INTRODUCTION

Titanium alloys are essential materials in modern engineering, valued for their unique
properties, including a high strength-to-weight ratio, excellent corrosion resistance, and
biocompatibility. These qualities make titanium alloys indispensable in industries such as
aerospace, medical, automotive, and chemical processing.

The rise of titanium alloys began in the mid-20th century, primarily driven by the aerospace
industry’s need for materials that could withstand extreme conditions. Titanium is a
lightweight metal, with a density around 60% that of steel but with comparable or superior
strength. This makes it particularly valuable in aerospace, where reducing weight is crucial
for enhancing fuel efficiency and overall performance. Titanium alloys are extensively used
in aircraft construction, including airframes, engine components, and landing gear.

Ti-6Al-4V is the most widely used titanium alloy, comprising 90% titanium, 6% aluminium,
and 4% vanadium. This alloy is renowned for its excellent mechanical properties, including
high tensile strength, toughness, and fatigue resistance. It also retains its strength at elevated
temperatures, making it ideal for use in jet engines and other high-temperature applications.
Additionally, Ti-6Al-4V offers exceptional corrosion resistance, especially in seawater and
other harsh environments, which makes it suitable for marine applications and chemical
processing equipment.

In the medical field, titanium alloys are highly valued for their biocompatibility. Titanium
does not react with the human body, making it an ideal material for medical implants such
as hip replacements, dental implants, and bone screws. Its ability to integrate with bone
tissue without causing adverse reactions is one of the reasons it is widely used in surgical
implants.

The automotive industry is also exploring titanium alloys to reduce vehicle weight and
improve fuel efficiency. Although the cost of titanium has been a limiting factor, advances
in manufacturing techniques, such as additive manufacturing, are helping to lower
production costs and expand the use of titanium alloys in various applications.

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In summary, titanium alloys are crucial materials in engineering, offering unmatched
strength, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility, driving innovation across multiple
industries.

Despite the high demand, manufacture of Ti6Al4V products is always challenging due to its
poor thermal conductivity, the propensity to strain hardening [17,18] and active chemical
reactivity to oxygen. Conventional manufacture of Ti6Al4V products relies on forging,
casting and rolling of bulk feedstock materials, followed by subsequent machining to final
shapes and dimensions. These traditional manufacturing processes always inevitably result in
a large amount of material waste, high manufacturing cost and long lead time. Under such
circumstances, additive manufacturing (AM), an advanced manufacturing technology of
producing near-net shape structures directly from CAD models by adding materials in a
layer-by-layer fashion, offers its beneficial capability for fabrication of Ti6Al4V products
with geometric complexities

(Fig-1) Ti6Al4V Bio implant (Fig-2) Jet engine made with

Ti6Al4V

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 CHALLENGES IN USING THE Ti6Al4V ALLOY

Machining Ti-6Al-4V alloy is notably challenging due to its inherent properties as a

difficult- to-cut material. The alloy is characterized by high work hardening, meaning it
becomes
harder and more resistant as machining progresses. This results in significant wear and tear
on cutting tools, leading to short tool life and reduced productivity. The alloy also has a low
cutting deformation coefficient, which means it doesn't easily deform during cutting,
further complicating the machining process. Additionally, Ti-6Al-4V has high chemical
reactivity,
especially at elevated temperatures, causing it to react with tool materials and leading to
rapid tool degradation. This issue is exacerbated by the alloy's poor thermal conductivity,
which
traps heat in the cutting zone, raising the cutting temperature and increasing the likelihood of
thermal damage to both the tool and the workpiece.

To mitigate these issues, cutting fluids are often employed. These fluids help to cool the
cutting area, reduce friction, and slow down tool wear. However, the use of cutting fluids
introduces new challenges. Firstly, cutting fluids significantly increase manufacturing costs,
accounting for 20–30% of the total expenses due to costs associated with purchase,
preparation, maintenance, and disposal. Secondly, cutting fluids pose health risks to
workers, as exposure can lead to skin irritation, respiratory issues, and other health concerns.
Furthermore, cutting fluids have environmental implications, contributing to pollution if not
properly disposed of or recycled.

