▪ Activation of C3S by aeration: Due to activation of C3S with aeration during mixing a large
amount of water may required. This may cause to the false setting of cement.

Flash Setting
When water is added to a cement paste, C3A hydrates very quickly and rigidity of the paste is
developed. It is known as flash setting. To avoid flash setting, gypsum is added that controls the hydration of
C3A by forming ettringite which converted into monosulfate hydrate (3CASH or 3CaO. Al2O3.
CaSO4.11H2O)

Fineness of Cement
Fineness is the total surface area of cement that represent the material available for hydration. The
rate of hydration is strongly influenced by the fineness of cement. The more the fineness the higher the
hydration reactions. For a rapid development of strength., a higher fineness is necessary. Of course making
finer cement costly, Finer cement gives stronger reactions and higher strength. Higher fineness improves the
workability of the mix. During storage careful attention is necessary for a cement of higher fineness due to
its high degree of activity moisture. Care attention should be given during mixing and curing for a cement
with higher fineness. With the increase of fineness of cement durability decreases.
The unit of fineness of cement: Area/weight; cm2/gm, m2/kg etc. For Ordinary Portland Cement surface
area  2250 cm2/gm.

Soundness of Cement
It refers to the change in volume after setting. Excess amount of gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O), free
lime (CaO), Magnesia (MgO) causes such kind of expansion. During burning, if excess lime is present in
clinker, some lime remains in free condition. The free lime hydrates very slowly and the mortar or concrete
prepare with such a cement is therefore liable to expand and crack after a few month on a year.
Cement with exhibit expansion are known as unsound. A sound cement will not show any
expansion.
Test for Cement
To control the required quality of the cement, the following tests are carried out:
▪ Test for fineness
▪ Test for setting time (initial and final)
▪ Test for soundness
▪ Test for chemical composition
▪ Test for strength
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Test for fineness
Fineness if a vital property of cement. BS (British Standard) sieve size: # 170 (90 μm). Maximum
residue 10 % by weight for Ordinary Portland Cement. Maximum residue 5 % by weight for rapid hardening
cement.

Test for setting time

By using Vicat’s Apparatus, we can determined setting time of cement.

Normal consistency: measured by the Vicat’s Apparatus → required water for mortar (10 mm penetration by
30 sec)
After determining normal consistency, tested for initial setting time and then for final setting time.

Initial setting time: Not less than 45 minutes (For OPC)

Not less than 60 minutes (For LHC)
Final Setting Time: 10 to 15 hr (OPC) (375 min)
Not more than 10 hr (Blast Furnace Portland Cement)

[*** Setting of cement is affected by the temperature and the humidity of the surrounding medium. These
are specified as follows:
(i) Temperature between 58o to 64oF
(ii) Relative humidity of air not less than 90 %

Test for Soundness

The soundness of cement is tested by the Le Chatellier Apparatus. The expansion of the cement
paste is measured after boiling the sample in water. The test indicates unsoundness due to free lime only.
Sometimes an excess amount of magnesia is present in cement. For this reason another test is
needed named as Auto Clave Test. It is done at high temperature (420oF) and high stream pressure (300 psi).
The high stream pressure accelerates the hydration of both magnesia and lime

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Test for Strength
Strength of cement is generally determined after making mortar or concrete. It is never tested alone
for strength due to the difficulties in curing and evolution of high temperature. Normally standard sand is
used. Standard sand can be uniformly graded sand.

Normal ratio of cement and sand = 1 : 3

Water cement ratio (w/c) = 0.4

(a) Tensile strength (roughly 1/10 of compressive strength)

(b) Compressive strength
(c) Flexural Strength

Tensile strength: Briquette test (Load/Area)

After making specimen it should be demoulded at 1 day age and further cured for 3, 7, 14, 28 days

For OPC ------------ after 3 days : not less than 300 psi
after 7 days: not less than 375 psi

For RHC ------------ not less than 300 psi (3 days); not less than 750 psi (7 days)

Compressive Strength

Mortar cube: Tested at 3, 7, 14, 28 days

For OPC -------------- 2200 psi --- 3 days

3400 psi – 7 days

Field Testing of Cement

Field testing should be used only for preliminary investigation, and it does not replace the
importance of laboratory tests. These tests are:

(1) Visual Observation: After opening the bags (packed with cement), there should be no visible lumps
and the color should be greenish gray.
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 (2) Feel Test: In this test, the hand is plunged into a bag of cement. It should not feel warm but cool.
The cement is then rubbed between the thumb and the forefinger. If it does not have a lumpy or
gritty feeling but gives a smooth feeling, the cement is good.
(3) Shrinkage Test: The test requires making a thick paste of cement with water on a piece of thick
glass. Ti is then immersed under water for 24 hours. If it does not crack, the cement is good.

