AREA STUDY

CONTEMPORARY POLITICS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA (post 1990s)

The Greek Philosopher Aristotle Stated “Man is a political Animal” This is to indicate the life of
every human being throughout the world is dominated by politics. Politics here refers to power
and resistance in a society.

The Contemporary Politics in the Horn of Africa has three major characteristic features:

The increase in the quest for democracy from the side of society and the
incapacitation of state institutions to address these legitimate questions.
The instability and partition (secession) of states.
The involvement of international powers in the post-cold war.

Since the end of Colonialism, People‟s Struggle for political freedom and democratic governance
continued to rise in all countries of the horn of Africa. After their independence, the quest for
democratic rights has become a continuous pursuit of the people. Djibouti being the last country
to become independent in 1977.

Countries of the horn and their independence year and the first leader of the country:

 Sudan -------------- 1956 -------- Ismail al Azhari

 Kenya ------------- 1963 --------- Jomo Kenyata 1963-78
 Somalia ---------- 1960 --------- Aden Abdulle 1960-67
 Uganda------------ 1962 --------- Milton Obote 1962-1985
 Djibouti ----------- 1977 -------- Hassan Gouled from 1977-1999.

Governance in the immediate aftermath of independence was mostly autocratic throughout

Africa and democratic institutions were in their infancy. Throughout the period of cold war the
weak protection and exercise of all kinds of Democratic rights in almost all countries of the horn
of Africa has been central to political resistance.

These Democratic rights include basic rights such as:

 Equality
 Freedom and Religion

The right to freedom can be exercised both individually as well as collectively. Individuals are:

o Free to Work
o Own property
o Form their own opinion
o Express their opinion

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Collective Rights include the right to:

 Association
 Assembly
 Cultural Rights
 Self –Determination

People of the horn of Africa were fighting against dictatorial regimes in order to ensure their
collective rights. In Kenya where the Constitution prohibit the formation of political parties
based purely on ethnicity (group rights) have been the major deriving force of state politics.

Since its independence in 1960, Somali politics have been pushed towards Pan-Somali politics
by prominent personalities such as President Mohammed Siad Barre. This caused for an inter-
state conflict (the conflict between two or more countries)

The idea of Greater Somali was designed to bring all ethnic Somalis living in neighboring states
of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia under one unified state. This would enable to the confederacy
of the five clan families named Darod, Hawiye, Isaaq, Dir and Digil-Mififleh. The Somalis speak
the same language, adhere to the same religion and are from the same ethnic groups. Although
such homogeneity should have been an asset to build a nation state, clannism has a long hindered
internal cohesion in Somalia.

Despite Mohammed Siad Barre‟s (1969-1991) anti-clannism rhetoric (speech making) in support
of Greater Somalia, his military regime was supported by his clan (Darod) dominated state
authority in Somalia and resulted in the alienation of other Somali clans.

The post 1990s Somali politics were dominated by three interrelated processes:

 The rise of clan based oppositions.

 The use of religion as factor in political mobilizations.
 The Decision of Somaliland to form an independent state seceding from
the Somali state.

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 A) The Rise of clan based oppositions

Political grievances among the Majeerteen, the Isaaq and the Hawiye has led to the creation of
clan based opposition group. Clan-based opposition groups/ political organizations were created
in Somali. For example:
 Majeerteen clan - the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF).
 Isaaq clan - the Somali National Movement (SNM).
 Hawiye clan-the United Somali Congress (USC) and
 Ogaden clan - the Somali Patriotic Movement.
Group right in general and identity politics in particular played a crucial role in the introduction
of federal arrangement in Somalia and the establishment of the de facto state of Somaliland.
The six federal states namely:
 Puntland (mainly Darod),
 Galmudug (Mainly Hawiye),
 Hirshabelle (Mainly Hawiye),
 South West (Rahanweyn or Digil and Mirifle),

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  Jubaland (Darod) and
 Benadir Regional Administration (Moqadishu),
Somaliland predominantly Isaaq clan separated & declared its independence. The Federal
arrangement was established based on clans and to promote and protect the group rights.