Given these challenges, the machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy requires advanced strategies, such
as optimizing cutting parameters, using specialized tool materials, and exploring alternative
cooling techniques like minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) or cryogenic cooling. These
approaches aim to enhance tool life, improve productivity, and minimize the reliance on
cutting fluids, thus addressing both economic and environmental concerns while machining
this demanding alloy.

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 SELECTIVE LASER MELTING (SLM)

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a cutting-edge additive manufacturing technology that

originated in 1995 at the Fraunhofer Institute ILT. This process is distinguished by its
method of feeding metallic powders, which are uniformly spread across the building
platform using a rake, unlike Directed Energy Deposition (DED) where powders are blown
through nozzles.
SLM operates by scanning a focused laser beam over the powder bed according to a
predefined path, selectively melting the metallic powders layer by layer to build the final part.
Once a layer is completed, the building platform is lowered by a distance equivalent to the
layer thickness, and a new layer of powder is spread for the process to continue. The layer
thickness in SLM is typically in the tens of microns, significantly thinner than those in DED
or Electron Beam Melting (EBM), allowing for higher precision and finer detail in the final
product.

(Fig-3) SLM process

One of the notable advantages of SLM is its ability to produce complex geometries and
internal structures that would be impossible or cost-prohibitive with traditional manufacturing
methods. The unmelted powder surrounding the part acts as a support structure during the
build process, eliminating the need for additional support materials. However, the thermal

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processes involved in SLM can alter the physical properties of the surrounding powders,
rendering them unusable for future builds, which can increase material costs.

SLM's precision and ability to handle high-performance materials make it particularly

suitable for producing components in industries such as aerospace, medical, and automotive,
where material properties like strength, corrosion resistance, and lightweight are crucial.
The technology is especially promising for fabricating parts from difficult-to-machine
materials
like titanium alloys, including Ti-6Al-4V. This alloy is known for its excellent strength-to-
weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and high-temperature stability, but its machinability is
notoriously difficult due to rapid tool wear and high cutting temperatures.

SLM offers a solution by enabling the direct fabrication of Ti-6Al-4V components with
complex shapes and fine details without the need for extensive post-processing. The layer-by-
layer approach of SLM allows for better control over the microstructure of the alloy,
potentially enhancing its mechanical properties and reducing the need for machining
operations that are challenging for titanium alloys. By optimizing SLM parameters, such as
laser power, scan speed, and layer thickness, manufacturers can produce high-quality Ti-
6Al- 4V parts with improved performance and reduced material wastage, making SLM a
powerful tool for advanced titanium alloy fabrication.

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 ANALYSIS EQUIPMENTS USED

1. OPTICAL MICROSCOPE
In material science, optical microscopes use visible light and lenses to magnify
samples, relying on the principle of light transmission and refraction to reveal
microstructures, grain boundaries, and phase distributions, crucial for material
analysis.

(Fig-4) Optical microscope

2. SEM
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) employs a focused beam of electrons that scans
the surface of a sample, generating high-resolution images through interactions
between the electrons and the sample's atoms. This technique provides detailed
information on surface topography, morphology, and composition, making it
invaluable for examining material structures, detecting defects, and analysing
microstructures with exceptional clarity.

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 (Fig-5) SEM

3. EDAX
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX or EDAX) is an analytical technique
used in conjunction with electron microscopes to determine the elemental
composition of a sample. When a sample is irradiated with an electron beam, it emits
characteristic X-rays specific to the elements present. The EDAX detector captures
these X-rays and measures their energies, generating an elemental spectrum that
reveals the presence and concentration of different elements in the sample. This
technique is crucial for detailed material characterization, enabling precise analysis of
compositional distributions, impurity levels, and phase identification.

(Fig-6) EDAX

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4. TRIBOMETER
A tribometer is a precision instrument used to measure friction, wear, and lubrication
properties between two contacting surfaces. By simulating various loading conditions,
speeds, and temperatures, it quantifies the coefficient of friction and wear rates,
providing valuable insights into the tribological performance of materials and
lubricants. Tribometers are essential for evaluating the durability and efficiency of
components in diverse applications, from automotive to aerospace, ensuring optimal
performance and longevity of mechanical systems.