(4) Shape Test: Take about 100 gm of cement with some water. Make a stiff paste. From the stiff paste,
pat a cake with sharp edges. Put it on a glass plate and slowly take it under water in a bucket. See
that the shape of the cake is not disturbed while taking it down to the bottom of bucket. After 24
hours, the cake should retain its original shape and at the same time it should also set and attain
some strength.

(5) Flexure Test: The test requires making a 25 mm × 25 mm × 200 mm (1"× 1" × 8") block of cement
with water. The block is then immersed under water for three days. After removing, it is supported
150 mm apart and weight of 15 kg uniformly placed over it. If it shows no signs of failure, the
cement is good.

Main types of Portland Cement

English Description (B.SI) American (ASTM) Description

1. Ordinary Portland Type I
2. Modified Portland Type II
a) Air Entraining Portland
b) Expanding Portland
3. Rapid Hardening Portland Type III
4. Quick Setting Portland ---
5. Low Heat Portland Type IV
6. Sulphate Resisting Portland Type V
7. Blast Furnace Type IS
8. PozzolanaPortland Type IP
9. White Portland ---

Varieties of Cement
In addition to ordinary cement, the following are the other important varieties of cement:
(a) Acid-resistant Cement
(b) Blast Furnace Cement or Slag Cement
(c) Colored Cement
(d) Expanding Cement
(e) High Alumina Cement
(f) Hydrophobic Cement
(g) Low Heat Cement
(h) Pozzolana Cement
(i) Quick Setting Cement
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 (j) Rapid Hardening Cement
(k) Sulphate Resisting Cement
(l) White Cement
(m) Antibacterial Cement
(n) Blended Cement
Acid-resistant Cement
Some additives are used to increase resistance against acid attack. The acid-resistant cement is used for
acid-resistant and heat-resistant coatings of installations of chemical industry.

Blast Furnace Cement or Slag Cement

Slag, a by-product of steel making industries is used in making blast furnace slag cement. Slag content in
slag cement varies widely from 10 to 65 %. The higher amount of slag content is suitable for long-term
durability in the marine environment. The hydration of slag cement is slower than the hydration of ordinary
Portland Cement. The earlier strength of slag cement is low but in the long-term significant gain in strength
is observed. Careful curing is necessary for its slow hydration process. It is environmentally friendly cement
as it utilized by-product of steel making industries.

Colored Cement
Mineral pigments are added with ordinary Portland cement for making different colored cements. The
amount of coloring material may vary from 5 to 10 %. More contents of coloring material may affect the
strength of the cement. The chromium oxide gives green color. The cobalt imparts blue color. The iron
oxides in different proportions gives brown, red, or yellow color. The manganese oxide is used to produce
black or brown colored cement.

Expanding Cement
This type of cement is produced by adding an expanding agent like sulpho-aluminate and stabilizing
agent to the ordinary cement. This cement expands at the early stage of hydration. whereas other cements
shrink. The expanding cement is used to compensate drying shrinkage. This cement is used in construction
of water retaining structures and also for repairing damaged concrete structures.

High Alumina Cement

Alumina content is high in this cement (more than 32 %). This cement is also known as Cement Fondu
in England. It gives a high early strength due to the high alumina content. Unfortunately, strength loss of the
cement is observed in the long-term due to some conversion of hydration process. Therefore, the use of this
cement is officially restricted in the country like England. The cost of this cement is high.

Hydrophobic Cement
This type of cement contains admixtures which decrease the wetting ability of cement.

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 Low Heat Cement
A considerable amount of heat is released during the hydration of cement. To reduce the amount of heat
this type of cement is used. It contains lower % of C3A and higher % of C2S. It is mainly used for mass
concrete work. It posses less compressive strength at the early age.

