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UNIT 5
CYLINDRICAL
PROJECTIONS

Structure
5.1 Introduction 5.6 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 5.7 Terminal Questions
5.2 Cylindrical Projection 5.8 Answers
5.3 Simple Cylindrical Projection 5.9 References/Suggested Further
5.4 Cylindrical Equal-Area Projection Reading

5.5 Mercator’s Projection

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In the previous units, we have discussed about definition of map projection in
which we mentioned about the network of parallels and meridians which is
called graticule. You might have also understood how this network facilitates in
drawing of the maps. In other words, we can say that drawing of graticules on
a flat surface is called projection. There are number of methods which have
been devised to project the parallels of latitude and the meridians of longitude
on a flat surface. In the previous unit, we have also discussed classifications
of map projection on various bases. Two techniques which are mostly used in
the drawing of projection are perspective (graphical), and non-perspective
(mathematical). In perspective or graphical method, the graticule of latitudes
and longitudes is projected through the source of light. Projections prepared
through this technique are known as perspective projections. They are broadly
grouped into three categories namely cylindrical, conical and zenithal.

In this unit, we will discuss cylindrical map projections and their common
properties, uses and limitations in Section 5.2. In the following Sections i.e.
5.3, 5.4 and 5.5, we have discussed three widely used cylindrical map
projections namely simple cylindrical, cylindrical equal area and Mercators’
projection. Under each projection, we will describe their characteristics, uses,
limitations and methods of construction. In the following two units i.e. Unit 6
72 and Unit 7, we will discuss about conical and zenithal projections, respectively.
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Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

™ choose the appropriate cylindrical map projections according to their

uses;

™ recognize the different cylindrical map projections with the help of

patterns of latitudes and longitudes;

™ enumerate the characteristics of each cylindrical map projection on the

basis of graticule patterns formed by the parallels of latitude and
meridians of longitudes; and

™ explain the function and use of the various types of map projections.

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In a cylindrical map projection, it is assumed that the globe is surrounded by a
hollow cylinder and the cylinder touches the globe along the equator. When the
cylinder touches the globe along the equator, the axis of the cylinder coincides
with the axis of the globe (Fig. 5.1). The parallels and meridians are transferred
from the globe to the inner surface of the cylinder by applying certain methods.
The cylinder is then cut vertically and unrolled into a flat rectangular sheet of
paper and the projection is completed.

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(Source: US Geological Survey, National Atlas public domain. http://www.nationalatlas.gov/
articles/mapping/a_projections.html)

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As already mentioned, the drawing of cylindrical projections is based on the
principle that a cylinder whose radius is equal to the radius of the globe,
surrounds the globe and touches it at the equator. Consequently, there are
some properties which are common to all the cylindrical projections described
as under:

L 6KDSHRI3DUDOOHOV All parallels in all the cylindrical projections are drawn

as straight lines which are parallel and equal in length to the equator.

LL 6KDSHRI0HULGLDQV Meridians are also drawn as straight lines which are

perpendicular to the equator. All the meridians are parallel to the prime
meridian and parallel to one another. They are placed at equal distances.

LLL ,QWHUVHFWLRQRI3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV On the globe, the parallels and

meridians intersect each other at right angles everywhere.

LY 6FDOHDORQJ3DUDOOHOV As mentioned above, the cylindrical projections are

constructed on the assumption that the cylinder surrounds the globe at the
equator and the radius of the cylinder is equal to the radius of the globe.
Therefore, the circumference of the cylinder will be equal to that of globe.
Hence, the scale along the equator on all the cylindrical projections is
correct.

The length of all the parallel is equal to the length of the equator on these
projections while on the globe, their length decreases gradually as we
move away from the equator towards the poles. Therefore, the scale along
parallels is exaggerated away from the equator. For example, the
exaggeration of the parallel scale is 1.15, 2.00, 4.00 and 5.76 times at
latitudes 30°, 60°, 75° and 80°, respectively. The exaggeration of the
parallel scale at the poles is infinite because the pole on the globe is only a
point and it has been stretched to the length of the equator on cylindrical
projections.

Y 6FDOHDORQJ0HULGLDQV Although, all the meridians on a cylindrical

projections have equal length, their scale on the projection is kept correct,
reduced or exaggerated depending upon the purpose of the projection. For
example, meridian scale is kept correct in Simple Cylindrical Projection,
reduced in Cylindrical Equal Area Projection and exaggerated in Mercator’s
Projection. We will discuss about these in detail in the subsequent
sections where we will take up the above mentioned three projections
separately.