(Fig-7) Tribometer

5. VICKERS HARDNESS TEST

The Vickers hardness test measures the hardness of materials by indenting the surface
with a diamond pyramid-shaped indenter under a specific load. The test involves
applying a load to the indenter, which creates a diagonal indentation on the sample's
surface. The size of the indentation is then measured using a microscope, and the
Vickers hardness number (HV) is calculated based on the applied load and the
indentation's surface area. This test is highly versatile, suitable for a wide range of
materials, and provides precise hardness values, making it crucial for assessing
material properties and performance.

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(Fig-8) Vickers Hardness Test

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 TI6AL4V ALLOY FABRICATION USING SLM

Various studies have extensively explored the feasibility of using Selective Laser Melting
(SLM) in the fabrication of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, focusing on the key properties of SLMed
samples. One of the primary areas of investigation has been the thermal aspects of the SLM
process. Researchers have examined how the localized heat input and rapid cooling rates
affect the microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V, as these factors play a
crucial role in determining the final performance of the alloy.

The properties studied were:

1) Thermal aspects
2) Porosity
3) Surface roughness
4) Residual stress
5) Microstructure
6) Tensile strength
7) Fatigue strength

1) Thermal aspects

Interaction between a laser/electron beam and precursor powders also relies on powders'
absorptivity, physical properties as well as particle sizes and shapes. Under these
circumstances, the approximate input energy density E (in J/m3) is used to provide a basic

𝛼𝑃
starting point for comparison between different AM processes. E is the absorbed energy

density and has the expression as: 𝐸 =

𝑣ℎ𝑡
where P is the power (in J/s), ν is the scan speed (in m/s), h is the hatch spacing (in m), t is
the layer thickness (in m) and α is the absorptivity

SLM typically relies on conduction through the unmelted powders surrounding the part to
dissipate heat. Heat dissipation in SLM primarily occurs through conduction, as the unmelted
powders surrounding the molten pool act as a thermal barrier, leading to highly concentrated
heat in the molten pool. This results in extremely high temperatures and rapid cooling rates,

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which significantly influence the microstructure and mechanical properties of the final part.
For instance, the maximum temperature in the Ti-6Al-4V molten pool during SLM can reach
around 2710 K, with cooling rates ranging from 10^4 to 10^6 K/s. These rapid cooling rates
lead to the formation of fine microstructures, which enhance the strength and hardness of the
material but can also induce residual stresses. This means temperature of molten pool
decreases to room temperature within about 0.25s as the laser beam moves away.

2) Porosity

Selective Additive Manufacturing (SAM) techniques can, in theory, produce fully dense
structures, but non-optimal deposition parameters often lead to porosity, which can negatively
affect material properties. Controlled porosity can be beneficial in applications like load-
bearing implants made from Ti-6Al-4V, where it helps address the "stress shielding effect"
and impact attenuation. However, uncontrolled porosity deteriorates the material's mechanical
properties. Studies have shown that pore shape and orientation can significantly influence
macroscopic ductility, and pores often serve as nucleation sites for shear bands and
microcracks.Porosity is common in additive manufacturing (AM) parts, even under optimized
parameters. For example, X-ray tomography has revealed porosity levels of 0.23% in
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) specimens, with even optimized SLM parameters still
resulting in 0.08% porosity.

Two main types of pores are prevalent in AM products are gas pores and lack-of-fusion pores.
Gas pores are typically spherical or elliptical, formed by trapped gas in the molten pool that
fails to escape before solidification. They are difficult to eliminate entirely but can be reduced
by adjusting scan speed and laser power. Lack-of-fusion pores are larger, irregular in shape,
and more detrimental to the material's performance. They occur due to insufficient laser
energy failing to melt all the powder, resulting in weak bonding between layers. These pores
can lead to premature failure, particularly under tensile loads, but they are considered
avoidable by optimizing energy input during the process.Post-processing techniques like
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) can reduce porosity decreasing pore volume and size, though
heat
treatment alone is insufficient to close pores.

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 (Fig-9) Pores

3) Surface roughness

Additive manufacturing (AM) processes, such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM), are
known for challenges related to surface roughness. SLM produces relatively smooth
surface finishes compared to other methods like Direct Energy Deposition (DED) and
Electron Beam Melting (EBM). The smoother surface from SLM is attributed to
lower adhesion of partially melted powders and better control of process parameters.