Fly ash Cement

Fly ash is a by-product of thermal power plants. A certain % of cement is replaced with fly ash same as
slag cement. The amount of replacement can be varied from 10 to 60 % of percent. It receives the heat of
hydration, therefore it is good for mass concrete work. It gives low strength at the early age. The curing
should be carefully performed due to the slow rate of hydration.

Quick Setting Cement

This cement is produced by adding a small % of aluminium sulfate and by finely grinding the cement.
The hydration process quickly starts with the presence of water and gives significant strength 30 minutes
after mixing with water. This cement is used to lay concrete under static water or running water.

Rapid Hardening Cement

The initial and final setting time of this cement is similar to the ordinary Portland cement. But, it gives a
high at the early age. The C3S content of this cement is very high and also cement are grinded into very fine
powder.

Sulphate Resisting Cement

In this cement, C3A is kept below 5 %. The CAH is expanded with the presence of sulfate, therefore
C3A content of the cement is reduced.
White Cement
It is made from raw material containing very little amount of iron oxide, and manganese oxide. This
cement is used for ornamental and architectural works.

Antibacterial Cement
In this cement, anti-bacterial agent is added to prevent the bacterial growth. This cement used in floors
of food processing plants, swimming pools, etc.

Blended Cement
Fly ash cement and slag cement are known as blended cements. It is also possible to make cement with
other combinations like OPC + FA + S + SF or OPC + FA + S. The blended cement produces a dense
microstructure and therefore is very good for long-term durability. Careful curing is necessary for blended
cements.

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Manufacturing of Cement

There are two main processes, such as (i) Wet Process and (2) Dry Process

Wet Process
The main stages of this process are:
(a) Preparation of Cement Slurry.
(b) Making Cement Clinkers,
(c) Making Powder Cement.

(a) Preparation of Cement Slurry:

Three volumes of calcareous (CaO. MgO) materials are mixed with one volume of
argillaceous materials. After mixing the materials are crushed in a crushing machine. Additional required
materials are added accordingly. The grinding material should pass through No. 200 sieve. Water of about
45 % is added and complete homogenous suspension is made. The liquid is pumped into a silo and corrected
for its composition.

(b) Making Cement Clinkers:

The slurry is fed into a rotary kiln at the top. It is inclined about 0.5 inch to a foot, and is
about 8 to 12 ft in diameter and 200 to 400 ft in length. The fuel to be used for the purpose may be coal, oil,
or gas. The kiln revolves at a speed of about 2 to 3 revolutions per minutes, depending upon the nature of the
material and the time taken by the material to reach the lower end of the kiln. The kiln consists of drying
zone, calcinated zone, clinker zone. (Refer to fig. 7.1 of reference by M. A Aziz). At drying zone, the
temperature is about 400o to 600o F to remove water from the slurry. The next section is known as
calcination zone. The temperature at calcination zone is about 1200o to 1600o F and the entire moisture from
the flakes is removed. The next zone is clinker zone. The temperature at this zone is about 1600o to 3000o F.
In this zone, the calcareous and argillaceous materials enters into chemical reactions and the composites of
cement are formed. These compounds come out as vitrified glassy nodules of varying sizes from 3/8 to ¼ in
downwards. This material is known as clinker.

(c) Making Powder Cement:

The hot clinkers have to be cooled and stored before grinding them into cement. Cooling
cylinder is moulted at the lower end of the rotary kiln into which the hot clinkers fall and are cooled. The
clinker is transferred to a clinker storage department.

[*** Dry process is cheaper than wet process]

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17
 Flow Diagram of Cement Manufacturing: Wet Process

Calcareous Materials Argillaceous Materials

(CaO, MgO) (SiO2,Al2O3, Fe2O3)

Grinding Mixing Grinding

Wet Grinding Water

Slurry

Rotary Kiln Fuel, Coal Dust

Clinker

Cooling

Storage

Grinding Gypsum

Cement

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 AGGREGATES
What is Sand?
Sand is an engineering material in concrete work. It is usually termed as fine aggregate.
Sand is a form of silica (quartz) and may be of argillaceous siliceous or calcareous according to its
composition.