Clan politics had great impact on Somali politics since 1991 and also preventing the
establishment of a stable Somali government for nearly two decades.
Clan politics continued to dominate in all through the Civil War (1988-1991). After they
defeated Sias Barre the clan failed to agree on a replacement for the national leader and Somalia
plunged into turmoil, clan warfare and lawlessness. This led the United Nations intervention
(1992–1995).

After the establishment of the Transitional Federal Government (2004-2012), a threat came from
the consolidation of the Islamic Courts Union (ICU) rule in 2006. This also led the intervention
of Ethiopian government (2006–2009) and later the renowned extremist group, Al-Shabaab
(2006 - present) establishment.

B. Religion as factor in political mobilization.

The first collective religious group that worked towards political ends in Somalia was al-ittihad
al-Islamiya (AIAS). It used religious ideology to work against extremist clan allegiances by the
Somali population. The AIAS was formed with the goal of establishing Islamic State in East
Africa. The AIAS was destroyed by the US led UN intervention (1992-1995); however the
ideology continued and led to the emergence of the ICU (Islamic Courts Union).

Al-Shabaab ( Harakat al-Shabab al-Mujahideen) is emerged out of the ruins of the ICU during
the Ethiopian intervention. It is an Islamic fundamentalist institution that has worked in
collaboration with al-Qaeda and has used terror attacks against civilians. It also attacks civilians
outside Somali in country like Kenya. The Goal was to establish Islamic State in accordance with
its Version of Sharia.

C. The Decision of Somaliland to form an independent state seceding from the Somali state

Acknowledging the collective identity in ethnicity, language, culture and religion, Somaliland,
the home of the Isaaq clan, declared an independent sovereign state in 1991 separating itself
from the rest of Somalia.
The Sovereignty of Somaliland has not been recognized by the international order yet. Therefore,
it is a de facto state, not the de jure state.
De Facto is a state which has not gain international recognition and not gains any sociopolitical
and economic aid and support from world organization.
De Jure ----------- a legal state.

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Sudan
The post 1990 Sudan political crisis attributed to the complexity to the colonial period where
residents of northern Sudan were allowed to culturally & politically dominate. The distinction
made between northern & Southern residents was multifaceted. Northerners were mainly Arabic
speaking, identifying themselves as Arabs & Muslims; while the Southerners were mainly
Christians or traditional religion followers and identifying black Africans.

Issues of identity and territory are never as clear cut on the ground. This is because both the
north and south had their own diversity within them. For example the Darfur‟s is blacks found in
the north.

The „Arab‟ culture & northern politics was imposed on the Southern territories leading to a 30
year political & military resistance by the Southern Sudanese People Liberation Movement
(SPLM). Besides allegations (claims) of ethnic and religious marginalization, the people of the
Southern periphery remained largely poor and with limited infrastructure.

Oil revenues were not fairly shared between the north & the South. The Sudanese leaders
imposed Sharia law on non-Muslim Southerners. , which fueled the protracted civil war. The
Sudanese civil war took place twice:

 The First Sudanese Civil War 1955-1972 for 17 years.

 The Second for 21 years from 1983 to 2005.
A. The First Sudanese Civil War 1955-1972

The Cause of the civil war was the attempt of the northern leader for the Islamization &
Arabisation of the Southern with the belief homogenizing the country would ensure national
unity. This war ended with agreement that allowed the autonomy of the South.

The First Sudanese Civil War (also known as the Anyanya Rebellion or Anyanya I,) was a
conflict from 1955 to 1972 between the northern part of Sudan and the southern Sudan
region that demanded representation and more regional autonomy.

B. The Second Sudanese Civil 20War 1983-2005.

The leader of North Sudan Gaafar Nimeri attempted to impose the country to rule by Sharia law.
This led the South to oppose and raised armed struggle. However, this war ended by agreement
signed in 2005. By this agreement the north agreed:

A. Time Line for referendum.

B. Equal revenue sharing.

Finally by referendum South Sudan gained independence in 2011.

