Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CENG 5501 Lecture Note

Chapter 5
SUPERSTRUCTURES
5.1. Introduction

An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the

whole bridge structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion
of the gravity load the bridge must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light
superstructure is economical not only in material requirements of the superstructure but also
requires smaller size for substructure and foundations. A clear understanding of the structural
behavior of superstructures under loads is essential for efficient design.

A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete,

prestressed concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of
forces in these components is essential for design purposes. The method of analysis may be
static or dynamic based on the response characteristics of the superstructure to various
loadings. Static analysis will be used for structures that are relatively insensitive to dynamic
action of moving live loads and, wind and earthquake loads, and which undergo small
deformations. Most commonly constructed bridges of small and medium size fall under this
category for which small deformation theory is used (deformations are small and negligible
as not to affect force effects). For these types of bridges, static analysis is used with dynamic
magnification factor, IM for vehicular live loads, to account for larger load effect than the
same load applied statically. However, for flexible bridges and long slender components, due
to their susceptibility to vibration and their large deformations, dynamic analysis should be
carried out. For these types of bridges dynamic effects of moving live loads may exceed the
allowance given by impact, IM. Dynamic analysis should be carried out not only for wind
and earthquake loads but also for moving live loads.

Analysis for internal actions will be followed by section analysis and design by the strength
design method.

Therefore, structural analysis and section design of different types of bridge superstructures
will be made in this chapter. Emphasis will be given to reinforced concrete bridges of small
and medium spans because these are the most commonly constructed types of bridges in
Ethiopia.

5.2. Reinforced Concrete

The two principal materials used in superstructure construction are steel and concrete.

Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges. The major ones
are the adaptability of concrete to a wide variety of structural shapes and forms, and low cost
of maintenance (less than 1% of construction cost per year). The other advantages are long
life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges. Cast-
in-place reinforced concrete structure are continuous and monolithic, attributes, which
translate into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can also be
given the desired aesthetic appearance.

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The disadvantages of concrete are large dead weight (which require larger foundation),
difficulty to widen or rebuild, longer construction time and that it requires formwork and
false work, which are expensive.

A bridge deck is the medium through which all bridge loads are transferred to other
components. Fig. 5.1 shows load path from bridge deck down to the supporting foundation
soil.

Fig. 5.1 Load path from bridge deck down to foundation

Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is
taken uniformly distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random
positions both longitudinally and transversely, and thus effect the live load shared by various
beams. This aspect of live load distribution is one of the primary concerns in the analysis of
bridge decks.

Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude
of these effects. Fig. 5.2 shows influence lines for shear and moment.

Fig. 5.2. Influence lines for absolute maximum shear and moment

There are various methods of deck analysis varying from hand calculation to computer
software, and the applicability of an analytical method to a bridge depends on the complexity
of its structural form and its behavioral characteristics. From this standpoint the most
commonly used type are the following:

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1. Slab bridges
2. Beam and slab deck bridges (T-Girder Bridges)
3. Cellular deck bridges
4. Frame bridges

5.2.1 Slab Bridges

Slab bridges are most commonly used to span short spans up to 12m. The load carrying
mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in all directions,
as shown in Fig. 5.3. Application of a load on the portion make the slab deflect into a dish
shape locally, causing a two-dimensional system of bending and twisting moments, the
mechanism through which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the deck, which
are less severely loaded.

The governing equation for the vertical deflection of a loaded plate developed by S. D.
Poisson and boundary conditions modified by G.R Kirchhoff is

Z is the downward deflection of the plate

q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of the plate and h is thickness of slab,  Poisson’s ratio

Fig. 5.3 Load carrying mechanism of slab bridge treated as a plate

In the absence of closed form solution to Eqn.(5.1), approximate methods are developed.
One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have
been prepared by Pucher for slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by
Rusch and Heregnroder (1961) and Balas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew
slabs.

Another method is the grillage method. Some softwares are developed for this method.

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Fig. 5.4 Grillage idealization of slab bridge

Yet another method is line solution technique, which reduces the partial differential equation
to their finite difference equivalents in one direction.

Another method is the strip method, which AASHTO recommends to use.