o More or less 75 % volume of concrete is aggregate. So good quality of aggregates should be used.
o Aggregates act as a filler material in concrete
o We need good quality aggregate for making good quality concrete.
o Sand should be free from dust (clay + silt) and sand
o Sand should be free from reactive silica or carbonate and organic matter
o Sand should be well graded
If we have different sizes of particles, we will have less amount of voids. So, we need less amount of cement
and get strength in concrete
o Washing of sand is necessary to remove dust
o Dust: which passes through the # 100 sieve. (Dust = Clay + Silt)

Density of different components of concrete: (Specific Gravity)

Components Density (gm/cc) Density (kg/m3) Density (lb/ft3)

Cement 3.1 3100
Coarse Aggregate (CA)
Brick Chips 2.1 ~ 2.2 2100 ~ 2200
Stone Chips 2.6 2600
Shingle

Fine Aggregate (Sand) 2.6 2600

Water 1.0 1000 62.4
Concrete 2.3 ~ 2.1 2300

Classification of Sand
According to Source: According to Size:
o Pit Sand
o River Sand o Coarse Sand (3/8"), FM: 2.6
o Sea Sand
o Medium Sand (1/8"), FM: 2.2
According to Shape:
o Angular ( ) o Fine Sand (1/16"), FM: 1.8 ~ 2.0
o Round (○)
o Flaky ( )

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Test for Sand
(i) Test for silt and clay: Determined by the percentage loss in weight of a sample after washing the
same with clean water.
M before wash − M after wash
Silt =
Mafter wash
(ii) Organic Matter: A sample of sand is mixed with NaOH in a closed bottle. The sample is left 24
hours. If any organic matter is exist. The solution will become brown. The amount organic matter is
determined from the intensity of brown color.
Write down the uses of sand
The uses of sand are follows:
o Making concrete and mortar
o Making glasses
o Filling gaps between brick in road construction

Bulking of Sand: This is the increase in the volume of a given weight of sand due to the presence of
moisture, For up to about 5 ~ 8% of moisture by weight of sand there is a steady increase in volume to about
20 ~ 30 %.
The bulking of sand for small moisture content is due to the formation of thin film of water around the sand
grains and interlocking the air in between the sand grains and the film of water.

Gradation of Aggregates
o Gradation is the proportion of the different sizes of particles making up the aggregate
o Suitable gradation is required to ensure strength, workability and economy of concrete.
o Principle of Gradation: Smaller size particles fill up the voids left in large size particles
o Sieve analysis is the method to determine grading of aggregates
o For same size particles: void is more
o For different size particles: void is less

ASTM standard Sieve

Sieve Size Opening (mm)

#4
3" 76.2 1"
1
1 " 38.1
2
3/4" 19.05 1"
3/8" 9.5
▪ # 100  1 in2 100 × 100 (Opening)
#4 4.75
#8 2.36 ▪ # 200  200 × 200 (Opening) in 1 in2
area of sieve
# 16 1.19
# 30 0.59
▪ Smaller size sieves are defined by the
# 50 0.30 number of opening per linear inch
# 100 0.15
▪ Sieves are used to screen the particles
in the same sample
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 Fineness Modulus, Combined Grading and Grading Curve

Fineness Modulus: It is an index which gives an idea about fineness or coarseness of aggregate.

o FM is not an indication of grading of aggregates as an infinite number of grading can have same FM.
o Mathematically, FM is
 Cumulative % retained on each standard sieve
FM =
100
o For good concrete FM
for FA is (2.25 ~ 3.25) FM
for CA is (5.50 ~ 7.50)

o The smaller the value of FM, the more is smaller sizes in aggregate.

Grading Curve
The results of a sieve analysis can be grasped much more easily if represented graphically and for this
reason, grading charts are very extensively used. By using a chart, it is possible to see at a glance whether
the grading of a given sample conforms to that specified, or is too coarse or too fine, or deficient in a
particular size.
o Gap grading caused uneconomical mix
o Uniformly grading --------- lot of voids
o More finely grading caused --- less workability, low strength concrete
o More coarsely grading caused segregation
o Uniformly grading caused segregation

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Combined Grading: Mixed grading of CA and FA. FA fills up the voids left in CA.