Surface roughness in SLM is influenced by several factors, including scan speed,

powder size, and layer height. For instance, varying scan speeds and powder
characteristics result in different roughness outcomes. High scan speeds and finer
powders generally lead to smoother surfaces. SLM-built Ti6Al4V parts exhibit a
smoother surface compared to EBM-built parts, which tend to have more partially
melted powders adhering to the surface due to the high-energy electron beam's
thermal radiation.

The staircase effect, the adherence of partially melted powders, and the presence of
open pores are primary contributors to surface roughness. The stair-step effect is

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particularly associated with increased layer numbers and the track width, influencing
the overall surface finish. While parameters like hatch spacing and laser power impact
surface roughness, their optimization can only partially mitigate the issue. For
example, increasing hatch overlap can reduce surface roughness and higher laser
power may both increase or decrease roughness depending on specific experimental
conditions.

It has been confirmed that the surface roughness acts as multiple stress concentrators
and behaves like short cracks. For AMTi6Al4V, the as-built parts without surface
machining only exhibit a fatigue performance about 40–50% of that after machining.
One responsible reason associated with this phenomenon can be attributed to the
increased stress concentration induced by the pores at or near the surface

Ultimately, achieving a high-quality surface often requires post-processing.

Polishing is an effective method to reduce surface roughness and improve material
properties, such as strain to failure. For complex geometries, additional processes
like chemical etching and vibra-honing are commonly used to achieve the desired
surface finish.

(Fig-10) Staircase effect

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 4) Residual stress

Laser-based additive manufacturing processes, including Selective Laser Melting (SLM), are
subject to significant residual stresses due to the large temperature gradients inherent in these
techniques. For Ti6Al4V, these gradients can reach approximately 5 × 10^4 K/cm. Residual
stresses are typically highest at or near the free surface of the final deposited layer and
increase with the number of layers added. Initially, SLM parts experience tensile residual
stresses that can approach the material's yield strength. As additional layers are deposited,
these tensile stresses can transform into compressive stresses due to the thermal cycling
involved.

The residual stress distribution in SLM-built parts is influenced by deposition strategies and
track lengths. Residual stresses tend to be larger along the scan direction compared to the
perpendicular direction, leading to an anisotropic stress profile. This anisotropy is attributed
to the more significant thermal gradients along the scan direction, which exacerbate
residual stress levels.

Residual stresses are a major concern as they can lead to issues such as crack formation,
warping, and detachment from the substrate. These stresses compromise both the geometrical
accuracy and the structural integrity of the finished part. To mitigate these issues, supporting
structures are often used during the manufacturing process to minimize distortion.

To alleviate residual stresses, high-temperature stress relief heat treatments can be employed.
Studies have shown that increasing the pre-heating temperature of the build platform can
significantly reduce residual stresses. For example, a 50°C increment in pre-heating
temperature results in about a 20% reduction in stress. SLM processes generally do not
maintain a high build temperature throughout the deposition cycle, making post-processing
stress relief treatments essential to address the residual stresses effectively.

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 5) Microstructure

The microstructure of Ti6Al4V, a titanium alloy used in additive manufacturing (AM), is

influenced by the manufacturing process, which affects phase formation and grain
coarsening. Ti6Al4V typically exhibits α and β phases due to its composition, with α being
hexagonal close-packed (HCP) and β being body-cantered cubic (BCC). The final
microstructure depends on the cooling rate and thermal history during fabrication.

For Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Ti6Al4V often shows fine needle-shaped α′ martensite
due to rapid cooling from above the β transus temperature, with martensite sizes ranging from
1 to 3 μm for primary α′ to less than 20 nm for quartic α′. After cooling, some residual β
phase may remain. In contrast, Electron Beam Melting (EBM) typically produces a mixture
of α and β phases due to its higher build temperatures and slower cooling rates, leading to
an α-lath thickness of 1–3 μm and β platelets about 0.1 μm thick.