The equivalent width E of an interior longitudinal strip per lane for both shear and moment
with one lane loaded, (i.e., two lines of wheels) may be determined from

E = 250 + 0.42 √ . . . . . . (5.2)

The equivalent width E per lane with more than one lane loaded, may be determined from
Multiple lanes loaded

W=Actual edge to edge width = 8920mm

NL = Integer part of (clear roadway width/3600)

Where: E is equivalent width (mm)

L1 is the lesser of actual span or 18000mm, where actual span is c/c of
supports or clear span plus effective depth whichever is smaller
W1 is actual edge to edge width of bridge or 18000mm for multi lane loading or
9000mm for single lane loading, whichever is lesser.
W is physical edge to edge width of bridge (mm)
NL is the number of design lanes

For edge strip, the equivalent width E is [Art. 4.6.2.1.4]

E = distance from edge to face of barrier + 300mm + ½ interior strip width ≤ full strip
width of interior strip or 1800mm

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AASHTO Art 9.7.4 requires that at lines of discontinuity, the edge of the slab deck shall
either be strengthened or be supported by a beam or other line component. The beam or
component shall be integrated with the deck.

Durability of deck slabs is a subject of universal concern. As riding surfaces of vehicular

traffic they must have durability against abrasion to repetitive cycles of loading The
other major durability problem is corrosion of reinforcing steel. This can be protected by
providing minimum cover to reinforcement.
Minimum reinforcement cover is given in Table 5.12.3-1 of AASHTO. For bottom
reinforcement of cast in place slabs for reinforcement of diameter 36mm or less, a cover of
25mm shall be provided.

Traditional minimum depth given in Table 1 will be began with for design, which will later
be checked for concrete strength.

Table 1: Traditional minimum depths for constant depth superstructures [AASHTO 2005,
Art. 2.5.6.2.3].

Section analysis for flexure follows

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Fig. 5.5

The factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths exceeding 28MPa, β1 shall be
reduced at a rate of 0.05 for each 7MPa of strength in excess of 8MPa, 1≥0.65 Art 5.7.2.2
Horizontal force equilibrium, C=T
0.85f’ cab=Asfy a = Asfy /0.85fc’b = pfyd/0.85f’c
a = (Asfy – A’sf’y) / 0.85fc’b for doubly reinforced sections

Moment equilibrium Mn = T(d-a/2) = Asfy (d-a/2)

Mu = Mn = Asfy (d-0.588pfy/f’c)

Mu= [Asfy (d-a/2)-A’sf’y(d’-a/2)+0.85f’c(b-bw)βhf(a/2-hf/2)]

[ √ ]

Limits for reinforcement [Art 5.7.3.3]

Maximum reinforcement is such that, c/d≤0.42, if c>0.42d, then the section is over
reinforced

Minimum:

5.2.2 T-Girder Bridges

T-Girders are used for bridges spanning from about 10-25m. These usually consist of equally
spaced beams (generally with spacing of 1.8 – 3.6m) spanning longitudinally between
supports.

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Fig. 5.4 T-girder RC Temcha bridge

The slab is structurally continuous across the top. The slab serves the dual purpose of
supporting the live load on the bridge and acting as the top flange of the longitudinal beams.
Diaphragms are provided transversely between the beams over the supports and depending on
the span, at midspan and other intermediate locations. The purpose of providing diaphragms
is to ensure lateral distribution of live loads to various adjacent stringers, the magnitude of the
share of each stringer depends on the stiffness of the diaphragms relative to the stringers and
on the method of connectivity.

Under loads, the response of a slab is characterized by longitudinal bending with the
stringers as top flanges accompanied by transverse bending as a continuous slab. The
transverse bending of the slab makes the remote beams to share load, which also causes
twisting of beams for compatibility of deformation as shown in Fig. 5.5. The participatory
action of these remote beams depends on the stiffness of the slab and its span, spacing and
stiffness of beams.

The participatory action of remote beams and various superstructure components is referred
to as load distribution.

Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder
analysis and design.

Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the
girders (Art. 9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by
AASHTO ILS for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be
taken to apply to all positive moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior
transverse strip over which the wheel loads can be considered distributed longitudinally in
cast – in – place concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2.1.3-1]

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Fig. 5.5 Deformation of slab and girders under loads

 Overhang, 1140+0.833X
 Positive moment, 660+0.55S
 Negative moment, 1220+0.25S

Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of
the T-beams.

In the design of overhang deck slab, design forces acting on the barrier should be considered.

