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Introduction
AI - Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the ability of machines or
computers to mimic human thinking and decision-
making. It enables them to perform tasks that typically
require human intelligence, such as understanding
language, recognizing images, solving problems, and
making decisions.
ML - Machine Learning
Machine learning is a type of technology that allows
computers to learn from data and make decisions or
predictions without being explicitly programmed. It’s
like teaching a computer to recognize patterns and
improve over time based on experience.
 Syllabus
Unit 1 : Introduction to AI
Unit 2 : Problem Solving
Unit 3 : Knowledge & Reasoning
Unit 4 : Introduction ML
Unit 5 : Types of Learning
Unit 6 : Classification & Regression
Chapter 1 : Introduction to AI
Part 1 Part 2
Basic concept Types of AI Agent
scope of AI concept of rationality
overview of AI problems Nature of environment
components of AI Structure of agents
Types of AI Turning tests in AI
Applications of AI
AI vs ML
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Unit 1 - Part 1
Chapter 1 : Introduction to AI
Part 1 Part 2
Basic concept Types of AI Agent
scope of AI concept of rationality
overview of AI problems Nature of environment
components of AI Structure of agents
Types of AI Turning tests in AI
Applications of AI
AI vs ML
Define AI :
Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the ability of a computer or machine to perform tasks that typically
require human intelligence. These tasks can include things like understanding language,
recognizing objects, solving problems, and making decisions.
Detailed AI :
Basic Terms -:

Machine Learning -:

Machine learning is a type of technology that allows computers to learn from data and make
decisions or predictions without being explicitly programmed. It’s like teaching a computer to
recognize patterns and improve over time based on experience.

Deep Learning -:

Deep learning is a subset of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks with many
layers (hence "deep") to process and learn from large amounts of data. Each layer in the network
processes information in increasingly complex ways, allowing the model to recognize patterns
and make decisions.
Basic Terms -:

Expert System -:

An expert system is a type of computer program that mimics the decision-making ability of a
human expert. It uses a set of predefined rules and knowledge to solve complex problems or give
advice in a specific domain (like medical diagnosis or troubleshooting technical issues).

Natural Language Processing -:

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a field of artificial intelligence that focuses on enabling
computers to understand, interpret, and respond to human language in a way that is both
meaningful and useful. NLP bridges the gap between human communication and computer
understanding.
Scope of AI -:
The scope of Artificial Intelligence (AI) is vast and expanding rapidly across various fields. AI is
transforming industries and impacting everyday life, from automating tasks to solving complex
problems.
Overview of AI Problems -:

The field of Artificial Intelligence (AI) faces a variety of challenges and problems as it continues
to evolve. These issues range from technical difficulties in making AI systems more efficient and
robust to ethical concerns about the impact of AI on society.

Data-Related Issues
Computational Power
Explainability and Interpretability
Generalization
Ethical and Social Issues
Safety and Reliability
Ethical Use of AI
Components of AI -:
Components of AI -:

Learning -:

Similar to humans, computer programs also learn in different manners. Talking of AI, learning
by this platform is further segregated into a varied number of forms. One of the essential
components of ai, learning for AI includes the trial-and-error method.
The solution keeps on solving problems until it comes across the right results.
This way, the program keeps a note of all the moves that gave positive results and stores it in
its database to use the next time the computer is given the same problem.
Components of AI -:

Reasoning -:

The art of reasoning was something that was only limited to humans until five decades ago.
The ability to differentiate makes Reasoning one of the essential components of artificial
intelligence.
To reason is to allow the platform to draw inferences that fit with the provided situation.
Further, these inferences are also categorized as either inductive or deductive.
The difference is that in an inferential case, the solution of a problem provides guarantees of
conclusion.
Components of AI -:

Problem-solving -:

In its general form, the AI’s problem-solving ability comprises data, where the solution needs
to find x.
AI witnesses a considerable variety of problems being addressed in the platform.
The different methods of ‘Problem-solving’ count for essential components of intelligence
that divide the queries into special and general purposes.
Components of AI -:

Perception -:

In using the ‘perception’ component of Artificial Intelligence, the element scans any given
environment by using different sense-organs, either artificial or real.
Further, the processes are maintained internally and allow the perceiver to analyze other
scenes in suggested objects and understand their relationship and features.
This analysis is often complicated as one, and similar items might pose considerable amounts
of different appearances over different occasions, depending on the view of the suggested
angle.
Components of AI -:

Language-understanding -:

In simpler terms, language can be defined as a set of different system signs that justify their
means using convention. Occurring as one of the widely used artificial intelligence
components, language understanding uses distinctive types of language over different forms
of natural meaning, exemplified overstatements.
Types of AI -:
Types of AI -: Based on capabilities

Weak AI or Narrow AI:

Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence.The most
common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial Intelligence.

General AI:
General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with efficiency
like a human.

