Department of Physics

Indian Institute of Technology

Kharagpur-721302, West Bengal, India
Subject No. PH60206 (Physics of Biomacromolecules) Duration: 55 Min each
Instructor: A. N. Gupta

Lecture # 10 and # 11

Strong Intermolecular Forces

Covalent Interactions
■ Covalent forces: the forces that tightly bind the atoms together within the molecule

■ sharing of the electrons between the two or more atoms

■ individual or discrete nature of the atoms is lost

■ directionality of covalent bond: bonds are directed or oriented at well-defined angles relative to each
other

■ Covalent bonds are polar when the electronegativity difference is > 0.4 and non-polar when it is ≤ 0.4

■ Rotational freedom: ability to rotate or not has important consequences for flexibility and stability
(crystals, proteins)

■ covalent forces are short range force (order of inter-atomic separations, 0.1-0.2 nm)

■ strength : 100-300 kB T (200-800 kJ/mol)

■ Covalent interaction is never repulsive

■ the functional form (empirical) for covalent interaction potential is:

−1 q 2 −r/ζ
U (r) = e i.e. Coulomb interaction modulated by exponentially decreasing factor, ζ is
4 π ϵ0 r
correlation length, -ve sign reflect the potential is always attractive

■ Covalent bond always refer to a single orbital interaction

■ the covalent interaction dies away more rapidly than its ionic counterpart(single charges on each ions)
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 2

Coulomb Interactions
■ The interaction between two charged atoms or ions

■ inverse square with the separation

■ the force between two charge Q1 and Q2 separated by r distance in a dielectric medium ϵ,
Q1 Q2
F (r) = N
4 π ϵ0 ϵr r2

The interaction potential or free energy is

r
z1 z2 e2
Z
Q1 Q2
u(r) = −F (r) dr = =
∞ 4 π ϵ0 ϵr r 4 π ϵ0 ϵr r

For two isolated ions (Na+ and Cl− ) in contact, i.e. r = 0.276 nm

−(1.6 × 10−19 )2
u(r = 0.276 nm) = −9
= −8.5 × 10−19 J = 200 kB T
4 π ϵ0 (0.276 × 10 )
u(r)
The force needed to break the ionic bond would be F = ∼ 3 n N.
r
Ionic Crystals
■ Ionic crystals have at least two atoms in their base which are ionized. Charge neutrality demands that
the total charge in the base must be zero; so we always need ions with opposing charge.

■ The binding between the ions is mostly electrostatic and rather strong (binding energies around 300
kB T ); it has no directionality.

■ Ionic crystals thus can be described as an ensemble of hard spheres which try to occupy a minimum
volume while minimizing electrostatic energy at the same time (i.e. having charge neutrality in small
volumes, too).

■ There are no free electrons, ionic crystals are insulators.

■ Ionic crystals come under simple and more complicated lattice types

■ Finding Coulomb energy of an ion with all other ions

1-D, 2-D and 3-D ionic crystal

■ In a crystal lattice each +ve charge has a -ve charge next to it so that they form a dipole whose field
1 1
decays asymptotically as 3 rather than 2
r r
■ When two ions are very close, a repulsive force due to the overlapping electron clouds and opposing
nuclear charges will be generated
u(r)repulsive = b e−r/a ; where a and b are constant
Q1 Q2
Unet (r) = + b e−r/a
4 π ϵ0 ϵr r
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 3

q2
For NaCl crystal: uij = λ e−rij /ρ ±
rij
1X X q2
U = uij = N (λ e−rij /ρ ± )
2 i,j i,j
rij

■ Each pair of interaction must be counted once; so 1/2 factor is there

■ Sum over j does not depend on whether the reference ion i is +ve or -ve; which gives total number of
atoms

■ N=n/2= no. of molecules or no. of +ve and -ve ions

■ Repulsive interaction is non-zero only for the nearest neighbours because it drops down very quickly
with the distance between atoms.

The total lattice energy is sum of attractive and repulsive energy.

q2
U = N (Z λ e−R/ρ − α )
R

where R is the distance between nearest neighbours, Z is the no. of nearest neighbours

X±Z
α = , is Madelung Constant
ρij

where, rij = ρij R ;

The Madelung constant determine the electrostatic potential of a single ion in a crystal.
It is also useful in describing the lattice energy of some salt.