The New Government of Southern Sudan at Juba is currently struggling to properly manage
diversity (Dinka & Nuer) and weak democratic institutions that hindered free political

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competition. In Sudan President Omar al-Bashir was removed from power through popular
protest after staying in power for 27 years; leaving power vacuum that led to the current
dominance of the military in the country. (Sovereignty council Sudan).

Djibouti

In Djibouti a head of state unwilling to leave power. The President of Djibouti, Ismail Omar
Guelleh, has stayed in power since 1999. Initially, the constitution of Djibouti limited the term of
presidents to two. However, towards the end of Guelleh‟s second rule, the parliament amended
the constitution to remove the term to limit. - Popular protests opposing the actions of the
parliament took place in 2014, but it was quickly suppressed.

State Politics in post 1991 Djibouti is marked by conflict between the Afar and the Issa Somalis.
In the 1960s and 70s, the Afar had shown interest to remain with France, while the Issa were
interested to join the rest of Somalia; after a decade Djibouti became an independent country
separating from France in 1977 The conflict between Afar led opposition and Issa led
government broke out in the early 1990s. Three Afar led oppositions were formed:
 Front for the Restoration of Right and Equality.
 The Djibouti Patriotic Resistance Front.
 Action for the Revision of Order in Djibouti
All these merged in 1991 to form The Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy
(FRUD). In late 1991, FRUD launched a rebellion against the government. (Nearly 1,000 people
died during the conflict until 1994).
In summary, contemporary Djibouti politics is the politics of a quest towards individual as well
as collective rights.

KENYA

Kenyan contemporary politics isn‟t different in this regard. The politics of group rights is
prevalent in the ethnic interaction especially among the Kikuyu, Luo, Kalinji and Luyha since
the period of colonialism. The paradox is that the constitution of Kenya (Article 92(2)) prohibits
the formation of political parties “based on a religious, linguistic, racial, ethnic, gender or
regional basis”. Yet, group identity has always been manipulating politics in Kenya. Especially
during election times, for example, in 1993, 2007, 2013 and 2017 the rivalry between different
ethnic groups had posed the possibility of violence.
Area Studies in the Age of of Africa
Failing to accommodate the claim of ethnic grievances and the quest for the protection of group
rights, Kenya experiences repeated violence based on group identity. Conflicts occur frequently
especially after the introduction of multi-party politics in the early 1990s.

Ethnicity influences people political affiliation and voting behavior. The political elite and the
state use ethnicity as a basis for mobilization.

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ETHIOPIA
In the 1960s young educated Ethiopians started to debate “the national / nationalities question,”
it was a phrase they had adopted from the Marxism movement. One prominent Ethiopian
Marxism( Walelegn Mekonen) explained the nationalities question like “what is a genuine
national state? Is a state:

o in which all nationalities participate equally in state affairs.

o where every nationality is given equal opportunity to preserve and develop its
language, its music and its history.
owhere Amharas, Tigres, Oromos, Harari, Somalis, Wolaytas, Gurages etc. are treated
equally.
o where no nation dominates another be it economically or culturally”.

The 1974 Ethiopian Revolution abolished the imperial government, - Initially, the Derg was
popular after they came to power with slogan "Ethiopia First", "Land to the peasants", and
"Democracy and Equality to all" In the later period Derg‟s dictatorial & violent communist rule led
the emergence of The liberation fronts in Tigray, Oromia, Ethio-Somali, Sidama ..and other areas
launched armed struggle for decades against the central government.
The quest for the protection of group right led to the downfall of the military government in 1991
by of the Ethiopian People‟s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF).The new Ethiopia
government has legally addressed the issue of self-determination and self-administration in the
Constitution (article 39). (Self-administration is the right of one region to govern its land,
resources, population etc. without federal state interference and Self-determination is the right of
one region to choice & determines its own delineated territory, boundaries, political parties & the
right to choice nationality). However, the domination of the TPLF in the federal government,
result:

o intrusions in the rights to self-administration of regions,

o economic inequality and
o youth unemployment
These all result the nationwide mass resistance movements which led to the demise of the
EPRDF government in 2018.
Eritrea got its independence from Ethiopia in 1991The Eritrean question within the
Ethiopian politics was the question of self-determination.