Table 5.1 Design forces for a performance level 2(PL-2) barrier

Direction Force Length

Transverse 240kN 1.07m
Longitudinal 80kN 1.07m
Vertical 80kN 5.00

These tables give classification of cross section of girder bridges

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These tables give empirical load distribution factors to girders for moment and shear [Art.
4.6.2.2.2]

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Section analysis and design is similar to slab bridges.

In T-girder analysis, transverse placement of lines of wheels that give maximum shear and
moment is one line on the beam and the other with in span if S>1.8m.

Placement of line load in the longitudinal direction for maximum effect is made using
influence lines.

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Section analysis and design follows that for T-beams. The deck slab serves as the top flange
of the T-beam.

Design for Flexure

Mu= [Asfy(d-a/2)-A’sf’y(d’-a/2)+0.85f’c(be-bw)βhf(a/2-hf/2)

Where be - is effective width of the flange at span

A’s – is compression reinforcement for doubly reinforced beams
hf – thickness of flange slab

The effective flange width for interior beams may be taken as the least of: [Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
 One quarter of the effective span length
 12 times the average depth of the slab plus the greater of the web thickness or
top flange of the girder
 The average spacing of adjacent beams

For exterior beams, the effective flange width may be taken as one half of the adjacent
interior beam plus the least of: [Art. 4.6.2.6.1]
 One -eighth of the effective span length
 6 times the average depth of the slab plus the greater of one half the web
thickness or one quarter of the width of the top flange of the basic girder
 The width of the overhang

This formula is a general one, which can be used for T-beams, rectangular singly reinforced
and rectangular doubly reinforced beams. Limits for reinforcement given for slabs apply here
also.

c/d≤0.42,

Minimum
Depth from deflection requirement is began with {Art. 2.5.2.6.3 Table 1}
D = 0.07L for RC T-beams of simple span
D = 0.065L for RC T-beams of continuous spans.
minimum slab thickness is 175mm Art. 9.7.1.1
minimum cover is as given in Table 5.1 [Art. 5.12.3]

End hook anchorage requirement of reinforcement bar is as given in Fig. [Art. 5.11.2.4]

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Design for shear

The nominal shear resistance, Vn is

Vn=Vc+Vs
Vn=0.25 F’cbwd
For which Vc – 0.083βbwd f’c

Vs=[Avfyd(cot +cot )sin /S

For = 900’ Vs=Avfyd cot /S

Where:
Vu= Vn

β=2.0 for sections containing at least minimum shear reinforcement or having

=450 overall depth less than 400mm

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Minimum reinforcement (Art. 5.8.2.5)

Where transverse reinforcement is required, the minimum reinforcement is

Maximum spacing (Art. 5.8.2.7)

S ≤0.8d≤ 600mm if Vu<0.1f’cbwd

S≤0.4d ≤300mm if Vu ≥0.1f’cbwd

5.2.3 Box Girder Bridges

Concrete box girder bridges are economical for spans of above 25 to 45m. They can be
reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. Longer span than 45m will have to be
prestressed.

They are similar to T-beams in configuration except the webs of T-beams are all
interconnected by a common flange resulting in a cellular superstructure. The top slab, webs
and bottom slab are built monolithically to act as a unit, which means that full shear transfer
must be provided between all parts of the section.

Reinforced concrete box girders have high torsional resistance due to their closed shape and
are particularly suitable for structures with significant curvature. This construction also lends
itself to aesthetic treatment.

Concrete box girder bridges have several advantages over other types;
1. The relatively shallow depth of box girders is an advantage where headroom is limited
like in urban overpasses.
2. Monolithic construction of the superstructure and substructure offers structural as well as
aesthetic advantage. The pier caps for continuous box girders can be placed within the
box, facilitating rigid connection to the pier.
3. They provide space for utilities such as water and gas lines, power, telephone and cable
ducts, storm drains and sewers, which can be placed in the hollow cellular section.
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4. The other advantages are, as mentioned previously, their torisional stiffness and
aesthetics.

Typical cross sections are shown in Fig. 5.6. While the interior webs are all vertical, the
exterior webs may be vertical, inclined or curved. When the exterior webs are inclined, their
slope should preferably be 1HL 2V.

Fig. 5.6 Typical box girder cross sections

Design Considerations
The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-
beams with transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell
configuration.

The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments.
Consequently they are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the
case of continuous T-beams, the webs must resist the negative girder moments as well all the
shear, and contain all the reinforcement for positive moments.