SLM's rapid cooling results in an α′ martensitic microstructure, while EBM's higher build
temperature facilitates the formation of α + β phases by allowing in-process heat treatment.
This difference in thermal history explains why SLM and EBM produce different
microstructures despite using the same alloy. SLM's microstructure tends to be dominated
by fine α′ martensite, whereas EBM produces a course α + β dual phase due to its extended
high temperature build environment.

In AM processes, grain coarsening occurs as layers are deposited due to thermal cycling.
This is particularly evident in SLM and EBM where heat buildup in successive layers affects
microstructure. Higher energy densities and build temperatures lead to larger grains,
impacting the mechanical properties and overall performance of the manufactured parts.

6) Tensile strength

In the study of tensile properties for Ti6Al4V alloy produced via Selective Laser Melting
(SLM), several key findings highlight its mechanical behaviour compared to other
manufacturing methods. The alloy, known for its significant strain-rate and temperature
sensitivity, exhibits different properties based on the SLM process's specifics.

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SLM-produced Ti6Al4V samples are known for their high ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
and yield strength (YS) but generally show lower elongation (El) compared to those
produced by Electron Beam Melting (EBM) or wrought methods. Specifically, SLM samples
demonstrate a UTS ranging from approximately 870 to 1063 MPa and a YS between 790 and
966 MPa. However, the elongation of SLM parts is relatively modest, falling in the range of
4 to 13%. This contrasts with the 10 to 18% elongation seen in EBM and wrought samples.

A significant factor influencing these mechanical properties is the microstructure of the SLM-
manufactured parts. SLM typically results in a martensitic microstructure characterized by
acicular α′ martensite. This microstructure imparts high strength to the material but at the cost
of ductility. The martensitic phase, a nonequilibrium structure with deformed lattice
arrangements, contributes to increased strength through lattice strain and dislocation
hardening. Consequently, while SLM parts achieve high strength, they exhibit reduced
plasticity compared to parts produced by other methods.

In addition to phase composition, the SLM process parameters and heat treatments play
crucial roles in defining the mechanical properties. The as-built surfaces of SLM samples, if
not post-processed, can severely impact the properties, often necessitating machining to
achieve desired performance levels. The heat treatment process further influences these
properties, with stress-relieved treatments below 800°C causing minimal changes, whereas
high-temperature annealing above 800°C can coarsen the microstructure, enhancing ductility
but reducing strength.

In summary, SLM-produced Ti6Al4V parts stand out for their high strength but tend to have
lower elongation compared to other manufacturing techniques. The martensitic
microstructure formed during SLM is a primary contributor to this characteristic, providing
strength through dislocation and lattice strain mechanisms while sacrificing some ductility.

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 7) Fatigue strength

The study of fatigue properties for Ti6Al4V alloy produced via Selective Laser Melting
(SLM) reveals distinct characteristics that differentiate it from other additive manufacturing
(AM) methods, such as Electron Beam Melting (EBM). Fatigue failure, caused by cyclic
stresses, is particularly relevant in applications like aircraft and automobile engines, where
components are subjected to high-frequency loadings. SLM-manufactured Ti6Al4V parts
typically exhibit higher fatigue strength (Δσw) but lower fatigue toughness (ΔKth) compared
to EBM parts.

The superior fatigue strength in SLM-built parts is largely attributed to the presence of a fine
α′ martensitic microstructure, which contains a high density of dislocations. This
microstructure enhances dislocation strengthening, contributing to the overall fatigue strength
but at the cost of reduced plasticity. However, the fine structure of the martensitic phase
impedes dislocation motion, further bolstering fatigue strength.

Heat treatment plays a crucial role in altering the fatigue properties of SLM parts. Annealing
the initial SLM microstructure, which typically contains α′ martensite, can increase ΔK th
(crack propagation threshold) to levels comparable to EBM-built parts. This improvement is
due to the decomposition of the α′ martensite phase and the removal of residual stresses
during the annealing process. The presence of the α + β microstructure in Ti6Al4V also
impacts fatigue performance, with smaller α phase sizes correlating with enhanced fatigue
strength. Studies demonstrated a significant increase in fatigue strength, around 20%, when
the thickness of the α-lath decreased from 10 μm to 1 μm.