YL 6KDSHRI3URMHFWLRQ Since all the cylindrical projections are developed

from a cylinder which is supposed to surround the globe along the equator,
all the cylindrical projections are rectangular in shape.

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Cylindrical projections are best suited for the tropical zone lying between 30°N
and 30°S latitudes. To be precise, it is more suited for a narrow belt along the
equator. This is because of the fact that the scale along parallels and the
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meridians is more or less correct in this zone. Hence, the homolographic and
orthomorphic properties are well preserved in these areas.

Now you might have understood that these projections are not much suited to
temperate and polar areas because the scale along parallels and meridians
changes drastically in these areas. This results in large scale deformity in area
and shape.

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A number of cylindrical projections have been developed for example Simple
Cylindrical Projection, Cylindrical Equal Area Projection, Gall’s Equal Area
Projection, Mercator’s Projection and Transverse Mercator’s Projection.

However, in this unit, we shall discuss only the following three types of
cylindrical projections: 1. Simple Cylindrical Projection; 2. Cylindrical Equal
Area Projection; and 3. Mercator’s Projection.

SAQ 1
a) What is the limitation of cylindrical projection?

b) Name any three types of cylindrical projection.

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As its name indicates, it is a very simple map projection and it is very easy to
construct and understand this projection. It is also known as Plate Carree’s
3URMHFWLRQ because it was invented by Plate Carree. The distance between
successive parallels remains equal and it is called Cylindrical Equidistance
Projection. If the interval of parallels and meridians is the same, then this
projection forms a series of squares. If, however, they are different, then they
will form a series of rectangles and not squares. Interval of parallels and
meridians is different than the parallels and meridians will form a series of
rectangles. While constructing this projection, care is taken to keep the
distance between successive parallels according to the distances on the
globe. In other words, the scale along meridians is kept correct.

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Following are the main properties of this projection:

L 6KDSHRI3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV The equator and all other parallels of

latitude are drawn as straight lines. They are all parallel to the equator as
well as parallel to one another. As far as meridians are concerned, the
central meridian as well as all other meridians are drawn as straight lines.
They are all parallel to one another and are equal to half the length of the
equator.

LL ,QWHUVHFWLRQRI3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV The parallels and meridians

intersect each other at right angles in all parts of the projection.

LLL 6FDOHDORQJ3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQVAs far as parallels are concerned

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scale along equator is correct but is exaggerated along all other parallels.
The exaggeration of scale is 1.15 at 30°, 2.00 at 60° and 5.76 at 80°
latitudes. At the poles, the exaggeration of the parallel scale is infinite. The
exaggeration of the parallel scale is due to the fact that their length on the
globe decreases as we move from equator towards the poles, till it
becomes zero at the poles. However, they are as long as equator on this
projection.

In the case of meridians, the scale along all meridians is correct because
their length on the globe as well as on the projection is the same. Due to
the correctness of the scale along the meridians, all the parallels are
placed at equal distances, as a result of which, it is also known as
‘Equidistant Projection’.

LY 6SHFLDO3URSHUW\ Scale along the equator is correct and it is exaggerated

along all other parallels. But the scale along all the meridians is correct.
Therefore, this is neither an equal area projection nor an orthomorphic
projection. However, it preserves both these qualities to a reasonable
degree near the equator.

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Although, it is neither an equal area nor an orthomorphic projection; it provides
a good combination of both the qualities near the equator. Therefore, it is
useful for general purpose maps of the tropical areas. Since the scale along all
the meridians is correct and the scale along the equator is also correct, a
narrow strip of land running in north south direction and crossing the equator is
shown with fair degree of correctness on this projection. For example, railway
line connecting Cairo with Cape Town can be conveniently shown on this
projection because this railway line runs in north-south direction, more or less
along the 30º E longitude. The international boundary line between Argentina
and Chile in South America can also be shown on this projection in a similar
way because it runs in north-south direction.

This projection is suitable for showing areas near the equator only. In higher
latitudes, both area and shape are distorted and this projection is suitable for
temperate and polar areas.

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Let us discuss methods of construction of Simple Cylindrical Projection by
explaining one example. You will be provided with various practical exercises
which will be discussed in detail in Practical Manual.

([DPSOHDraw the map of the world on Simple Cylindrical Projection on

1:250,000,000 scale at the interval of 30°.

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250,000,000 = 1inch (Radius of the actual

Radius (R) of the reduced earth
250,000,000 earth is 250,000,000 inch)
Length of Equator 2SR or 2x22x1 = 6.3 inches.
7

Interval along the Equator 6.3 x 30º = 0.52 inch

360º

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1. Draw a circle of 1 inch radius;

2. Mark the angles of 30º, 60º, 90º, 120º, 150º and 180º for both, northern and
southern hemispheres;

3. Draw a horizontal straight line of 6.3" long to represent the equator on this
projection.

4. Divide this line into 12 equal parts with the help of a pair of compasses so
that each part is 0.52" long. Draw a perpendicular (North-South) on West-
East at the central part. This will represent the central meridian.