The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab
also affords a superstructure considerably thinner that a T-beam bridge of the same span and
permits even longer spans to be built.

Cross-sections are taken as shown in Fig 5.7 a and b for analysis for exterior and interior
girders respectively. The structural analysis is same as for T-beams. Section analysis is also
same except the compression bottom flange for continuous spans. The entire slab width is
assumed effective for compression.

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a) Exterior girder b) Interior girder

Fig. 5.7 Box girder cross sections taken for analysis

Proportions
Depth - is dictated by deflection requirement
D = 0.06L for simple spans
D = 0.066L for continuous spans
D = 0.045L for precast, cast-in-pace prestressed, simple spans
D – 0.040L for continuous spans

Top slab thickness: minimum is 175mm

Bottom slab thickness has no requirement except 140mm thickness required for
placing concrete around reinforcement.

Webs
There are no provision in the AASHTO specifications governing the spacing and
thickness of webs (girders). Their primary purpose is to resist shear and only a small
portion of the moments. Optimum web spacing are suggested to be between 2.1 and
2.75m for span up to 45m, and as much as 3.66 for longer spans. A web thickness of
200mm is considered a desirable minimum for practical considerations for shear

reinforcement and concrete pouring. For prestressed concrete, a minimum of 300mm is

used for placement of tendon ducts.

5.2.4 Continuous Reinforce Concrete Bridges

Advantages
i- Less number of bearings than simply supported bridge since on line of bearings
are used over he piers.
ii- Reduced width of pier, thus less flow obstruction and less amount of material.
iii- Requires less number of expansion joints due to which both the initial cost and
maintenance cost become less. The rigidity quality over the bridge is thus
improved.
iv- Lesser depth of girder, hence economical supports.
v- Better architectural appearance.
vi- Lesser Vibration and deflection.

Disadvantages
i- Analysis is laborious and time consuming.
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ii- Not suitable on yielding foundations.

Fig. 5.8 Continuous RC girder bridge (Haunched)

The deck can be slab, T-beam or box section.

Fig. 5.9 Piccolo Abay continuous haunched RC girder bridge

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Fig. 5.10 Abay bridge on Bure-Nekemt road, continuous haunched RC pre stressed box
girder bridge
Balanced cantilever method of construction is used for this bridge. Fig. 5.11 shows example
of this method of construction.

Fig. 5.11 Balanced cantilever method of construction with moving formwork

5.2.5 Reinforce Concrete Rigid Frame Bridges

In rigid frame bridges, the deck is rigidly connection to the bridge and piers. All the
advantages of a continuous span bridge are present here.
Additional advantages of rigid frame bridges over continuous ones are
i- More rigidity of the structure
ii- Less moments in deck being partly transferred to the supporting members
iii- Non bearings are required
iv- Better aesthetic appearance than the continuous span structure
As in continuous span bridges, these structures also require unyielding foundation materials.
The analysis is however, more laborious than the former.
The frames may be hinged or fixed at the base.

Hinged base
The moments carried over to the base rotate only the vertical supports thereby
reducing the moments very considerably and no moments are carried over to the footings.
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Fig. 5.12 Rigid frame bridges

Only the vertical load and the moment caused by the thrust at the hinge level are to be
considered in designing the footings.

The moments at the base of supports and at the rafts are very small but the span
moments are greater than those of fixed frames.
Fixed base

The moments from the superstructure are carried over to the footings since the vertical
supports cannot rotate independently without rotating the footings along with them. This
state is achieved if the foundation rests on solid rock or unyielding foundation.

5.3. Steel Bridges

Steel bridge construction consists of rolled steel beams, plate girders or trusses with
reinforced concrete deck or steel plate deck-beam bridges.
Steel has got several advantages
 It is a high quality, homogeneous, isotropic material that is perfectly elastic to its yield
point. It has high tensile and compressive strengths. Past the yield point it offers
considerable ductility to provide a large reserve of strength.

 Steel bridges can be built faster than reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete bridge.
They can be erected with ease and this minimizing construction costs.
 Steel superstructures are usually lighter than concrete superstructures wich translates into
reduced substructures costs, which can be significant when soil conditions are poor.
 Steel superstructures can be designed with shallower depth than RC, which is an
important consideration when overhead clearance is required.
 Steel bridges are easy and faster to repair than RC.