The liberation struggle for Eritrean independence took three decades. After independence, the
quest for democracy among the Kunama, the Afar and some religious groups in Eritrea has
grown; especially among the Eritrean Diaspora to these days.
Eritrea is currently a country where democratic institutions such as parliament, electoral
commissions and political parties do not exist. Religious freedom is highly crippled by the state
and youth have suffered due to limited higher education institutions in the country and forced
conscription.

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In Conclusion, the quest for democracy should holistic encompassing individual liberties,
institution building & recognition of group rights based on strong legal & judicial
mechanism.

Instability and partition of States

The Horn of Africa known as one of the most disputed regions of the world. A defining feature of
the Horn of Africa that distinguishes it from other African countries, is the number of
political groups with secessionist goals and the actual realization of these goals. In the Horn
of Africa, three sovereign states namely Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan multiplied into six
states after 1991. Accordingly, the Republic of Somaliland, the State of Eritrea and the
Republic of South Sudan are formed as new states in the Horn of Africa. The major driving
factors for this territorial disintegration of former states are intra-state (the conflict conducted
within a state example conflict between ethnic groups) and inter-state wars (the conflict
conducted between two & above states).

One of the major reasons for the disputes and processes of session is the artificial colonial
boundary that amalgamated (merged) multiple groups into one state without proper
institutions of participation and governance. This is because; the colonial powers encouraged
one group to dominate the other to allow for easier indirect rule.
The Heads of African States reached a decision on the issue during their 1st ordinary meeting
in Cairo in 1964, that “all Member States pledge themselves to respect the borders existing on
their achievement of national independence.” This decision meant that all African states
would acknowledge and respect the borders they had upon independence from colonialism.
This decision was reached based on two serious commitments. The first is that African states
were committed to peace; they wanted to discourage African states and people from waging
war to modify their territories, including secession. Secondly, their commitment to African
unity meant that they would focus more on building strong institutions that guarantee the
rights of every African and the integration of the African people and nations. Africa
Despite this decision, various African states and insurgent groups have found ways to modify
colonial borders leading to the creation of Somaliland, Eritrea and South Sudan.
Somaliland
Somalia intrastate and interstate wars are interconnected. General Siad Barre‟s government
invaded Ethiopia in 1977 on the pretext that Ogaden (currently the Ethio-Somali Region) was
part of the Greater Somalia that would include Djibouti (French Somaliland) and North Eastern
Province of Kenya. Following the defeat of Somalia‟s forces, General Siad Barre‟s government
was challenged from within by his army officer and opposition groups who made their bases in
the neighboring country of Ethiopia. For instance, Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF)
was formed in Ethiopia in 1979. The Somali National Movement (SNM) was formed in 1981
United Kingdom; the organization moved its headquarters from London to Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
in 1982. The Movement eventually established military bases in Ethiopia. United Somalia
Congress (USC) established at Rome in 1987. Its military base was in Ethiopia.

