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GNS 221

PART ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER APPLICATION

Course Team: Dr. OLUSANYA O. O.

Dr. ADEDEJI
Dr. OGUNBANWO A. SIMBO

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 TABLE OF CONTENT

1. CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER

TECHNOLOGY
1.1. Introduction
1.2.Early Mechanical and Analog Devices
1.3.Early Programmable Machines
1.4.Electromechanical and Early Electronic Computers
1.5.The Transition to Modern Computing: Transistors and Integrated
Circuits
1.6.The Microprocessor and Personal Computing Revolution
1.7.The Internet Age and Beyond

2. CHAPTER TWO: GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

2.1.Introduction
2.2.First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tube Technology
2.3.Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistor Technology
2.4.Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs)
2.5.Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors
2.6.Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence and
Quantum Computing

3. CHAPTER THREE: CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

3.1.Introduction
3.2.Classification Based on Size
3.3.Classification Based on Purpose
3.4.Classification Based on Data Handling
3.5. Classification Based on Functionality

4. CHAPTER FOUR: BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

4.1.Introduction
4.2.Hardware
4.3.4Software
4.4. Humanware (Peopleware)

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5. CHAPTER FIVE: BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS AND KEYBOARD
LAYOUT
5.1.Introduction
5.2.Basic Computer Operations
5.3. Keyboard Layout

6. CHAPTER SIX: INTRODUCTION TO DATA PROCESSING

6.1. Introduction
6.2. Definition of Data Processing:
6.3. Stages of Data Processing
6.4. Types of Data Processing
6.5. Importance of Data Processing
6.6. Data Processing Applications

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 CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER
TECHNOLOGY

1. Early Mechanical and Analog Devices

 The Abacus (circa 3000 BCE)
The abacus is one of the earliest known computing devices, used for basic arithmetic calculations
in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and Greece. Though not a "computer" in the modern
sense, but the abacus introduced the idea of using a tool to facilitate the manipulation of
numbers.
 Napier’s “Bones”
Napier’s bones was developed by John Napier in 1614. His invention was a method for
performing arithmetic operations by the manipulation of rods, called “bones” because they were
often constituted from bones and printed with digits. Napier’s rods essential rendered the
complex process of multiplication and division into the comparatively simple tasks of addition
and subtraction.
 The Slide Rule
The first Slide Rule appeared in 1650 and was the result of a joint effort of two Englishmen
Edmund Gunter and the Reverend William Oughtred. This slide rule based on Napier’s
Algorithms was to become the first analog computer (of the modern age) since multiplication
and subtractions were figured out by physical distance. This invention was dormant until 1850
when a French artillery officer Amedee Mannheim added the moveable double sided cursor,
which gave it its appearance as we know it today.
 Mechanical Calculators (17th Century)
The development of mechanical calculators in the 17th century marked a significant leap in
computing technology. Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline in 1642, a device capable of
performing addition and subtraction through a system of gears. Later, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
improved upon this design with his Stepped Reckoner (1673), which could perform
multiplication and division. Leibniz also introduced the concept of binary numbers, which would
become crucial in the development of digital computers.
2. Early Programmable Machines
 Jacquard Loom (1801)
Joseph-Marie Jacquard's invention of the loom in 1801 used punched cards to control weaving
patterns. Although not a computational device, the Jacquard loom demonstrated how machines
could be programmed to perform specific tasks through stored instructions, a concept that would
be adopted in future computing technologies.
 Charles Babbage and the Analytical Engine (1837)
The British mathematician Charles Babbage is often credited with conceptualizing the first
mechanical computer. His designs for the Analytical Engine (1837) included features that are
characteristic of modern computers, such as a control unit, memory, and input/output operations.
However, the machine was never built during his lifetime due to technical limitations and lack of
funding. Ada Lovelace, an associate of Babbage, is recognized as the first computer
programmer, having written detailed algorithms for the Analytical Engine.