Steel bridges have some major disadvantages that make them much less favorable than RC
or PSC bridges

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 Corrosion of steel is the major drawback which requires prohibitively high maintenance
cost. Corrosion can reduce cross section of structural members and weaken the
superstructure also.
 The second disadvantage is that steel fatigues under repeated loading (its strength
decreases under repeated loading at high number of cycles of loading)
The different types of steel bridges will now be treated one by one.

5.3.1 Rolled Steel Beam Bridges

This is the most common type of construction for short and medium span highway bridges.in
Europe and North America. This usually consists of equally speed rolled beams place
parallel to traffic to span between supports as shown in Fig 5.13. These are transversely
spanned by cast-in-place reinforced concrete slab that serves as bridge deck and providers
lateral stability to stringers. Diaphragms are provided at the ends and at intermediate points
to provide lateral stability.

Fig. 5.13 Rolled steel beam bridge

Rolled steel beam and plate girder bridges can be classified as composite or non-composite
types. In a non-composite structure steel beams act independently of the deck slab in
resisting both the dead load as well as the live loads.

In composite construction, the dead loads are resisted by the steel beams alone (assuming
unshored construction), whereas the superimposed dead loads and live loads are resisted by
the composite action of the slab and the steel beam acting as a unit. Shear connectors are
required in this case in the form of studs or channels as shown in Fig. 5.10 or angles.

5.3.2 Plate Girder and Steel Box Girder Bridges

Plate girder and steel box girder bridges are built up sections made of plates by welding,
bolting or riveting. The decks are made of RC. They are suitable for medium to long span
bridges. Additional plates can be bolted, riveted or welded to the plate girder to provide
added strength at sections of maximum moment as in Fig 5.11a and c

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Fig 5.14 Steel deck with shear studs in a composite steel beam

Fig 5.15 Fig. 5.16

Due to high depth-to-thickness ratio of their webs (h/tw), webs can buckle under
compression. These are overcome by stiffening as in Fig 5.12. Lateral braces should also be
provided as shown in Fig. 5.13 to resist wind force that can act over their large exposed area.

Fig. 5.17

Composite steel box girder constructions are used for medium to long spans. Fig 4.12 shows
various type of composite box girder bridges. This can be used for curves and super
elevations.

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Fig 5.18
5.3.3. Steel Truss Bridges

Steel truss bridges are used for medium to long span crossings. The problem with steel is it
requires a prohibitively high maintenance cost. The other problem with steel is fatigue.
Fig 5.15 shows typical steel truss bridge types.

Fig. 5.19 Variable depth through truss Fig. 5.20 Constant depth truss bridges
bridges

5.3.4 Plate Deck – Stringer Bridges

Orthotropic plate deck and steel plate deck box girder bridges are commonly used for long
span bridges in girder bridges or with trusses and girders in cable-stayed and suspension
bridges. Fig 5.16 shows typical orthotropic deck.

Fig 5.21 Typical orthotropic deck

5.4 Special Bridges

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5.4.1 Arch Bridges

Arches are generally characterized by the development of inclined rather than vertical
reactions under vertical loads.

Cross-sections are designed for thrust, moment and shear, with magnitudes depending on the
location of the pressure line as shown in fig. 5.17. If the pressure line coincides with the axis
of structure (as in a uniformly loaded parabolic arch), all cross sections will be subjected to
compression, with no moment or shear. If the pressure line falls with in the kern, there will
not be tension. But if shape of structure and pressure line differ, moment may become
dominant. Fig. 5.18 shows parts of arch bridges.

Fig. 5.22 Fig. 5.23 Different parts of an arch bridge

Fig. 5.24 Abay deck concrete arch bridge on Goha Tsion – Dejen road
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Compared to the girder bridges, arch bridges are economical because the dead load moments
in arch bridges are almost absent when the arch is properly designed.
The loads on the arch are carried by the arch ribs mainly through direct axial thrusts, the
bending moment and shear forces being small compared to girder bridge which requires
larger section. This is due to the hogging moment which balances the sagging moment
created by the horizontal force, H, at the support.

Fig. 5.25 Through arch bridge at Finote Selam

The main parameter of an arch is the rise to span ration, r/1 91/6 to 1/10)
From economic point of view it is attempted to coincide the center of pressure of a given load
with center of line of the arch.