Moreover, in SLM-produced specimens that are free from defects such as pores, plastic
slip localization becomes a critical factor for crack initiation. Fine microstructures are
generally associated with higher fatigue strength because grain and phase boundaries
impede the
localization of plastic slip. In the α + β microstructure of Ti6Al4V, plastic slip localization is
primarily observed in the hexagonal close-packed (hcp) α phase. Research has shown that
crack nucleation often begins in the α phase, especially in the absence of defects, and crack
interaction with fine α colonies is a leading cause of crack propagation. As the thickness of
the α phase decreases, resistance to long plastic slip bands increases, enhancing resistance to
fatigue crack initiation. In summary, SLM-manufactured Ti6Al4V components show higher

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fatigue strength due to the fine α′ martensitic structure, though they sacrifice some toughness.
Heat treatments like annealing can improve toughness by altering the microstructure, and
fine α phase sizes contribute to better fatigue performance.

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 MACHINING

The tribological properties of additive manufactured titanium alloy reflect its

machinability, and further affect the tool wear during machining. Investigations were
carried out about the
tribological properties of selective laser melting (SLM) processed Ti6Al4V against cemented
carbide under dry conditions, with emphasis on the effects of temperature and normal load
on the friction process.

Adhesive wear was the most prominent wear mechanism during the interaction between
Ti6Al4V and cemented carbide. The study observed that friction stroke, the maximum
relative motion between friction pairs, fluctuated during sliding, although it ideally should
remain constant. These fluctuations are attributed to stick-slip and friction jump phenomena
caused by increasing shear stress and the breaking of adhesive nodes. At temperatures
below 200°C, friction stroke fluctuations intensified with rising temperature. However, as
temperature increased further, these fluctuations decreased.

More importantly, the surface composition analysis revealed that tungsten oxide was formed
According to existing studies, tungsten oxide is self-lubricating and is often used as a
lubricating additive. It can be inferred that it was the lubrication of tungsten oxide formed at
high temperature that reduced wear.

(Fig-9) The fluctuation of friction coefficient with respect to temperature

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 CONCLUSION

In this paper, microstructures and tensile and fatigue properties of SLM built Ti6Al4V
components were studied with the consideration of fabrication limitations, and the results
were compared with the counterparts built with traditional methods. A summary of the
findings is provided below:

1) DED and SLM processes produce peak temperatures about 2000–2500 K and
high cooling rates about 104 K/s in fabrication of Ti6Al4V.

2) The thermal behaviours of SLM processes result in an acicular α′ martensitic

microstructure and high tensile stresses.

3) The presence of α′ martensite in SLM Ti6Al4V significantly increases the

ultimate tensile and yield strength by 100–200MPa but decreases the ductility
of the as-built components.

4) α′ martensites in SLM Ti6Al4V are also responsible for the lower

crack thresholds but higher fatigue limits.

5) The surface roughness, porosity and high tensile stresses in AM Ti6Al4V

serve as crack initiation. The location and shape of defects also play a
vital role in determining the fatigue performances.

6) Post machining and heat treatments can significantly weaken the

crack initiation and increase the fatigue life of AM fabricated
Ti6Al4V.

7) The relatively high friction coefficient and its fluctuation range indicated
that the friction between SLM titanium alloy and cemented carbide was very
intense under dry conditions

8) The change of friction stroke was paid special attention to in this study,
which can reflect the degree of stick-slip friction in the sliding friction
process. With
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 the increase of temperature, the fluctuation of friction stroke increased first
and then decreased. However, the fluctuation of friction stroke increased
continuously with the increase of load.

9) The analysis of micro-morphology and surface composition showed that

adhesive wear was the main wear form between SLM titanium alloy and
cemented carbide. However, with the different friction conditions,
abrasive
wear and diffusion wear will occur. The brittleness of titanium alloy caused by
high cooling rate of SLM will lead to the formation of microcracks, which in
turn aids in the peeling of the material and the formation of wear particles. The
nitrides and oxides of Al and Ti produced at high temperature is one of the
causes of abrasive wear. In addition, high temperature will lead to the
diffusion of Co element in cemented carbide to titanium alloy, resulting in
diffusion wear.

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Tribological properties of additive manufactured Ti6Al4V against
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