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3. Electromechanical and Early Electronic Computers
 The Turing Machine (1936)
Alan Turing, a British mathematician, introduced the concept of a "universal machine" that could
solve any problem given the correct algorithm. This theoretical construct, known as the Turing
machine, laid the groundwork for modern computing by formalizing the concepts of algorithms
and computation. Turing's contributions during World War II, especially his work on breaking
the Enigma code, demonstrated the practical applications of computational theory.
 Electromechanical Computers (1930s-1940s)
Electromechanical computers, which combined electrical and mechanical components, emerged
in the 1930s. One of the earliest examples was the Zuse Z3, created by German engineer Konrad
Zuse in 1941. The Z3 was the first programmable digital computer, capable of executing simple
programs stored on punched tape. Meanwhile, in the United States, the Harvard Mark I, designed
by Howard Aiken in collaboration with IBM, was used during World War II for complex
calculations.
 ENIAC (1945)
The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) is widely regarded as the first fully
electronic general-purpose computer. Built by John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the
University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC used vacuum tubes to perform calculations at unprecedented
speeds. ENIAC was primarily used for military calculations, particularly in the development of
ballistic trajectories during World War II.

4. The Transition to Modern Computing: Transistors and Integrated Circuits

 The Invention of the Transistor (1947)
The invention of the transistor by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell
Labs in 1947 revolutionized computing technology. Transistors replaced the bulky and unreliable
vacuum tubes used in early computers, making machines smaller, more reliable, and more
energy-efficient. This breakthrough laid the foundation for the development of modern electronic
computers.
 Integrated Circuits (1958)
The development of integrated circuits (ICs) in the late 1950s by Jack Kilby at Texas
Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor further transformed computer
technology. ICs allowed for the miniaturization of electronic components, packing multiple
transistors into a single chip. This innovation made computers more powerful, faster, and
smaller, enabling the development of smaller, more affordable machines.

5. The Microprocessor and Personal Computing Revolution

 The Intel 4004 and the Birth of the Microprocessor (1971)
The Intel 4004, introduced in 1971, was the first commercially available microprocessor. A
microprocessor is a single chip that contains the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.
The Intel 4004's small size and low cost opened the door to the personal computer (PC)
revolution, making computers accessible to a wider audience.
 The Rise of Personal Computers (1970s-1980s)
The 1970s and 1980s saw the introduction of personal computers, marking a significant shift in
how computers were used. The Apple II, released in 1977, became one of the first successful

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personal computers, designed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. IBM followed with the IBM PC
in 1981, establishing a standard for personal computing that persists to this day.
 Operating Systems and Software (1980s-1990s)
The development of user-friendly operating systems (OS) and software was crucial to the growth
of personal computing. Microsoft’s MS-DOS, followed by Windows, and Apple’s Macintosh OS
made computers more accessible to non-technical users, leading to widespread adoption in
homes and businesses.

6. The Internet Age and Beyond

 The Development of the Internet (1960s-1990s)
The internet began as a military project in the 1960s, evolving into a global network by the
1990s. The invention of the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, combined with the
growth of internet infrastructure, transformed computers from isolated machines into
interconnected devices, facilitating global communication, commerce, and information sharing.
 Modern Computing (2000s-present)
In the 21st century, computers have become more powerful, portable, and ubiquitous. Advances
in cloud computing, artificial intelligence (AI), and mobile technology have transformed
industries and reshaped society. Smartphones, tablets, and wearable devices now provide users
with computing power once reserved for desktop machines. Quantum computing, which explores
new ways of processing information using quantum mechanics, promises to further revolutionize
the field in the future.

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 CHAPTER TWO: GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS

1. First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tube Technology

Key Features:
 Technology: Vacuum tubes were the primary technology used for processing and
memory.
 Size: These computers were large and took up entire rooms.
 Speed: Processing was slow, as the vacuum tubes could only perform basic arithmetic
and logic operations.
 Programming Language: Machine language (binary code) was used.
 Input/Output: Punched cards and paper tape were used for input, while printouts served
as output.
 Storage: Magnetic drums were used for memory.
Examples:
 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer): Considered the first general-
purpose electronic digital computer.
 UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer): The first commercially available computer,
used for business applications and the U.S. Census.
Limitations:
 Heat generation: Vacuum tubes generated excessive heat, leading to frequent failures.
 Power consumption: These computers consumed vast amounts of electricity.
 Size and cost: Their enormous size and cost limited usage to government and large
organizations.
Contribution: First-generation computers laid the groundwork for future developments in
computing, demonstrating the potential of electronic machines for automating calculations.

2. Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistor Technology

Key Features:
 Technology: Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and
more reliable.
 Size: Computers became more compact, though they still occupied a considerable amount
of space.
 Speed: Processing speed improved significantly as transistors could switch faster than
vacuum tubes.
 Programming Language: Assembly languages and early high-level languages like
FORTRAN and COBOL were introduced.
 Input/Output: Punched cards continued to be used for input/output, but magnetic tapes
also became a popular storage medium.
Examples:
 IBM 1401: One of the most widely used second-generation computers in business
applications.
 IBM 7090: A powerful mainframe used in scientific research and government
applications.
Advancements:
 Cost-effectiveness: Transistors were cheaper and more energy-efficient than vacuum
tubes.

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  Reliability: Computers became more reliable with fewer heat-related failures.
Contribution: The transition to transistors marked the beginning of a more practical and
accessible era of computing, as these machines were smaller, faster, and affordable for more
businesses.

3. Third Generation (1964-1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Key Features:
 Technology: Integrated circuits, which placed multiple transistors on a single chip,
revolutionized computer design by significantly reducing the size and cost of computers.
 Size: Computers became smaller, with some models now small enough to fit in offices.
 Speed: The use of ICs improved processing speeds and computational power.
 Programming Language: High-level programming languages like COBOL,
FORTRAN, and newly introduced BASIC were used.
 Input/Output: The introduction of keyboards and monitors for input and output, as well
as magnetic disks for storage.
Examples:
 IBM System/360: One of the most influential third-generation computers, used in both
commercial and scientific applications.
 PDP-8: A smaller, cheaper minicomputer developed by Digital Equipment Corporation
(DEC), making computers more accessible to smaller organizations.
Advancements:
 Multiprogramming: Allowed multiple programs to run concurrently, improving
efficiency.
 Improved User Interaction: Keyboards and monitors made computers easier to use.
 Widespread Use: Third-generation computers became common in universities,
businesses, and government.
Contribution:
This generation saw the broad adoption of computers, not just for specialized purposes but for
general business, academic, and industrial use. Computers became more interactive and began to
resemble the user interface designs of modern machines.

4. Fourth Generation (1971-Present): Microprocessors

Key Features:
 Technology: The development of the microprocessor, which integrated the CPU onto a
single silicon chip, revolutionized computing.
 Size: Computers became much smaller, giving rise to personal computers (PCs).
 Speed: Processing speed increased dramatically as microprocessors became faster with
more transistors packed onto smaller chips.
 Programming Language: High-level languages like C, C++, and later Java and Python
became common.
 Input/Output: Mice, graphical user interfaces (GUI), and later touch screens and voice
input/output systems.
 Storage: Floppy disks, hard drives, and eventually solid-state drives (SSDs) were used
for data storage.
Examples:
 Intel 4004: The first microprocessor, which powered early personal calculators and small
computing devices.

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  Apple II: A highly successful personal computer that popularized home computing in the
late 1970s.
 IBM PC: Introduced in 1981, it became the standard for personal computing.

Advancements:
 Personal Computing: The introduction of PCs brought computing to homes, schools,
and small businesses.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI): The development of GUIs, particularly in Apple’s
Macintosh and Microsoft’s Windows, made computers accessible to non-technical users.
 Networking and the Internet: The fourth generation witnessed the widespread adoption
of networking and the internet, changing how people work, communicate, and interact
with computers.
Contribution:
Fourth-generation computers made technology affordable and accessible to the general public,
driving innovations in software, the internet, and mobile computing.

5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Artificial Intelligence and Quantum Computing
Key Features:
 Technology: Fifth-generation computers are characterized by the integration of artificial
intelligence (AI), machine learning, and advancements in quantum computing.
 Size: While computers continue to shrink in size (e.g., smartphones and embedded
systems), they are also becoming more powerful with cloud-based supercomputing.
 Speed: Processing speeds continue to increase, particularly with multi-core processors
and quantum computing.
 Programming Language: Languages like Python, JavaScript, and specialized AI/ML
languages are becoming more prominent.
 Input/Output: Natural language processing (NLP) interfaces, voice assistants (e.g., Siri,
Alexa), and virtual/augmented reality interfaces are in use.