■ If you just consider coulomb potential energy, that would be

e2 X R
u(r) = − N
4 π ϵ0 r rij

Madelung constant for 3D crystal

 
12 8 6
α = 6− √ + √ − + ... = 1.75
2 3 2

■ Find the equilibrium distance between nearest neighbours for NaCl type crystal? (Given, α =
1.75, R0 = 2.8 Å, ρ = 0.1 × R0 )

dU αρ q 2
= 0 ⇒ R02 e−R0 /ρ = .
dR Zλ
αN q 2
 
ρ
The cohesive energy, ⇒ U0 = − 1− . Binding energy per pair of atoms is about 8 eV.
R0 R0
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 4

Estimation and usefulness of Madelung constant

Madelung constant for 1D crystal
X ±Z  
X R 1 1 1
Ans: α = = ± = 2 1 − + − ... = 2 ln 2 = 1.386;
ρij ij
rij 2 3 4

Madelung constant for 2D crystal

Ans: α = 1.6155

Home Work for students..

Nearest neighbour of same charge..

e2
 
4 4 6 6
u(r) = − 4 − √ + − √ + √ .. ⇒ α = 1.6155
4πϵ0 r 2 2 5 8
Nearest neighbour of opposite charge..

e2
 
4 4 8 4
u(r) = − 4 − √ + − √ + √ .. ⇒ α == 1.6155
4πϵ0 r 2 2 5 8
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 5

Reference state
■ the reference state is r = ∞ and interaction occurs in vacuum

■ if two ions are interacting in condensed liquid medium; the references state is also r = ∞ and
dielectric constant of the medium (you have to take care)

■ at certain finite separation, a quantum mechanical charge exchange or charge transfer interaction takes
place (electron jumps from one atoms to another form +ve and -ve ions), the two atoms turn into
oppositely charged ions and attract each other with a strong Coulomb force : phenomena is called
Harpooning Effect

■ the reverse process may also happen and strong Coulomb interaction is replaced by weak van der Waal
interaction: phenomena occurs for dissimilar surfaces called contact electrification or Triboelectricity
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 6

Weak Intermolecular Forces

■ attraction that occurs between filled orbitals

■ repulsion when filled orbitals approach sufficiently close (Pauli exclusion principle will prohibit overlap
of the orbitals)

■ the interaction arises from the instantaneous dipoles exist even in the filled orbitals
A
■ Johannes van der Waals potential: U (r) = −
r6
■ Buckingham potential function:
A
U (r) = B e−r/ζ − 6
r
A B
■ Lennard-Jones potential: U (r) = − 6
+ 12
r r
■ Origin of van der Waals forces:

– long range force ( 10 nm to 0.2 nm)

– Repulsive or attractive (does not follow simple power law)
– bring molecule together and also align or orient them
– these forces are not additive, forces between two bodies is affected by other nearby bodies

van der Waals = Debye + Keesom +London

Concept of dipole
■ For a physical dipole ; equal and opposite charges separated by very small distance

■ how small; separation should be very very small compared to the reference point

■ Pure dipole; when d → 0 , and q → ∞ , so that product q d is constant

■ direction of dipole:from -ve charge to +ve charge

■ dipole moment is independent of reference point only when net charge is zero otherwise it will depends
on the choice of reference point
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 7

■ Find out the dipole moment of given configuration

N
X
■ p⃗ = qi ri = q r+ − q r−
i=1

■ Polarizability of Polar molecules:

⃗ field,
Boltzmann average orientation of the rotating dipole in the presence of external E

the time average Pinduced ̸= 0; for free rotating dipole,

the time average, < pinduce >= 0.