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In response to Ethiopia‟s government support to the Somalia opposition groups, Somalia‟s
government also sheltered and helped Ethiopian government opposition forces in Mogadishu.
General Siad Barre‟s government was an active supporter of Ogaden National Liberation Front
(ONLF), Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) and Tigray People Liberation Front (TPLF). The
partition of Somalia was the result of civil war which begun in early 1980s between the central
government of Somalia and USC, SSDF and SNM. By mid-1980s, resistance movements
supported by Ethiopia had sprung up across the country.
Area Studies in the Age of Globalization
General Siad Barre, after a long period ruler of Somalia fled from Mogadishu in January 1991
and the capital fell to the hands of the United Somali Congress (USC) which was one of the
major rebel organizations formed in 1987. In Issaq-dominated northern Somalia, the Republic of
Somaliland was established in 1991. The civil war which resulted in the territorial partition of
Somalia into Somaliland at Hargesa and the Federal Republic of Somalia at Mogadishu cost the
lives of millions of people. About 500,000 people have been killed in Somalia since the start of
the armed conflict in 1991.
Somaliland has its own government administering all internal affairs on its own; however,
Somaliland is still not a country recognized by the UN. Which makes it a de facto state but not a
de jure state? De facto states are recognized by their own citizens and have sovereignty over
them; however, they lack legal requirements such as recognition by other states to become a
„legal‟ state – also known as a de jure state.

The main reason Somaliland does not have this de jure status is because the Republic of Somalia
refuses to acknowledge Somaliland as a state. Somaliland on the other hand argues that it was an
independent colony of Britain; in 1960 decided to join with the rest of Somalia; while the rest of
Somalia was an Italian colony. Now among other things, Somaliland argues that it has the right
to become a state because it was independent colony and that its merger with Somalia was a
voluntary action; which means the merger can be dissolved voluntarily as well. As a result of
this, Somaliland remains a de facto state currently.

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Eritrea
Eritrea was part of Ethiopia in the years between 1952 and 1991. Eritrea was a colony of Italy
since 1890, upon its liberation in 1941; it remained under the British rule until 1952. At the time
Britain played a crucial role in Ethiopia‟s foreign relations following their role in ending the
Italian occupation of Ethiopia and Eritrea.
Following a peace agreement between Italy and Britain, the UN had to make a decision on the
status of Eritrea. The members of the commission that the UN established had varied ideas, one
country wanted Eritrea to be part of Ethiopia fully, and two countries proposed the establishment
of a federation and other two countries wanted Eritrea to become independent. Members of the
UN approved the proposal of the establishment of a federation. The Eritrean Government will
have full control of its internal affairs with its own executive and parliament; while issues of
finance, currency, defense and foreign relations will be under the federal government. Thus, the
federation was established in 1952, but it only lasted for 10 years.
In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie systematically violated the UN decision, dissolved the Eritrean
parliament and made Eritrea part of Ethiopia all matters, ending the federation. The first political
organization to launch war of independence in 1961 was Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF also
known as Jabaha). Due to regional and ideological hostility, Eritrean People‟s Liberation Front
(EPLF also known as Sha’bia) emerged in 1970 as a left-oriented nationalist group that split
from ELF. The Italian colonialism (1890-1941) and the brief British rule (1941-
1952) had played important role in development of Eritrean national identity. The war in Eritrea
lasted for consecutive three decades and cost the lives of hundreds of thousands of people. In
Mid May 1991 EPLF forces occupied Asmara, the Eritrean capital. The war was instrumental to
the downfall of the Military government in May 1991 in Addis Ababa
Area Studies in the Age of Horn of Africa

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In the war of liberation, Eritrean political organizations received support from neighboring
country Sudan. Successive Sudanese governments gave support not only to ELF&EPLF, but also
to TPLF and OLF.
The Transitional assembly of Ethiopia in 1991 recognized Eritrea‟s right for independence and
the EPLF recommended conducting a referendum with the involvement of the UN to ensure the
independence of Eritrea. The UN General Assembly formed the United Nations Observer
Mission to Verify the Referendum in Eritrea (UNOVER), which oversaw the processes of
referendum in 1993. A little over 1 million people voted in the referendum, 99.8 supported
independence leading to the formation of the State of Eritrea on 24 May 1993.

In December 1991 the president of the Transitional government of Ethiopia, Meles Zenawi,
wrote a letter to the UN expressing Ethiopia‟s willingness and encouraging the UN to participate
in the processes of the referendum. Which brings us to the point, the consent of the country from
which the new country secedes is critical in the processes of the formation of a new state.