Examples:
 IBM Watson: A cognitive computing system capable of answering complex questions
and learning from data.
 Google Quantum Computer: Google’s advancements in quantum computing promise to
solve complex problems beyond the capability of classical computers.
 Self-driving Cars and AI Systems: AI-powered systems are becoming integrated into
everyday technologies, from self-driving cars to smart assistants.
Advancements:
 Artificial Intelligence: AI systems can now perform tasks that require human
intelligence, such as speech recognition, decision-making, and language translation.
 Quantum Computing: Still in its early stages, quantum computing holds the potential to
solve problems far beyond the reach of classical computers.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Fifth-generation computing also involves the interconnectivity
of everyday devices, creating smart homes, cities, and industries.
Contribution: Fifth-generation computers represent the cutting edge of technology, pushing the
boundaries of what is possible in fields ranging from healthcare to robotics, while quantum
computing promises to revolutionize the future of computing.

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 CHAPTER THREE: CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1. Classification Based on Size

a) Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the most powerful and fastest computers, capable of performing billions of
calculations per second. They are used for complex tasks that require immense computational
power, such as weather forecasting, climate research, nuclear simulations, and quantum
mechanics.
 Speed: Measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second), supercomputers can
reach speeds of petaflops and exaflops.
 Example: IBM’s Summit, developed for the U.S. Department of Energy, is one of the
world’s fastest supercomputers.
 Applications: Scientific research, space exploration, climate modeling, and defense
simulations.
b) Mainframe Computers
Mainframes are large and powerful systems designed to handle massive amounts of data and
support multiple users simultaneously. They are used primarily by large organizations for critical
applications, such as bulk data processing, financial transactions, and enterprise resource
planning.
 Speed: Slightly less powerful than supercomputers, but capable of processing millions of
transactions per second.
 Example: IBM zSeries is a widely used mainframe system.
 Applications: Banking systems, airline reservation systems, government data centers,
and large-scale business applications.
c) Minicomputers
Also known as midrange computers, minicomputers are smaller than mainframes but more
powerful than microcomputers. They are designed for use in medium-sized organizations and
scientific laboratories to handle moderate amounts of data processing and to serve multiple users.
 Speed: Slower than mainframes but faster than personal computers.
 Example: Digital Equipment Corporation's PDP-8 and VAX series.
 Applications: Manufacturing process control, research labs, and data management in
universities.

d) Microcomputers (Personal Computers)

Microcomputers, commonly referred to as personal computers (PCs), are designed for individual
use. They are suitable for everyday tasks like document creation, browsing the internet, gaming,
and running business applications.
 Speed: Microcomputers are much slower compared to supercomputers and mainframes,
but modern PCs can handle complex software and multimedia processing efficiently.
 Examples: Desktop computers, laptops, tablets, and smartphones.
 Applications: Personal productivity, home entertainment, education, and small business
tasks.
e) Embedded Computers
Embedded computers are specialized systems that are part of a larger device and designed to
perform specific tasks. They are not typically used for general-purpose computing but are found

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in a wide range of devices, including household appliances, medical devices, and industrial
machines.
 Speed: Varies depending on the task they are designed for, generally optimized for
efficiency over raw speed.
 Examples: Microcontrollers in washing machines, smart thermostats, and automobile
control systems.
 Applications: Industrial automation, consumer electronics, and medical instruments.

2. Classification Based on Purpose

a) General-Purpose Computers
These computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They are flexible and can run
different types of applications. General-purpose computers include most personal computers,
laptops, and workstations.
 Examples: Desktop PCs, laptops.
 Applications: Word processing, web browsing, multimedia, gaming, and office work.
b) Special-Purpose Computers
Special-purpose computers are designed for a specific task or a particular set of applications.
They are optimized to perform a certain operation efficiently and often lack the flexibility of
general-purpose computers.
 Examples: Embedded systems, game consoles, and ATMs.
 Applications: Aircraft control systems, weather forecasting, and medical equipment.

3. Classification Based on Data Handling

a) Analog Computers
Analog computers work with continuous data and are used to solve problems where inputs can
be represented in a continuous form. These computers are often used in scientific and
engineering applications that involve real-time operations and continuous physical phenomena.
 Example: Analog computers used for simulating flight dynamics, weather modeling, or
electrical circuit analysis.
 Applications: Hydraulic systems, temperature measurement, and speedometer reading in
vehicles.

b) Digital Computers
Digital computers process data in binary form (0s and 1s). They are widely used because they
can handle a vast range of tasks accurately and efficiently. These computers are the most
common today, including PCs, servers, and mainframes.
 Example: Personal computers, laptops, and smartphones.
 Applications: Word processing, software development, data management, and web
browsing.
c) Hybrid Computers
Hybrid computers combine the characteristics of both analog and digital computers. They are
capable of processing both continuous and discrete data. These systems are often used in
applications where both real-time data processing and accuracy are crucial, such as in medical or
industrial environments.
 Example: Medical equipment like CT scanners and industrial process controllers.