Super AI:
Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is an
outcome of general AI
Types of AI -: Based on Functionality

Reactive Machines
Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.
Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.
These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best action.
Limited Memory
Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of time.
Theory of Mind
Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able to
interact socially like humans.
Self-Awareness
Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super
intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness
AI vs ML
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Unit 1 - Part 2
Chapter 1 : Introduction to AI
Part 1 Part 2
Basic concept Agents in AI
scope of AI Types of Agent
overview of AI problems
components of AI Part 3
Types of AI
Applications of AI concept of rationality
AI vs ML Nature of environment
Structure of agents
Turning tests in AI
Define Agent in AI -:

In Artificial Intelligence (AI), an agent is an entity that perceives its environment through sensors
and acts upon that environment through actuators to achieve a specific goal. Agents can be
hardware (like robots) or software (like virtual assistants), and their actions are determined based
on the information they receive from the environment.

AI agents operate by following a perception-action cycle:

1. Perception: The agent receives data from its environment (through sensors if it's a physical
agent or inputs if it's a software agent).
2. Decision-making: Based on the perceived information and a predefined set of rules, goals, or
learned experiences, the agent makes a decision.
3. Action: The agent takes an action to influence the environment, often aiming to maximize a
performance measure.
Types of Agent in AI -:
1. Simple Reflex Agents -:
These agents act purely based on the current perception
(the state of the environment as seen at that moment) and
follow a condition-action rule: if a certain condition is
met, perform a particular action. They do not store any
past information, meaning they have no memory or
internal state. They simply respond to stimuli in the
environment.
Characteristics:
No Memory: The agent does not remember past actions
or states.
No Learning: These agents do not learn from
experience.
Rule-based: Actions are triggered based on predefined
rules.
2. Model-based Reflex Agents -:
These agents are an extension of simple reflex agents but
are more capable because they maintain an internal state
or model of the world that helps them keep track of
aspects that cannot be directly observed. The agent can
update its internal state based on its perceptions and past
actions.

Characteristics:

Internal State: Maintains a memory or model of the

environment to account for unobservable aspects.
More Complex Rules: Decisions can depend not only
on current perceptions but also on the internal state.
3. Goal-based Agents -:
Goal-based agents are more sophisticated because they
do not simply react to the environment but make
decisions based on achieving a specific goal. These
agents choose actions that will move them closer to a
defined goal, which requires some sort of planning or
reasoning about future actions.

Characteristics:
Goal-driven: These agents choose actions to reach a
particular goal state.
Decision-making: The agent often uses search or
planning algorithms to achieve its goals.
Flexibility: These agents can adapt to changes in the
environment by recalculating the best path to the goal.
4. Utility-based Agents -:
Utility-based agents aim to maximize a utility function,
which is a measure of how "good" a particular state is for
the agent. Instead of simply aiming to achieve a goal, they
seek to maximize their overall performance based on
some utility metric. These agents are particularly useful in
situations where multiple possible goals or outcomes are
possible, and the agent needs to choose the best one
based on preferences or utilities.

Characteristics:
Utility Maximization: Agents assign a numerical value
(utility) to each possible state and choose actions that
maximize overall utility.
Trade-offs: They consider trade-offs between different
goals, trying to balance multiple objectives.
5. Learning Agents -:
Learning agents are the most advanced type of AI agents. They improve their performance over time by
learning from their experiences. These agents have the ability to adjust their decision-making process
based on past successes or failures, adapting to new situations more effectively.

Components:
Learning Element: Responsible for making improvements based on past experiences.
Performance Element: Responsible for selecting actions.
Critic: Provides feedback to the learning element about how well the agent is doing.
Problem Generator: Suggests new experiences or experiments to explore new knowledge.
Characteristics:
Adaptability: These agents can learn from experience and improve their behavior over time.
Exploration: Learning agents may try new actions to discover better strategies or solutions.
Use of feedback: They learn from feedback, either through trial and error (reinforcement learning) or
by studying large datasets (supervised learning).
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Unit 1 - Part 3
Chapter 1 : Introduction to AI
Part 1 Part 2
Basic concept Agents in AI
scope of AI Types of Agent
overview of AI problems
components of AI Part 3
Types of AI
Applications of AI concept of rationality
AI vs ML Nature of environment
Structure of agents
Turning tests in AI
Concept of Rationality -:
Rationality in Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to the concept of an AI system making decisions or taking
actions that are logically sound and designed to achieve specific goals in the most optimal way, based
on the available information. In simple terms, a rational AI agent is one that acts in a way that maximizes
its chances of success or effectiveness.