■ The dipolar polarizability weighted along the field,

p2 E p2
< pind >θ = < p cos θ e(p E cos θ/kT )
>= < cos2 θ >= E;
kT 3kT
Z π Z 2π
2 1 2 1
< cos θ >= cos θ sin θ dθ dϕ =
4π 0 0 3
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 8

Electric potential for a dipole

 
1 q q
V (r) = −
4 π ϵ0 r+ r−
2
r± = r2 + (d/2)2 ∓ r d cos(θ)
2
 
2 d d
r± = r2 1 ∓ cos(θ) +
r 4 r2
 1/2
1 1 d
= 1 ∓ cos(θ)
r± r r
1 1 d
− = 2 cos(θ)
r+ r− r
1 q d cos(θ)
V (r) =
4 π ϵ0 r2

Multipole Expansion
For arbitrary charge distribution

s2 = r2 + r′ 2 − 2 r r′ cos(θ′ )
"  ′ 2  ′ #
r r
s2 = r 2 1 + − 2 cos(θ′ )
r r
"  #
√ ′ 2
 ′
r r
s = r 1 + ϵ ; where ϵ is − 2 cos(θ′ )
r r
 
1 1 −1/2 1 1 3 2 5 3
= (1 + ϵ) = 1 − ϵ + ϵ − ϵ + ...
s r r 2 8 16
"  ′  ′ 2 #
2 ′
1 1 r r 3 cos (θ ) − 1
= 1 + cos(θ′ ) +
s r r r 2
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 9

Potential energy for a dipole

Dipole self energy
ˆ a dipole
 posses an electrostatic self energy (similar to ion (Born self energy)),
q 2 −q 2 q 2 1 q2

1
− − = , here, r = 2a. where a is radius of ion.
4πϵ0 2a 2a r 4πϵ0 ϵ 2a

ˆ The solubility of polar molecules in different solvent should increase with dielectric
constant ϵ.
ˆ the dipole moment is NOT uniquely define, this is product of charges and their
separation distance. so, it may give you different self energy for a dipole.
ˆ The dipole moment vary from solvent to solvent.

ˆ Since molecules are large in size ions so additional energy arising from non-electrostatic
solute-solvent interaction, van der Waals self-energy.

■ An electric field produces a torque on a dipole (τ = p E sin(θ) )which tends to take

it to its low energy configuration. To rotate it from the low energy state against the
field requires work.
Z θ2 Z θ2
U (r, θ) = τ dθ = p E(r) sin(θ) dθ = p E [cos θ2 − cos(θ1 ) ]
θ1 θ1
⃗
So, choose U = 0 when θ = 00 . So, U = − p E(r) cos(θ) = − p⃗ . E(r)

■ Dipole-dipole interactions depend on the orientations of the dipoles. Dipole-dipole

interactions can be attractive or repulsive.

Potential terms for multipole

PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 10
Charge-dipole interaction
ˆ Since, the potential,
1
U (r) =< e(−u(r)/kT ) >=< u(r, Ω) − u(r, Ω)2 + .. >
2kT
2
cos2 θ

1 q p cos θ qp
=< − − >,
4πϵ0 ϵ r2 4πϵ0 ϵ r2 2kT
q 2 p2 1
U (r) = − , which is attractive and Temperature dependent
6(4πϵ0 ϵ)2 kT r4

Ion-Dipole interaction
The electrostatic pair interaction between ion and dipole,
1 (ze)(p) cos θ
U (r) = −
4πϵ0 ϵ r2

Dipole-Dipole Interaction: The Keesom term (free rotating dipoles)

If you take angle average (θ1 & θ2 ) and azimuthal angle ϕ will give you,
p1 p2
Ud−d = (sin θ1 sin θ2 cos ϕ − 2 cos θ1 cos θ2 )
4πϵ0 r3
Derivation in a few steps using multipole expansion:
U (r) = q1′ ϕ(r1 ) + q2′ ϕ(r2 ).
q1 1
(4πϵ0 )U (r) = q1′ + 2 (q1′ p1 cos θ1 − qp2 cos θ2 )
p1 p2 r r
− 3 (2 cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ1 sin θ2 cos ϕ) + ....
r
2 p1 p2 theta1 = theta2 = 0
If both the dipoles are in the same direction, U (r) = − ⇐ Attractive.
4πϵ0 r3
2 p1 p2
If one dipole is the opposite direction, the, U (r) = 3
⇐ Repulsive. theta1
theta2
=0
= 180
4πϵ0 r
theta1 = 0
If one is at right angle, U (r) = 0. theta2 = 90