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  Applications: Hospitals for monitoring patients’ vital signs, industrial systems, and
military applications.

4. Classification Based on Functionality

a) Workstations
Workstations are high-performance microcomputers designed for technical or scientific
applications. They are more powerful than regular personal computers and are often used for
engineering design, 3D graphics rendering, and scientific simulations.
 Examples: Dell Precision, HP Z Workstations.
 Applications: CAD/CAM software, 3D rendering, video editing, and scientific research.
b) Servers
Servers are specialized computers that provide resources, services, or applications to other
computers over a network. They are essential in both small and large-scale environments for
managing data, hosting applications, and providing centralized computing services.
 Examples: Web servers, database servers, and file servers.
 Applications: Hosting websites, managing cloud storage, running enterprise applications,
and processing transactions.
c) Handheld Devices
Handheld computers, such as smartphones and tablets, are portable devices designed for personal
or business use. These devices combine computing power with ease of mobility and are used for
communication, entertainment, and various applications on the go.
 Examples: Smartphones (iPhone, Samsung Galaxy), tablets (iPad).
 Applications: Mobile apps, online communication, navigation, and media consumption.

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 CHAPTER FOUR: BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

1. Hardware
Definition: Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer system that you can touch
and see. It encompasses all the electronic and mechanical parts of the computer that work
together to process data and execute instructions.
Key Components of Hardware:
 Input Devices: Allow users to input data into the computer for processing.
o Examples: Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone, touch screen.
 Output Devices: Convert processed data from the computer into a human-readable or
understandable form.
o Examples: Monitor, printer, speakers, projector.
 Processing Devices: The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer,
responsible for executing instructions and processing data.
o CPU: Manages and carries out program instructions, performing basic arithmetic,
logical, control, and input/output (I/O) operations.
 Memory/Storage Devices: These store data, both temporarily and permanently.
o Primary Memory (RAM – Random Access Memory): Temporary storage for
active processes and data.
o Secondary Memory: Long-term storage devices that store data even when the
computer is turned off. Examples: Hard drives, solid-state drives (SSD), optical
discs, USB drives.
 Motherboard: The main circuit board that connects all the components of the computer,
allowing them to communicate.
 Power Supply Unit (PSU): Converts electricity from a power source into a usable form
for the computer components.
 Peripheral Devices: External devices connected to the computer to expand its
functionality. Examples: External hard drives, game controllers, webcams, etc.

2. Software
Definition: Software is a set of instructions or programs that tell the computer how to perform
specific tasks. It is intangible, meaning it cannot be touched or physically seen, but it is essential
for hardware to function. Without software, the hardware is just a collection of electronic
components.
Categories of Software:
 System Software: This type of software manages the hardware and provides an
environment for application software to run. It is the intermediary between hardware and
users.
o Operating System (OS): The most critical system software that manages
computer hardware, software resources, and provides common services for
computer programs. Examples: Microsoft Windows, macOS, Linux, Android.
o Utility Programs: Perform specific maintenance tasks, like disk management,
antivirus scanning, and system backup. Examples: Disk Cleanup, antivirus
software, system optimization tools.
 Application Software: Designed to help users perform specific tasks or applications.

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 o Productivity Software: Applications used for work-related tasks. Examples:
Microsoft Office (Word, Excel, PowerPoint), Google Docs.
o Multimedia Software: For creating, editing, and managing multimedia content
like images, videos, and audio. Examples: Adobe Photoshop, VLC Media Player,
iMovie.
o Communication Software: Applications that allow users to communicate with
others. Examples: Email clients (Outlook, Gmail), messaging apps (WhatsApp,
Slack), video conferencing tools (Zoom, Microsoft Teams).
o Entertainment Software: Includes games and other software used for fun or
relaxation. Examples: Video games, streaming apps like Netflix, Spotify.
 Programming Software: Tools used by programmers to write, test, and debug other
software programs. Examples: Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) like
Eclipse, Visual Studio, and compilers like GCC (GNU Compiler Collection).
Role of Software in Computing:
 Controls Hardware: Without software, hardware is non-functional. The software
instructs the hardware on what tasks to perform and how to execute them.
 Provides User Interface: The software offers users the ability to interact with the
computer system, through graphical user interfaces (GUIs) or command-line interfaces
(CLI).
 Performs Specific Tasks: Software applications are designed to perform a wide range of
tasks, from word processing and data analysis to entertainment and communication.