5. Divide the central meridian NS into six equal parts, with the help of a pair of
compasses, each part being 0.52" long; in such a way that three parts are in
the north of equator and the remaining three are to the south of equator.
Draw lines parallel to the equator through these points. These lines will
represent parallels of 30°, 60°and 90° north and south of the equator.

6. Similarly, draw lines parallel to NS and perpendicular to WE through the

points already marked on WE. These lines will represent meridians of 30°,
60°, 90°,120°, 150° and 180° east and west longitudes. This will complete
the network of this projection (Fig. 5.2).

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SAQ 2
Fill in the blanks with suitable words.

a) In simple cylindrical projection, scale along _________is correct as far

as parallels are concerned whereas in the case of meridians, the
scale along __________ is correct.
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b) Simple cylindrical projection is useful for ______________ of the
tropical areas.

c) Simple cylindrical projection is neither an_____________ nor an

_______________ projection.

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This projection is also known as /DPEHUW¶V&\OLQGULFDO3URMHFWLRQ in which
the distance between latitude decreases towards the higher latitudes. In this
projection, the pole is shown with the parallel equal to the equator; hence the
shape of the area gets highly distorted at the higher latitudes. Therefore, the
projection is non-orthomorphic. The parallels of latitude and the meridians of
longitude intersect each other at the right angle. Area lying between 45º N and
S latitudes can be suitably shown on this projection. The projection is also
suitable to show the distribution of tropical crops such as coffee, rice and
rubber etc.

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Properties of cylindrical equal area projection are more or less similar to
simple cylindrical projection. Following are the main properties of this
projection:

L 6KDSHRI3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV Parallels are represented by a set of

parallel straight lines and are of same length as like that of the equator.
Parallels are variably spaced on the meridians. Inter-parallel spacing
decreases rapidly toward the pole.The tangential scale rapidly increases
pole-ward and is infinity at the poles.

Meridians are parallel straight lines truly spaced on the equator. Meridians
are of same length equal to the diameter of the globe.The inter-meridian
spacing is uniform on all the parallels.The pole is represented by a
straight line equal to the length of 2SR.

LL ,QWHUVHFWLRQRI3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQVLike other cylindrical

projections, the parallels and meridians intersect each other at right
angles in all parts of the projection.

LLL 6FDOHDORQJ3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV The scale along the standard

parallel i.e., the equator is true. Along other parallel and all meridians,
scale is not true.

The amount of exaggeration in scales increases in both parallels and

meridians as we move from the equator towards the pole. The
exaggerations in scales are so much that it leads to distortion of shape in
the political map of the countries located in the sub-polar and polar areas.

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z This projection is most suitable for the area lying between 45º N and S
latitudes.
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z It is most appropriate to show the distribution of tropical crops like rice,
tea, coffee, rubber and sugarcane etc..

z Distortion increases as we move towards the pole.

z The projection is non-orthomorphic.

z Equality of area is maintained at the cost of distortion in shape.

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Let us try to understand the procedure followed for calculating the radius of the
reduced earth (R), and steps involved in the construction of Cylindrical Equal-
Area projection by solving the below given example.

([DPSOHDraw a Cylindrical Equal-Area Projection for the world map on the

scale of 1:320,000,000 with the interval of 15º.

In drawing the projection, the following steps are followed.

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Radius (R) of the reduced earth 640,000,000 = 2 cm (Radius of the actual

320,000,000 earth is 640,000,000 cm)
Length of Equator 2SR or 2x22x2 = 12.57 cm
7

Interval along the Equator 12.57 x 15º = 0.52 cm

360º

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1. Draw a circle of 2.0 cm radius.

2. Mark the angles of 15º, 30º, 45º, 60º, 75º and 90º for both, northern and
southern hemispheres.

3. Draw a horizontal straight line of 12.57 cm long to represent the equator

on this projection.

4. Divide this line into 12 equal parts with the help of compass so that each
part is 0.52 cm long. Draw a perpendicular North-South (NS), on West-
East (WE), at the central part. This will represent the central meridian.

5. Divide the central meridian NS into six equal parts, with the help of a pair
of compasses, each part being 0.52" long; in such a way that three parts
are in the north of equator and the remaining three are to the south of
equator. Draw lines parallel to the equator through these points. These
lines will represent parallels of 30°, 60°and 90° north and south of the
equator.