Net average dipole-dipole interaction energy is ZERO. But, each configuration occurs with
a probability proportional to Boltzmann factor.
So, if both dipoles are freely rotating the dipole-dipole interaction energy is given by the
weighted average

p21 p22 p1 p2
U (r) = − ⇐ Keesom energy. for kT >
3(4πϵ0 ϵ)2 kT r6 4πϵ0 ϵr3
1
The interaction energy fall faster than 3 which confirms that neither ion-dipole nor dipole-
r
dipole forces can produce long range alignment effects in liquid.
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 11

Dipole-Induced dipole Interaction-The Debye term

Induced dipole
■ Neutral atom in an electric field: the +vely charged nucleus pushes in direction of
the field and -vely charged electron cloud away from the direction of the field.
■ In a very strong field, atom can be ionized.
■ In small field strength, the equilibrium between electron cloud and nucleus gives
induced dipole (now atom is polarized)
■ So, the induced dipole moment has same direction of the external field.
⃗ ; where α is atomic polarizability, depends on
■ So, for small field strength: p⃗ = α E
the structure of the atom (α = 4 π ϵ0 a3 ), where a is the radius of the atom. This
α is a tensorial quantity (neither vector nor scalar).
■ Interaction energy for dipole-induced dipole is given by:

⃗ = − α E2 ∼ 1
U (r) = −⃗p . E
r6
2
 
p 1 p 2 (1 − 3 cos (θ) )
since V varies as 1/r3 for dipole-dipole interaction V =
4 π ϵ0 r 3
water molecule interact with dipole: upon approach of the molecule with a dipole,
electrons in the atom respond and the atom also develop dipole.
p2 α 2


Ud−id = − 1 + 3 cos θ
(4πϵ0 r3 )2

Fluctuating dipole
■ Freely rotating dipole: U = 0 always; since dipole changes sign
■ The interaction energy for two freely rotating dipoles is not zero.
■ However their mutual potential energy depends on their relative orientation, in fact
molecules do not rotate completely free even in gaseous medium.
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 12

Induced dipole-Induced dipole Interaction

Drude Model: assume positive charge stationary and negative charge performing SH about
the positive charge with frequency ω.

Quantum fluctuations induces instantaneous dipole and instantaneous dipole in turn cre-
ates another dipole in near by molecules.
Hamiltonian for the system is given by:
p21 1 2 p22 1
H = + c x1 + + c x22 + Hi
2m 2 2m 2

Where Hi is initial energy without fluctuation for nearest and farthest position

e(x1 + x2 ) × e (x1 − x2 )
Hi = −K
R3
p21 1 2 e2 2 p22 1 2 e2 2
H = + (c − K 3 ) x1 + + (c + K 3 ) x2
2m 2 R 2m 2 R
Energy eigenvalue values for the above Hamiltonian are:

p
■ ω0 = c/m
v
u 2 e2
tc ± K 3
u
■ ω1,2 = R
m

ℏ
■ ∆E = [ω1 + ω2 − 2 ω0 ] ; for the same state.
2
1
■ ∆E∼ [Prove it?] expand (1+x)^1/2 for three terms for omega 1 and 2
r6
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 13

Summary
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 14

Special Interaction
Hydrogen bonding
■ Attractive interaction between two species
■ A—H- - - B; where A, B are highly electronegative elements like F, O, N
■ B should have lone pair of electrons
■ partial +ve charge of H and partial -ve charge of B
■ All A, B, H contribute one atomic orbital to form three molecular orbitals

Ψ = C1 ΨA + C2 ΨH + C3 ΨB

■ these three orbitals need to accommodate 4 electrons (2 from the original A–H and
2 from lone pair of B)
■ One molecular orbital is bonding; second one is non-bonding, and third one is anti-
bonding
■ So if H-bonding is present it may dominate the other intermolecular interactions
■ Hydrogen bond may be symmetric [H-atom lies midway between the two atoms] for
eg. F–H- - - F
■ mostly H-bonding is asymmetric where A–H is shorter than H- - - B
■ For two monovalent ions in water with thermal energy kB T

1 e2
= kB T ; where lB is Bjerrum length; at room temperature lB = 7.2 Å
4 π ϵ0 lB

■ If the separation is larger than lB , electrostatic interaction is zero

■ The strength of ionic bond is reduced by surrounding water molecules
■ the strength of covalent bond is unchanged; covalent bond is used as to keep macro-
molecule together
■ Intra hydrogen bond is of covalent nature with bond length 0.1 nm. However, the
inter H-bond 0.176 nm but much less than 0.26 nm expected from summing the two
van der Waals radii of O and H. So, it posses some covalent character. H-bond is an
electrostatic interaction.
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 15

Hydrogen Bond cont..