Combined FM:
m1 FM 1 + m2 FM 2 + − − − − − − − − +mn FM n
FMcomb =
m1 + m2 + − − − − − − − + mn

For two samples:

m1 FM 1 + m2 FM 2
FMcomb = m1/m2 = R
m1 + m2
m / m FM 1 + FM 2 = Ratio of Sample–1 and Sample–2
FMcomb = 1 2
m1 / m2 +1
FM 2 − FM comb FM1 = Fineness modulus of Sample–1
m1/m 2 =
FM comb − FM 1

FM 2 − FM comb
R=
FM comb − FM 1

R :1 = Sample -1(wt) : Sample -2 (wt)

Problem: For a bridge construction project, the recommended FM for sand is 2.6. From a nearby market,
two sand samples (sand-1 and sand-2) were collected. The samples were sent to the Concrete Laboratory of
European University of Bangladesh for sieve analysis. The sieve analysis data are given below:

Amount Retained (gm)

ASTM Sieve
Sand – 1 Sand – 2
3˝ 0 0
1.5˝ 0 0
1.0˝ 0 0
3/4˝ 0 0
1/2˝ 0 0
3/8˝ 0 0
#4 70 0
#8 70 0
# 12 70 70
# 16 70 70
# 30 70 70
# 40 70 70
# 50 0 35
# 100 0 35
# 200 45 100
Pan 45 0

(i) Calculate FM of the sand samples (Note: It is necessary to screen the sand samples by # 4 sieve to
calculate the FM)
(ii) Draw the grading curve of the sand samples
(iii) In what proportions, the sand samples are to be mixed to get the recommended FM?
(iv) Comment on the samples based on the sieve analysis data and grading curves
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Solution:

Sand – 1 Sand – 2
Sieve Sieve
Materials % Cumulative Materials Materials Cumulative
Size Opening
Retained Materials % Retained % %
(mm)
(gm) Retained Retained (gm) Retained Retained
3˝ 304.8 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.5˝ 152.4 0 0 0 0 0 0
1.0˝ 76.2 0 0 0 0 0 0
3/4˝ 38.1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1/2˝ 19.05 0 0 0 0 0 0
3/8 9.5 0 0 0 0 0 0
#4 4.75 70 13.73 13.73 0 0 0
#8 2.36 70 13.73 27.46 0 0 0
# 12 1.70 70 13.73 41.19 70 15.56 15.56
# 16 1.19 70 13.73 54.92 70 15.56 31.12
# 30 0.59 70 13.73 68.65 70 15.56 46.68
# 40 0.425 70 13.73 82.38 70 15.56 62.24
# 50 0.30 0 0 82.38 35 7.78 70.02
# 100 0.15 0 0 82.38 35 7.78 77.8
# 200 0.075 45 8.82 91.20 100 22.22 100

Pan – 45 8.82 100 0 0 100

Total 510 450

 Cumulative % retained on each standard sieve

 FM1 =
100
13.73 + 27.46 + 54.92 + 68.65 + 82.38 + 82.38
= = 329.52/100 = 3.29
100

31.12 + 46.68 + 70.02 + 77.8

 FM2 = = 225.62/100 = 2.26
100

FMcomb = 2.60

2.26 − 2.60
 R = m1/m2 = = 0.49 ≈ 0.5
2.60 − 3.29

m1 : m2 = 1 : 2

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 CEMENT AND LIME MORTAR
Definition of mortar and classification
Mortar is a paste or mixture of binding material (cement or lime) and an inter material (sand or
surki) with water. There are different types of mortar:
▪ Cement Mortar: Cement + Sand + Water
▪ Lime Mortar: Lime + Sand + Water
▪ Surki Mortar: Lime + Surki + Water
▪ Lime-Surki Mortar: Lime + Sand + Surki + Water
▪ Mud Mortar: Mud + Saw dust / Rice husk/ Cow dung + Water

Function of Sand in Mortar:

o Used mainly as an inter material to give volume for economy
o Prevents shrinkage and cracking of mortar in setting
o Improve workability
o Light reaction between SiO2 and cement

Uses of Mortar
o Plaster work
o Making bond between bricks (1/4")
o Filling gaps (wall,.....)
o Hiding joints for improving appearance
o Decoration purpose
o In concrete as a matrix

Preparation of Mortar
Hand Mixing (mainly)
o Select materials (cement, sand, water)
o Select appropriate proportion
C : S = 1 : 3 or 1 : 4
W/C = 0.5
o Spread the sand on a impervious bed
o Spread cement over sand
o Mix (cement and sand) [uniform color]
o Half of the water is sprinkled over the mixture
o Add another half and mix

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