3. Humanware (Peopleware)
Definition: Humanware refers to the human element in a computer system, including all the
people who design, develop, use, and maintain hardware and software. This component is critical
because computers require human interaction for operations, decision-making, and innovation.
Roles in Humanware:
 Users: People who use computers for various tasks, ranging from basic activities like
browsing the internet to complex operations like software development or data analysis.
o End Users: Individuals who interact with the computer system for personal,
professional, or educational purposes. They may use application software for
tasks such as writing reports, sending emails, or playing games.
 System Administrators: Professionals who manage and maintain computer systems,
ensuring that hardware and software run smoothly. They are responsible for security,
network configuration, and troubleshooting issues.
 Programmers/Developers: Individuals who create software, applications, and programs
that drive computer systems. They write code, develop software applications, and ensure
that software meets user needs.
 Computer Engineers/Technicians: Specialists who design, build, and repair hardware
components. They ensure that computer systems operate effectively and handle any
hardware malfunctions.
 Data Analysts: People who use computer systems to process and analyze data, helping
organizations make informed decisions based on the insights derived from the data.

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  Information Technology (IT) Support: Individuals who assist users with technical
issues, ensuring smooth operation and resolving any problems related to computer
hardware or software.
Importance of Humanware:
 Interaction: Humans are necessary to operate, maintain, and program computers.
Without human input, computers are essentially useless.
 Innovation: Continuous human innovation is required to advance hardware, develop new
software applications, and create better systems.
 Customization: Humans configure computers to meet specific needs, ensuring that the
system performs tasks according to the user's goals and requirements.

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 CHAPTER FOUR: BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS AND
KEYBOARD LAYOUT

Introduction
A computer is a versatile machine that performs various tasks, ranging from basic operations like
input and output to complex computations and processing. Understanding the fundamental
operations a computer performs and how the keyboard, one of the primary input devices, is
organized helps users interact efficiently with computer systems. This lecture note covers the
basic operations of a computer and the layout of a standard keyboard.

Understanding the basic operations of a computer and the layout of the keyboard is crucial for
efficiently using a computer system. The Input-Process-Output (IPO) cycle, storage, and control
functions form the core of computer operations, while the keyboard, with its various sections and
functions, allows users to interact with the system seamlessly. Mastering both the operations and
keyboard shortcuts can significantly enhance productivity in computing tasks.

1. Basic Computer Operations

A computer performs four primary operations that enable it to function effectively. These
operations form the basic cycle of processing data and are referred to as the Input-Process-
Output (IPO) Cycle. In addition to the IPO cycle, storage and control are essential functions
that ensure data is retained and managed properly.
a) Input
Input is the process of entering data and instructions into the computer system. Input devices
allow the user to provide data for processing.
 Input Devices: These devices capture data and send it to the computer for processing.
o Examples: Keyboard, mouse, microphone, scanner, touch screen, webcam.
 Process: When a user types, clicks, or speaks into a microphone, the input devices
convert these actions into a digital format that the computer understands and processes.
b) Processing
Processing is the operation where the computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) executes
instructions and performs calculations on the input data to transform it into useful information.
 CPU: The brain of the computer, which carries out the instructions of programs. It
consists of:
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs all arithmetic (addition, subtraction,
etc.) and logical (comparisons) operations.
o Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor, managing how data
moves within the CPU and between the CPU and memory.
 Example: When you request the computer to calculate a sum (e.g., 5 + 7), the CPU
processes this input and returns the output (12).

c) Output
Output is the process of delivering the processed data (information) back to the user or another
system. Output devices display or produce the information in a format that users can understand.
 Output Devices: Devices that convert processed data into a human-readable format or
into actions for further use.
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 o Examples: Monitor (displays text and graphics), printer (produces hard copies),
speakers (play sound).
 Process: After processing data, the computer uses output devices to display the results
(e.g., showing a text document on a screen, printing a report, or playing music through
speakers).
d) Storage
Storage refers to the saving of data for future use. The computer stores data in various forms,
depending on the type of memory used (volatile or non-volatile).
 Primary Storage (RAM): Temporarily holds data while the computer is running and
loses the data when the computer is turned off.
 Secondary Storage: Used for long-term storage of data, even when the computer is
turned off.
o Examples: Hard drives (HDD), solid-state drives (SSD), USB flash drives,
optical discs (CDs, DVDs).
 Process: When a file is saved, it is written to a secondary storage device for future
access.

e) Control
Control involves managing and coordinating the operations of the computer. The Control Unit
(CU) within the CPU ensures that all components of the computer function together smoothly,
handling the execution of instructions in the correct sequence and ensuring that data flows
between input, processing, and output stages correctly.