M=M1 - H.V
Where M=arch moment
M1 = moment considering the arch as simply supported
H = horizontal force
V = vertical ordinate
The center of pressure in the arch is thus M=0
V=

Types of arch bridges

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Based on
a) Location of deck with respect to the arch rib
i) –Deck
ii)-Through
iii)-Semi-through

Abay deck arch

Finote Selam through arch

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Fig 5.26

b) Structural arrangement of arch rib

i) - Two hinged
ii) - Three hinged
iii)-Fixed arch
iv)-Tied arch or bow string

Fig 5.27

Fixed Arch
Needs absolute un-yielding foundation because forces and moments in fixed arches change
both due to rotation and displacement of the supports.

Two-hinged Arch
Structure is not_affected due to rotation of the abutments but is affected due to the
displacement of the same.
-may be designed with small displacement of the supports.

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Three-hinged Arch
Even with rotation and small displacement of the foundation or unequal settlement of the
foundations, the thrust and moments are not significantly affected in three-hinged arch
bridges.

Fig 5.28 Truss arch bridge

Masonry and Concrete Arch Bridges

Stone masonry arch bridges were dominant in Ethiopia prior to the 1950s. If made from
granite or similar hard stone they may withstand any standard highway loading. In Europe
several 2000 year-old bridges are still in use. This type of bridge may still be preferred where
weather-resistant rocks may_be obtained, provided that the ground will not allow any
horizontal sliding between the footing and the soil, and that skilled masons are to be found.

One should however be cautious that even outside of earthquake zones failures may occur. In
England some old bridges have suddenly fallen apart. Research has commenced, but we still
do not know why some stone masonry arch bridges fail, believed to be dependent on the
movements of the fill on the arches. Until further results are presented it is recommended to
use stone rubble, or similar material that does not move easily, instead of gravel fill.

Granites can be found mainly west of Nakemte, in Tigray, in the southwestern regions, south
of Dodola where however there are very few bridges. For most small and medium sized
bridges (below 50 m length) the hardest types of basalt stone, sandstone and limestone can
also be used, and therefore nearly the whole country could make use of stone masonry
bridges. Hard burned clay stones (called clinker) could also be utilized for this type of
bridge.

5.4.2 Cable Stayed Bridges

Cable stayed bridges are ideal for spanning natural barriers of wide rivers and deep valleys
because they can provide long spans unobstructed by piers.

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a) Span proportions
The most popular span arrangements are:
1. Two span (symmetrical or asymmetric)

Fig. 5.21

b) Stay arrangements
The arrangement of the cable stays is one of the fundamental items in the design of cable-
stayed bridges. It influences, in fact, not only the structural performance of the bridge, but
also the method of erection and economies.

Transverse cable arrangement

Single plane ---- usually for pedestrian bridges
Double plane ---- majority of existing structures.
Multiple plane ---- for urban areas where the number of lanes are many

Longitudinal cable arrangement

i) Radiating (converging)-Fan because the cables are at maximum angles of inclination to
the girders, the cables take maximum component of DL & LL loads.

ii) Harp – It causes bending moment in the tower.

- The harp pattern is not the best from the static of economic point of views
- It is superior aesthetically

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iii) Fan /Modified fan/ - Combination of radiating and harp types and combining the
advantages of both.
Large number of cable-stayed bridges have been built using this

iv) Star – Aesthetically pleasing

No staging or false work is required for the construction of Cable-Stayed bridges.

The cables from deck of a cable-stayed bridge are connected to the main tower by aut and
inclined but straight cables.

5.4.3 Suspension Bridges

The twin main cables from the tower of a suspension bridge from a catenary from which the
hangers are suspended and fixed to the deck.
Sag ratio for cables should be L/9------L/13

Suspension bridges are economical when the span exceeds 300m. Suspension bridges consist
of one main span and two side spans.
L1/L = 0.17 to 0.50

The cables being very flexible do not take any bending moment and are subjected only to
tensile forces. The stiffening truss stiffens the deck and distribute the live load of the deck on
to the cables. Otherwise the cables would be subjected to local sag due to action of
concentrated live load and thus causes local angle change in the deck system.

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The stiffening trusses are hinged at the towers and suspended at node points from suspender,
which are usually high tensile cables.

Vertical suspenders have been used in many bridges but diagonal suspenders have the
advantage of increasing the aerodynamic stability.

1) Simple suspension bridge

Akashi-kaiko suspension bridge

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