6. Similarly, draw lines parallel to NS and perpendicular to WE through the

points already marked on WE. These lines will represent meridians of 30°,
60°, 90°,120°, 150° and 180° east and west longitudes. This will complete
the network of the projection (Fig. 5.3).
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SAQ 3
Which of the following statements are true and which are false?

a) Inter-parallel spacing decreases rapidly towards the pole.

b) In cylindical equal area projection, the shape of the area does not get
highly distorted at the higher latitudes.

c) The projection is also suitable to show the distribution of tropical crops

such as coffee, rice and rubber etc.

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This is the most popular amongst all the cylindrical projections. Do you know
why this projection is named so? This projection was designed by Gerhardt
Kramer of Holland in 1569. Kramer is a Dutch word which is called Mercator in
Latin and this projection is popularly known as 0HUFDWRU¶V3URMHFWLRQ.
Edward Wright of Cambridge University made certain modifications in this
projection in 1599 and in the present day world of cartography we are using its
modified form only. The age of navigation had started when Mercator was busy
in developing this projection. The sailors used to face great difficulties in
reaching their destination in the open and unchartered seas and oceans in the
absence of a map which could give an idea of true direction. You might have
heard the story of Columbus who wanted to reach India but landed in America.
Mercator made a significant contribution to facilitate navigation by making this
projection. Most of the European nations sent out their navigators to discover
new lands and this projection received unparalleled popularity.

As mentioned earlier, this projection maintains both correct shape and

direction and belongs to the family of orthomorphic projections. Therefore, this
projection is also known as Cylindrical Orthomorphic Projection. Like all
other cylindrical map projections, the scale along parallels is exaggerated
away from the equator. In order to maintain correct direction and shape,
Mercator increased the scale along meridians in the same ratio as the
increase in parallel scale. This is done in the following way:
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L 6KDSHRISDUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV All parallels are drawn as straight
lines which are parallel and equal in length to the equator. All meridians
are drawn as straight lines which are perpendicular to the equator and
parallel to one another. They are placed at equal distances and have equal
length.

LL ,QWHUVHFWLRQRISDUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV The parallels and meridians

intersect each other at right angles all over the projection.

LLL 6FDOHDORQJ3DUDOOHOVDQG0HULGLDQV Scale along the standard parallel

i.e. equator is true but it is exaggerated away from the equator. Within the
tropics, the exaggeration is not much but in the temperate and polar
regions, the exaggeration of the parallel scale increases at an accelerated
rate. Pole is a point in Mercator’s projection, it is shown equal to the
length of equator. Therefore, the exaggeration of the parallel scale is
infinite at the poles.

The meridian is almost correct near the equator, but it is exaggerated

away from the equator towards the poles. Here, it is worth mentioning that
the exaggeration of the meridian scale is in the same ratio as the
exaggeration of the parallel scale.

LY 6SHFLDO3URSHUW\This projection has the following two unique

properties:

(a) It is an orthomorphic projection in which shapes of different areas are

correct. This property is maintained by balancing the ‘east-west
stretching’ with the appropriate ‘north-south compression’.

(b) It maintains true direction which means that any straight line on this
projection will show the same direction as on the globe.

'HPHULWVHowever, this projection has the following demerits:

L The poles are never projected. This is because the meridians in this
projection are equi-spaced whereas the parallels are spaced at intervals
that increases away from the equator leading to the projection of pole at
infinity.

LL The sub-polar and polar areas are greatly exaggerated. If we look at the
exaggeration of the parallel scale on 60° parallel, the area is increased
2 x 2: 4 times. Similarly, the increase in area at 70°, 75°, 80° and 85°
latitudes is 8.5, 15, 33 and 131 times, respectively. The pole is infinite and
as such it is futile to show higher latitudes on this projection and this
projection is generally drawn up to 80° only. This large scale exaggeration
in area often leads to some geographical misconceptions. For example,
Greenland is only 1/10th in size to that of South America, whereas on this
projection the former looks larger than the latter. Similarly, Alaska looks as
large as the United States of America on this projection whereas in reality,
latter is about five times larger than the former.

LLL The latitudinal scale increases with increasing distance from the equator.
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LY The Great Circle course is seldom a straight line.

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z Very useful for navigation purposes showing sea routes and air
routes: Since all the parallels and meridians intersect each other at right
angles and both the parallel and meridian scales have the same ratio of
exaggeration, any straight line drawn on this projection makes equal
angles with all the parallels and meridians and represents a line of
constant bearing on the projection. A line of constant bearing that
intersects all the meridians at the same angle, such a line keeps constant
bearing is known as Rhumb Line or Loxodrome.

z More suitable for a world map and widely used in preparing atlas maps.

z Drainage pattern, ocean currents, temperature, winds and their directions,

distribution of worldwide rainfall and other weather elements are
appropriately shown on this map.