■ The strength of hydrogen bond lies between van der Waals and Covalent interactions.
■ H-bond can be formed intra-molecular as well as inter-molecular
■ It can also exist in non-polar environment
■ Hydrogen bond has 10% covalent and 90% electrostatic in nature between water
molecule and non-polar molecule
■ re-orientation of polar molecule so that the non-polar molecule can participate in
H-bonding formation

■ examples of H-bond
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 16

Geometry of Hydrogen bond

The strength of H-bond least depends on the geometry. However, optimal geometry has
collinear arrangement of three atoms. The strength of H-bonds depends upon both the
nature of the donor and the acceptorand the microenvironment of the H-bond.

ˆ Very strong H-bond; 15 to 40 kcal/mol

ˆ Moderate H-bond strength: 5 to 14 kcal/mol

ˆ Weak (most common) H-bond: 0 to 5 kcal/mol

Factors affecting Hydrogen bond

ˆ Solvation effect

ˆ Electronegativity effects

ˆ Resonance assisted H-bonds

ˆ Polarization enhanced H-bonds

ˆ Secondary interaction in H-bonds system

ˆ Cooperativity in H-bonds
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 17

Water molecule
There are more than 40 models for water molecule. For ‘ TIP5P’ model: q = 0.24 e ,
l = 0.096 nm, θ = 104.50 , and ϕ = 109.50 . This model predict maximum density
at 40 , and high dielectric constant, but fail to explain phase diagram of water.

1. high melting and boiling point, and latent heat of vaporization through it is low
molecular weight (against the properties of ionic crystal)
2. maximum density at 40 C
3. solid (Ice) is less dense than liquid
4. water molecule tetrahedral coordination rather than higher close packing i.e. 12
5. ice has higher dielectric constant than liquid phase
6. proton conductivity and mobility in ice is also higher than in liquid
7. high dipole moment
8. high dielectric constant
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 18

Shape of water molecule, dipole moment

On average liquid water molecule has 3.5 H-bond per molecule at room temperature, but
ice has 4.
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 19

Hydrophobic interaction
■ When a hydrocarbon molecule is surrounded by water, the water molecule form a
lattice like structure pierced with holes (Clathrate cage), as a result of this struc-
ture, entropy of water decreases. The dispersal of the hydrocarbon into the water is
entropically opposed and its coalescence is entropy favoured. If the change in G is
negative and the hydrophobic interactions will be spontaneous.
■ +ve Gibb’s free energy transfer from a non-polar to a polar solvent are Hydrophobic
substance

1. Why oil and water don’t mix?

2. How proteins are structured?
3. How/What holds biological membranes together?
4. For example: Lotus leaf: untouched by contamination of dirty water which restrict
bacteria and pathogens growing on its surface. (very high contact angle ∼ 1600 )

According to van der Waals theory oil and water should not separate and surfactant should
not form membranes, but they do.

Virus and disease propagation in the human body are directly linked to hydrophobic
properties on a cellular level.

■ For Hydrophilic surface: contact angle of water droplet, θc < 900 : water spreads
on the surface
■ For Hydrophobic surface: contact angle of water droplets, θc > 900 : water beads-up
on the surface
■ for super hydrophobic surface: contact angle of water droplets, θc > 1500 : water
droplets are highly beaded (repelled)
■ uses: 1. Low water resistance for boats
■ 2. High efficiency wind mills
■ For maximum hydrophobicity:
– free energy transfer ∆G is maximum where ∆S = 0
∆G
– Equilibrium constant for transfer ∼ − is at a maximum where ∆ H = 0
T
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 20

Gibb’s and Helmholtz free energy:

G |T,p = H − T S = U + P V − T S

F |T,V = U − T S

The strength of hydrophobic interaction is not due to any intrinsic attraction between
non-polar moieties. It results from the system achieving greatest thermodynamic stabil-
ity by minimizing the no. of ordered water molecules required to surround hydrophobic
portion of the solute molecules.
For small molecular group R: the hydrophobic constant ( Π ) as
s
Π = ln( )
s0
where ‘s’ is the ratio of molar solubility of the compound R–A in Octanol (a non-polar
solvent) to that in water.
s0 is ratio of molar solubility of compound H–A in octonol to that in water

Π > 0 : indicate hydrophobic

Π < 0 : indicate hydrophilic

So, higher chain length increases hydrophobicity.

As carbon atom increases for longer chain: ∆transf er H become more +ve and

∆transf er S become more -ve

At molecular level, formation of solvent cage around a hydrophobic molecule involves the
formation of new hydrogen bonds among solvent molecules. This is exothermic process so
-ve value of ∆ H

Increase in order with formation of large no. of small solvent cage decreases the ∆ S , so
-ve value for ∆transf er S

Increases in entropy of the solvent leads to association of hydrophobic molecules.

Hydrophobic surface strongly attract each other to eject water into the bulk to minimize
the free energy of the system.
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 21

Hydrophobic energy is proportional to the interfacial tension, γ and amount of exposed

hydrophobicity within the bilayer.

Ehdrophobic = −γ (a − a0 ) e−d/Dhydrophobic

where Dhydrophobic is hydrophobic decay length

a is molecular area
−1/2
d

−
a(d) = a0 1 − e Dhydro 
 

Reference: Donaldson et. al. PNAS (2011)

PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 22

Which physical properties of the protein determine its fold?

rigidity of the protein backbone,
interactions among amino acids, including
electrostatic interactions
van der Waals forces
volume constraints
hydrogen, disulfide bonds– interactions of amino acids with water
hydrophobic and hydrophilic residues.

Protein Structure Predictions

Prediction in 1D– secondary structure– solvent accessibility (which residues are exposed
to water, which are buried)– transmembrane helices (which residues span membranes)
Prediction in 2D– inter-residue/strand contacts
Prediction in 3D– homology modeling– fold recognition (e.g. via threading) 15– ab initio
prediction (e.g. via molecular dynamics)

Protein Structure prediction

PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 23

Drug target
ˆ Lipids: Cell membrane lipids

ˆ Proteins: Receptors; Enzymes;Carrier proteins;Structural proteins

ˆ Nucleic acids: DNA;RNA

ˆ Carbohydrates: Cell surface carbohydrates;Antigens and recognition molecules

ˆ Drug targets are large molecules - macromolecules

ˆ Drugs are generally much smaller than their targets

ˆ Drugs interact with their targets by binding to the binding sites

ˆ Binding sites are typically hydrophobic pockets on the surface of macromolecules

ˆ Binding interactions typically involve intermolecular bonds

ˆ Most drugs are in equilibrium between being bound and unbound to their target

ˆ Functional groups on the drug are involved in binding interactions and are called
binding groups
ˆ Specific regions within the binding site that are involved in binding interactions are
called binding regions
ˆ Binding interactions usually result in an induced fit where the binding site changes
shape to accommodate the drug
ˆ The induced fit may also alter the overall shape of the drug target

ˆ Ionic bonds are the most important initial interactions as a drug enters the binding
site
ˆ The van der Waals interaction occur between hydrophobic regions of the drug and
the target
PH60206 Lecture# 10 and # 11 24

Question:
The given Lennard-Jones potential has attractive as well as repulsive terms.

−A B
U (r) = +
r6 r12
where A = 10−77 J-m6 , B = 10−134 J-m12 .
Calculate the distance where potential energy is minimum ( r = re ), ratio of re to r0 ,
and ratio of rs to r0 (at r0 the potential energy is zero), and rs is separation between
molecule where adhesive force is maximum.
Consider two neutral atoms or molecules are interacting via this potential. Calculate the
frequency of small oscillation of atoms/molecules of mass (m = 9 mp ) near that minima
for very small r, (∆r). Discuss anharmonic oscillation away from minima.