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Highway and Railroad Engineering - Module 4

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35 views18 pages

Highway and Railroad Engineering - Module 4

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avbgenovia
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Highway

and
Railroad
Engineering
(Module 4)
Module Outline

1. Structural Design of Railways and Pavements


2. Failures, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of
Transportation Infrastructure
Structural Design of Pavements

Fundamentally, a paved surface performs two basic


functions. First, it helps guide drivers by giving them a
visual perspective of the horizontal and vertical
alignment of the traveled path - thus giving drivers
information relating to the driving task and the steering
control of the vehicle. The second function of pavement
is to support vehicle loads, and this second function is
the focus of this chapter.
Types of Pavements

1. Flexible
2. Rigid
Flexible Pavements
A flexible pavement is constructed with asphaltic cement and
aggregates and usually consists of several layers. The upper 6 to 8
inches of the subgrade is usually scarified and
blended to provide a uniform material before it is compacted to
maximum density. The next layer is the subbase, which usually
consists of crushed aggregate (rock). This material has better
engineering properties (higher modulus values) than the
subgrade material in terms of its bearing capacity. The next layer is
the base layer and is also often made of crushed aggregates (of a
higher strength than those used in the subbase), which are either
unstabilized or stabilized with a cementing material. The cementing
material can be portland cement, lime fly ash, or asphaltic cement.
Flexible Pavements
The top layer of a flexible pavement is referred to as the wearing
surface. It is usually made of asphaltic concrete, which is a mixture of
asphalt cement and aggregates. The purpose of the wearing layer is
to protect the base layer from wheel abrasion and to waterproof the
entire pavement structure. It also provides a skid resistant surface
that is important for safe vehicle stops.
Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement is constructed with portland cement concrete (PCC)
and aggregates. As with flexible pavements, the subgrade (the lower
layer) is often scarified, blended, and compacted to maximum density.
In rigid pavements, the base layer is optional, depending on the
engineering properties of the subgrade. If the subgrade soil is poor
and erodable, then it is advisable to use a base layer. However, if the
soil has good engineering properties and drains well, a base layer
need not be used. The top layer (wearing surface) is the portland
cement concrete slab. Slab length varies from a spacing of 10 to 13 ft
to a spacing of 40 ft or more.
Rigid Pavements
Transverse contraction joints are built into the pavement to control
cracking due to shrinkage of the concrete during the curing process.
Load transfer devices, such as dowel bars, are placed in the joints to
minimize deflections and reduce stresses near the edges of the slabs.
Slab thicknesses for PCC highway pavements usually vary from 8 to
12 inches.
Failures, Maintenance and Rehabilitation of
Transportation Infrastructure

The design procedure for pavements originally focused on the


pavement serviceability index (PSI) as a measure of pavement quality.
However, the pavement serviceability index is based on the opinions
of a panel of experts, which can introduce some variability into their
determination. As a result, efforts have been undertaken to develop
quantitative measures of pavement condition that provide additional
insights into pavement quality and performance and that correlate
with the traditional pavement serviceability index. Some factors that
are regularly measured by highway pavement agencies now include
the International Roughness Index, friction measurements, and rut
depth.
International Roughness Index (IRI)

The IRI is determined by measuring vertical movements in a


standardized vehicle’s suspension per unit length of roadway. Units of
IRI are reported in inches per mile (in/mi). The higher the value of the
IRI, the rougher the road. To get some sense for how the IRI relates to
pavement condition assessments and PSI, Tables 4.11 and 4.12
provide IRI and PSI values corresponding to what is considered poor,
mediocre, fair, good, and very good for Interstate and non-Interstate
highways [Federal Highway Administration, 2006]. Note that, due to
the higher design standards and performance expectations, interstate
highways are held to a higher standard for fair, mediocre, and poor
pavement assessments.
Friction Measurements

Another important measurement of pavement performance is the


surface friction. This is critical because low friction values can increase
stopping distances and the probability of accidents. Given the
variability of pavement surfaces, weather conditions, and tire
characteristics, determining pavement friction over the range of
possible values is not an easy task. To estimate friction, a
standardized test is conducted under wet conditions using either a
treaded or smooth tire. Although other speeds are sometimes used,
the standard test is generally conducted at 40 mi/h using a
friction-testing trailer in which the wheel is locked on the wetted road
surface, and the torque developed from this wheel locking is used to
measure a friction number.
Rut Depth

Rut depth, which is a measure of pavement surface deformation in the wheel


paths, can affect roadway safety because the ruts accumulate water and
increase the possibility of vehicle hydroplaning (which results in the tire
skimming over a film of water, greatly reducing braking and steering
effectiveness). Because of its potential impact on vehicle control, rut depths
are regularly measured on many highways to determine if pavement rutting
has reached critical values that would require resurfacing or other pavement
treatments. Virtually all states measure rut depth using automated
equipment that seeks to determine the difference in surface elevation of the
pavement in the wheel path relative to the pavement that is not in the wheel
path. The critical values of rut depth can vary from one highway agency to the
next. Usually, rut depths are considered unacceptably high when their values
reach between 0.5–1.0 inches, indicating that corrective action is warranted.
Cracking

For flexible pavements, four types of cracking are usually monitored:


longitudinal fatigue cracking, transverse cracking, alligator cracking, and
reflection cracking. Longitudinal-fatigue cracking is a surface-down cracking
that occurs due to material fatigue in the wheel path. Such cracking can
accelerate over time and require significant repairs to protect against water
penetration into the flexible pavement structure. Transverse cracking is
generally the result of low temperatures that cause fractures across the traffic
lanes (resulting in an increase in pavement roughness). Alligator-fatigue
cracking is a consequence of material fatigue in the wheel path, generally
starting from the bottom of the asphalt layer. Such material fatigue creates a
patch of connected cracks that resembles the skin of an alligator (as with
other types of cracks, these can accelerate quickly over time and generate the
need for maintenance to protect the integrity of the pavement structure).
Cracking

Finally, reflection cracking occurs when hot-mix asphalt (HMA) overlays are
placed over exiting pavement structures that had alligator-fatigue cracking, or
other indications of pavement distress, and these old distresses manifest
themselves in new distresses in the overlay. This results in surface cracking
that increases surface roughness and the need for maintenance to protect
water intrusion into the pavement structure.
Cracking

For rigid pavements, transverse cracking is a common measure of pavement


distress. Such cracking can be the result of slab fatigue and can be initiated
either at the surface or base of the slab. The spacing and width of transverse
cracks, and the potential impact of severe cracking on the structural integrity
of the pavement, are critical measures of rigid-pavement distress.
Faulting

For traditional JPCP (Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements) rigid pavements, joint
faulting (characterized by different slab elevations) is a critical measure of
pavement distress. Faulting is an indicator of erosion or fatigue of the layers
beneath the slab and reflects a failure of the load-transfer ability of the
pavement between adjacent slabs. Faulting is associated with increased
roughness and will be reflected in International Roughness Index
measurements.
Punchouts

For Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements (CRCP) rigid pavements


(those built without expansion/contraction joints), fatigue damage at the top
of the slab is often measured by punchouts, which occur when the close
spacing of transverse cracks cause in high tensile stresses that result in
portions of the slab being broken into pieces. Punchouts are associated with
increased roughness and are reflected in International Roughness Index
measurements.

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