South Sudan
South Sudan is the result of one of the longest civil war in Africa. The war occurred twice. The
First Sudanese Civil War took place in the years between 1955 and 1972, the Second Civil War
from 1983 to 2005. The First Civil War was also known as the Anyanya Rebellion, and the
rebels demanded representation and more regional autonomy of the South Sudan
communities. The Second is between the central Sudanese government and the SPLA.
The Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) was founded in 1983 as a rebel group, to reestablish an
autonomous southern Sudan by fighting against the central government. While based in southern Sudan,
it identified itself as a movement for all oppressed Sudanese citizens, and was led by John Garang The
war resulted in the birth of a new state in the Horn of Africa.
South Sudan is a case that features the involvement of external actors and regional powers in the
processes of independence in a very unique way. Although there is an extent of involvement of
foreign powers in the independence of Eritrea and Somaliland, the involvement is not easy to
trace as much as it is in the case of South Sudan.
In response to the support Sudan used to give to Ethiopian and Eritrean armed resistance groups,
the Imperial and the Military governments in Ethiopia supported the South Sudanese rebels
against the government of Sudan. Especially, the Derg government openly and strongly
supported the Sudan Peoples‟ Liberation Movement (SPLM) since the mid-1980s.
Ethiopia also contributed in facilitating and hosting various peace talks between the Government
of Sudan and SPLM. For example in 1972 during the time of Emperor Haile Selassie, the SPLM
and Government of Sudan signed an agreement in Addis Ababa that ended the first civil war.
Area Studies in the Age of Horn of Africa
The Addis Ababa Agreement provided the southern region with certain level of autonomy and
the right to self-administration of the region was incorporated into the constitution. However,
in practice the Government of Sudan continued to marginalize the south, refusing to properly

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share oil revenues and build infrastructure, among other things. For this reason, the war
continued.

In 2005 another peace agreement was signed between the Government of Sudan and the SPLM,
known as the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA). In the CPA the Government of Sudan
agreed to share resources and political power with the SPLM .It also agreed to allow the people
of Southern Sudan to go into referendum choosing between unity and secession.

In 2011, the majority of the people of southern Sudan voted to form an independent South
Sudan. Many people argue that the Government of Sudan agreed to allow the referendum only
because it was pressured by powerful countries like the USA.

The Intensification of External Involvement

Another key feature of the contemporary politics of the Horn of Africa is the drastic
intensification of external powers involvement in recent years. In fact, geopolitically, the Horn of
Africa is one of the strategic regions in the World.
Militarily, the presence of foreign military can be divided into two. One is in the form of
conflict intervention; a good example is the USA military intervention in Somalia; where the
American Military directly fought and destroyed al-ittihad alIslamiya (AIAS). Several other
military missions have also been deployed other forces like al-Shabaab. Another form is military
bases located in Djibouti.
Djibouti as a stable country with sea access has become the gateway to the Horn of Africa and
the Middle East. Countries like China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, South
Korea, Spain, Turkey, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Israel and others have
military base in Djibouti. Some use these bases to fight piracy (terrorism) while others use them
as bases to access the Middle East. Besides Djibouti, the US has military bases in South Sudan,
Uganda and Somalia; the UAE also has a base in Somalia as well as Somaliland.

Unit Summary
Politics refers to power and resistance in a society. The branch of social science that
studies politics is Political Science. The contemporary politics in the Horn of Africa has
three major characteristic features: the increase in the quest for democracy from the side
of society and incapacitation of state institutions to address these legitimate questions; the
instability and partition of states; and the intensification of the involvement of the
international powers.
Throughout the period of cold war the protection and the exercise of all kinds of
democratic rights in almost all countries of the Horn of Africa have been the burning
issues. In all countries of the region collective or group rights have been the major
deriving force of state politics.
In the Horn of Africa, the three sovereign states namely Somalia, Ethiopia and Sudan
multiplied into six states in the post 1990 period. Accordingly, the Republic of