2. Keyboard Layout
The keyboard is one of the most commonly used input devices for entering text, numbers, and
commands into a computer system. Modern computer keyboards are based on the QWERTY
layout, named after the first six letters in the top row of letter keys. Apart from this layout,
keyboards contain other sections that serve specific functions.

a) The QWERTY Layout

The QWERTY layout is the most widely used keyboard design. The primary area of the
keyboard contains alphabetic keys, numeric keys, and special characters.
 Alphabetic Keys: The keys from A to Z, arranged in the standard QWERTY format.
 Numeric Keys: Numbers 0–9 are arranged at the top row, above the alphabetic keys.

b) Function Keys
Located at the top of the keyboard, function keys (F1–F12) serve specific purposes depending on
the software being used.
 F1: Often used as the help key in most programs.
 F2: Usually used for renaming a file or folder.
 F5: Commonly used to refresh a webpage or document.
Function keys can also perform system operations like adjusting screen brightness, volume
control, and toggling wireless connectivity when combined with other keys (e.g., pressing Fn +
F1).

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c) Control Keys
Control keys help the user manage and control the actions within programs or the operating
system.
 Ctrl (Control): Used in combination with other keys to perform shortcuts (e.g., Ctrl + C
for copying, Ctrl + V for pasting).
 Alt (Alternate): Often used in combination with other keys to perform special tasks (e.g.,
Alt + Tab to switch between open windows).
 Shift: Modifies another key's output, for example, converting a lowercase letter to
uppercase or accessing special symbols on number keys (e.g., holding Shift and pressing
2 will type the symbol "@" instead of "2").
d) Numeric Keypad
On the right side of the keyboard, a numeric keypad allows for quick entry of numbers. This
section is especially useful in data entry and financial applications.
 Keys: Numbers (0–9), arithmetic operators (plus, minus, multiply, divide), and functions
like Enter, Num Lock, and Delete.

e) Navigation Keys
These keys are used for controlling the movement of the cursor or navigating through documents
and webpages.
 Arrow Keys: Move the cursor or screen in the direction of the arrow (up, down, left,
right).
 Home: Moves the cursor to the beginning of a line or document.
 End: Moves the cursor to the end of a line or document.
 Page Up/Page Down: Scrolls up or down one page at a time.

f) Special Keys
 Escape (Esc): Cancels an operation or exits a program or dialogue box.
 Enter: Executes a command or confirms data entry.
 Backspace: Deletes the character to the left of the cursor.
 Delete: Deletes the character to the right of the cursor or removes selected text or files.
 Caps Lock: Toggles between uppercase and lowercase typing.

g) Modifier Keys
 Ctrl: Used in combination with other keys for shortcuts (e.g., Ctrl + P for print).
 Alt: Alternate key, often used for accessing menus or functions (e.g., Alt + F4 to close a
window).
 Shift: Temporarily changes the function of another key (e.g., for capital letters or
symbols).

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 CHAPTER FIVE: INTRODUCTION TO DATA PROCESSING

1. Definition of Data Processing: Data processing refers to the series of actions that transform
raw data into useful information. This process is typically automated and performed by
computers, which handle large volumes of data quickly and accurately. Data processing is
essential for turning disorganized data into structured, interpretable forms, making it easier to
analyze and use for decision-making.