Major limitations of the projection are as follows:

z Although, this is an orthomorphic projection in which shape as well as

direction is preserved, its use is limited to small areas only.

z The exaggeration of scale is different at different latitudes and true

orthomorphism is not applicable to large areas such as continents.

z Poles in this projection cannot be shown as 90º parallel and meridian

touching them are infinite.

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Let us discuss methods of construction of Mercator’s Projection by explaining
one example. As mentioned earlier in this unit, you will be provided with various
practical exercises which will be discussed in detail in Laboratory Course
(BGGCL-134).

([DPSOHDraw a Mercator’s projection for the world map on the scale of

1:250,000,000 at 15º interval.

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Radius of the reduced earth (R) is 250,000,000 = 1inch (Radius of the actual
250,000,000 earth is 250,000,000 inch)

Length of Equator 2SR or 2x22x1 = 6.28 inches

7

Interval along the Equator 6.28 x 15º = 0.26 inches

360º

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(i) Draw a line of 6.28" inches representing the equator as EQ.

82 (ii) Divide it into 24 equal parts. Determine the length of each division using
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the following formula:

Length of Equator × interval

360
(iii) Calculate the distance for latitude with the help of the table given below:

/DWLWXGH 'LVWDQFH

15º 0.265 × 1 = 0.265" inch

30º 0.549 × 1 = 0.549" inch

45º 0.881 × 1 = 0.881" inch

60º 1.317 × 1 = 1.317" inch

75º 2.027 × 1 = 2.027" inch

(iv) Complete the projection as shown in Fig. 5.4.

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SAQ 4
a) What is Rhumb Line?

b) Why is Mercators’ projection known as cylindrical orthomorphic projection?

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In this unit, you have studied so far:

x In cylindrical map projections, it is assumed that the globe is surrounded by

a hollow cylinder and the cylinder touches the globe along the equator. In
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this condition, the axis of the cylinder coincides with the axis of the globe.
The parallels and meridians are transferred from the globe to the inner
surface of the cylinder. The cylinder is then cut vertically and unrolled into a
flat rectangular sheet of paper.

x Properties common to cylindrical projections are: all parallels are drawn as

straight lines which are parallel and equal in length to the equator and
meridians are also drawn as straight lines which are perpendicular to the
equator. All the meridians are parallel to the prime meridian and parallel to
one another. The parallels and meridians intersect each other at right
angles everywhere. Scale on the projection is kept correct, reduced or
exaggerated depending upon the purpose of the projection.

x We have discussed the three types of cylindrical projections: simple

cylindrical projection; cylindrical equal area projection and Mercator’s
projection.

x Cylindrical projections are best suited for tropical zone lying between 30°N
and 30°S latitudes, more so for a narrow belt along the equator. This is
because of the fact that the scale along parallels and the meridians
remains more or less correct in this zone. Hence the homolographic and
orthomorphic properties are well preserved in these areas.

x These projections are not much suited to temperate and polar areas
because the scale along parallels and meridians changes drastically in
these areas. This results in large scale deformity both in area and shape.

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1. Describe common properties of cylindrical projection.

2. Explain properties, uses and limitations of simple cylindrical projection.

3. Discuss various uses and limitations of cylindrical equal area projection.

4. State uses and limitations of Mercator’s projection.

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1. a) Cylindrical projections are not much suited to temperate and polar
areas because the scale along parallels and meridians changes
drastically in these areas. This results in large scale deformity both in
area and shape.
b) Simple cylindrical projection, cylindrical equal area projection, Gall’s
equal area projection, Mercator’s projection and transverse
Mercator’s projection (Any three).

2. a) equator, all meridians

b) general purpose maps
c) equal area, orthomorphic
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3. a) True
b) False
c) True

4. a) A line which keeps constant bearing is known as rhumb line or

loxodrome.
b) This projection maintains correct shape and direction and belongs to
the family of orthomorphic projections. Therefore, this projection is
also known as cylindrical orthomorphic projection.

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1. Points dealing with the common properties of cylindrical projection. Refer
to Section 5.2.1.

2. Refer to Sections 5.3.1, 5.3.2 and 5.3.3.

3. Refer to Sections 5.4.2 and 5.4.3.

4. Refer to Sections 5.5.2 and 5.5.3.

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x Khullar, D.R. (2003). Essentials of Practical Geography. Jalandhar: New
Academic Publishing Co.

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