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Somaliland, the State of Eritrea and the Republic of South Sudan are formed as new
states in the Horn of Africa. The major driving factors for this territorial disintegration of
former states are colonial histories, intra-state and inter-state wars. The Horn of Africa is
one of the worlds‟ strategic regions where international powers compete to maintain and
promote their national interests. Almost all Western, Middle East and Asia powers
involve intensely both militarily and economically in the region. S

1. Associate the following horn African states with their year of political independence from
colonialism and its colonizer
A. Djibouti _______________, _______
B. Sudan _______________ , _____
C. Kenya ________________, ________
D. Uganda ______________, _______
2. Describe the features of the region of the Horn of Africa after their independence
A. _____________________________________________________
B. ____________________________________________________
C. __________________________________________________
3. Which country was the last in gaining independence from European colonial rule
______________________
4. Which horn of African country was known by the colonial name of Anglo-Egyptian condominium
A. ___________________
5. What to achieve country of the horn fought against dictatorial regime
_______________________________________
6. The idea raised by President Siad Barre to unify the Somali living in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Kenya
known as ____________________________
7. List the Similarity that the various Somali clan have, including those who live in the neighboring
countries;
A. ________________________
B. _______________________
C. ______________________
8. Mention the major political features post 1990 Somali politics
A. _________________________
B. _________________________
C. ________________________
9. In the Federal arrangement of Somalia, how many region established?_________________
10. Describe the major consequences of Clan based politics in Somalia:
A. ____________________________________________________
B. ___________________________________________________
C. ___________________________________________________
11. List the Major religious group that worked in the Somalia politics and their aim?
I. Religious group ;

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 A. _______________________
B. _______________________
C. ______________________
II. Aim
____________________________________________________
12. The major religious group that was destroyed by US led UN intervention in Somali (1992-1995)
was _________________________________________
B. The religious groups destroyed by the FDRE was ____________________
C. The current political group that used terrorism as a means of struggle in Somalia
is_____________________________
13. Somaliland was the colony of ____________________
14. Briefly summarize the main causes of the 1st and the 2nd Sudanese civil war
A. __________________________________
B. _________________________________
C. _________________________________
15. The First Sudanese civil war known as _________________________
16. How & when South Sudan gained its independence___________________
17. What are the two major ethnic groups of South Sudan
A. ___________________
B. ____________________
18. The Sudanese president who was removed by popular uprising of 2019 was
_______________________________
19. Who is the Current president of Djibouti_____________________
20. What caused the 2014 popular revolution in Djibouti_________________________________
21. What led the formation of FRUD party _____________________________________
22. What was the causes of Djibouti civil war of 1991-1994 ? How they solved _________________
23. What is the root cause of Kenya repeated violence in the post election?
___________________________________________
24. What was the major demand of South Sudanese people during the First Sudanese Civil War?

25. What was the major challenge the South Sudanese people were facing today?

A. ____________________________________________________________
B. ____________________________________________________________
26. On what idea Ethiopian students were debating in the 1960s?
27. When Emperor Haile Selassie was overthrown?
28. Why the different political groups formed front and struggled Derg?
29. How the government of EPRDF attempt to address group right?_________________
______________________________________________
30. What led the fall of EPRDF in 2018?
___________________________________________________________
31. Which party replaced EPRDF? ______________________________

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 32. For how many years the People of Eritrean struggled for independence? ________________
33. What distinguishes the Horn of Africa from other African states?
____________________________________________________
34. What are the newly states that emerged in the horn of Africa in post 1991?
_______________________________________________________________
35. What were the major leading causes of war in the horn of Africa?
__________________________________________________________
36. Why the European colonial powers drew the border of Africa as they liked?
_________________________________________________________________
37. What decision was made by African head of states in the 1964 Cairo meeting?
___________________________________________________________________
38. With what aim such decision was made (by referring question.39).
_____________________________________________________________
39. Is it successful? Why? (by referring question.39)
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

n the

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