2. Stages of Data Processing

The data processing cycle is composed of several stages that follow a logical sequence to ensure
accurate and reliable information output. The key stages include:
a) Data Collection: The first step in data processing involves gathering relevant data from
various sources. This can be done manually or automatically using different input devices or data
collection methods, such as surveys, sensors, databases, and online sources.
 Input Methods: Keyboards, scanners, sensors, cameras, and other devices can be used to
collect raw data.
b) Data Preparation: Data preparation involves organizing, cleaning, and structuring the raw
data so it is ready for further processing. This stage may include:
 Validation: Ensuring that the data is accurate and consistent.
 Data Cleaning: Identifying and correcting errors or inconsistencies in the dataset.
 Sorting and Categorizing: Grouping data for efficient processing.

c) Data Input: Once the data is cleaned and organized, it is entered into the system for
processing. The data can be entered manually or automatically, depending on the type and source
of the data.
d) Data Processing: At this stage, the raw data is manipulated to produce meaningful
information. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or specialized software processes the data by
performing various calculations, transformations, and analyses, depending on the task at hand.
 Types of Processing: Arithmetic calculations, sorting, filtering, statistical analysis, and
logical comparisons.
e) Data Output: After processing, the results are generated as output in various formats, such as
reports, charts, tables, or visualizations. The output is the information that users can interpret and
use for decision-making or further action.
 Output Methods: Monitors, printers, projectors, or exporting data files (Excel, PDF,
etc.).
f) Data Storage: Once the data has been processed and the information produced, it is stored for
future reference or use. Data can be stored in a variety of storage devices, including:
 Primary Storage: RAM (temporary, volatile).
 Secondary Storage: Hard drives, cloud storage, USB drives (long-term, non-volatile).

3. Types of Data Processing

There are several types of data processing, each designed for different kinds of tasks, depending
on the complexity, volume of data, and speed requirements.

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a) Batch Processing: Batch processing involves processing large volumes of data at a specific
time. The data is collected, accumulated, and then processed in a single batch. This method is
suitable for operations where the time of processing is not critical. Example: Processing payroll
data or generating monthly bank statements.
b) Real-Time Processing: Real-time data processing involves processing data immediately after
it is inputted, producing output almost instantaneously. This type of processing is essential for
time-sensitive tasks where immediate results are required. Example: ATM transactions, radar
systems, and stock market data analysis.
c) Online Processing: Online processing refers to data processing that is performed using an
online system where input and output occur continuously. Users can interact with the system and
receive immediate feedback. Example: Online banking, e-commerce websites.
d) Distributed Processing: In distributed processing, data processing tasks are divided across
multiple computers or locations, allowing for faster processing speeds and redundancy. This type
of processing is ideal for systems that handle large-scale tasks that need to be processed
simultaneously. Example: Cloud computing, grid computing.
e) Multiprocessing: Multiprocessing involves using multiple processors (CPUs) within a
computer to perform several tasks simultaneously. This type of processing increases efficiency
and processing speed. Example: Complex simulations, scientific research, and video rendering.

4. Importance of Data Processing

Data processing is integral to modern businesses, governments, and organizations, as it allows
for informed decision-making and efficient operations. The significance of data processing
includes:
a) Accuracy and Efficiency: Automated data processing ensures high accuracy and efficiency,
as computers can handle large amounts of data with minimal errors compared to manual data
handling.
b) Time-Saving: Data processing systems can handle vast quantities of data quickly, reducing
the time spent on tasks like data analysis, reporting, and decision-making.
c) Enhanced Decision-Making: Processed data provides valuable insights and information,
enabling organizations to make informed and data-driven decisions. Accurate data is crucial for
improving productivity, forecasting trends, and addressing problems.
d) Cost-Effectiveness: By automating tasks that would otherwise require significant human
resources, data processing reduces operational costs, improves efficiency, and minimizes errors.
e) Data Storage and Retrieval: Modern data processing systems allow for secure, long-term
data storage, ensuring that organizations can retrieve and analyze historical data when needed.
5. Data Processing Applications
Data processing is used across various industries and fields, including:

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a) Business: Businesses use data processing for financial analysis, customer relationship
management, inventory tracking, sales reporting, and marketing analysis. Companies can
enhance their operations by leveraging processed data to optimize business strategies.
b) Healthcare: In healthcare, data processing is essential for managing patient records, tracking
treatment outcomes, analyzing medical research data, and ensuring effective resource allocation.
c) Education: Educational institutions use data processing to manage student records,
attendance, grading systems, and research data. Data processing also helps in curriculum
development and performance analysis.
d) Government: Governments use data processing for census data analysis, tax records, social
services, law enforcement, and policymaking. It ensures efficient management of resources and
services provided to the public.
e) Scientific Research:
Scientists use data processing to analyze experimental data, conduct simulations, model
scientific phenomena, and make discoveries in various fields, including physics, biology, and
astronomy.

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