Example of Rationality in AI: Consider a self-driving car:

The car’s goal is to reach its destination safely and efficiently.
The car perceives its environment through sensors (such as cameras and radars).
Based on its perception, the car makes decisions (e.g., speed up, slow down, change lanes) to
maximize its performance (getting to the destination on time and avoiding accidents).
The car's behavior is considered rational if it consistently makes decisions that help it achieve its
goals while obeying traffic rules and adapting to road conditions.
Types of Rationality -:
Perfect Rationality:
In an ideal world, a perfectly rational AI would always make the optimal decision with full
knowledge of all variables. It would always maximize its performance, no matter the complexity of
the problem. However, this is often impractical due to real-world constraints.

Bounded Rationality:
AI systems in practice are bounded by factors such as limited computational resources,
incomplete information, and time constraints. Bounded rationality focuses on making decisions
that are rational within these limitations. The agent does the best it can with the resources it has.

Instrumental Rationality:
This type of rationality refers to an agent choosing actions that are the most effective means to
achieve its goals. It doesn't necessarily consider the overall ethics or reasoning behind the action,
just its effectiveness toward the goal.
Environment in AI -:
In Artificial Intelligence (AI), the environment refers to the external world or context within which an AI
agent operates and interacts. It includes everything the agent can perceive, act upon, or respond to
while attempting to achieve its goals. The environment provides inputs (data, sensory information) to the
AI agent, and the agent takes actions to influence or respond to the environment based on those inputs.

Fully Observable or Partially Observable:

In a fully observable environment, the AI agent has access to complete information about the current
state of the environment (e.g., a chessboard).
In a partially observable environment, the agent only has limited or incomplete information (e.g., a
robot navigating a maze without knowing the layout in advance).
Environment in AI -:
Discrete or Continuous:
In a discrete environment, the possible states and actions are distinct and countable (e.g., chess,
where the board has discrete positions).
In a continuous environment, the states and actions can take any value within a range (e.g.,
controlling a robot arm with smooth, continuous motion).

Static or Dynamic:
A static environment remains constant while the agent is making decisions. The environment does not
change unless the agent acts (e.g., solving a puzzle).
A dynamic environment can change over time, even if the agent takes no action (e.g., a stock market
that fluctuates regardless of what a trading algorithm does).
Environment in AI -:
Deterministic or Stochastic:
In a deterministic environment, the next state is completely predictable based on the current state
and the agent's actions (e.g., a game of chess).
In a stochastic environment, there is some degree of uncertainty, meaning that the same action may
lead to different outcomes due to randomness or unknown factors (e.g., real-world driving with
unpredictable traffic).

Episodic or Sequential:
In an episodic environment, the agent's actions are divided into independent episodes, where each
action doesn’t affect future actions (e.g., classifying images).
In a sequential environment, the current actions affect future actions and outcomes (e.g., playing
chess or driving a car).
Turing Test in AI -:
The Turing Test, proposed by British mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing in 1950, is a test
designed to determine whether a machine can exhibit intelligent behavior equivalent to, or
indistinguishable from, that of a human. It is a fundamental concept in the philosophy and development
of Artificial Intelligence (AI).

Purpose:
The Turing Test was designed as a way to measure artificial intelligence by testing whether a machine
can mimic human thought processes well enough to deceive a human. Turing believed that if a machine
could pass this test, it could be considered "intelligent."
Key Components of the Turing Test:

Setup : The test involves three participants: a human interrogator, a human respondent, and a
machine (which is an AI).

Objective : The goal of the machine (AI) is to respond to the interrogator’s questions in such a way
that the interrogator cannot reliably distinguish whether they are communicating with a human or a
machine.

Imitation Game : The Turing Test is sometimes called the Imitation Game, where the machine attempts
to imitate human responses convincingly enough to fool the interrogator.
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Unit 2 - Part 1
Chapter 2 : Problem Solving
Part 1 Part 3
Search Algorithms in AI Hill Climbing
Types of search algorithms
Part 4
Part 2 A* Algorithm

Heuristic Search techniques

Generate & Test
Part 5
Best First Search
Problem Reduction
Chapter 2 : Problem Solving
Part 6 Part 8
Local search algo & optimization problems Searching with non-deterministic action &
partial observation

Part 7
Part 9
Local search in continuous space
Online search agents & unknown
environments
Problem solving in AI

In the context of Artificial Intelligence (AI), problem-solving refers to the ability of an AI system to
identify a goal and determine the steps or actions necessary to achieve that goal, often in complex,
dynamic, or uncertain environments. It involves the use of algorithms, models, and data to perform tasks
that typically require human intelligence.

Search Algorithms
Optimization Techniques
Knowledge Representation and Reasoning
Machine Learning and Pattern Recognition
Heuristics
Search Algorithms in AI

Search algorithms in AI are techniques used to explore and find solutions in problem spaces. These
algorithms systematically look for a sequence of actions or states that lead to a goal, often navigating
through a large number of possible options. Search algorithms are fundamental to AI, as many problems,
from pathfinding to game playing, can be framed as searching for the right solution in a given space of
possibilities.
Properties of Search Algorithms

Completeness -:

A search algorithm is complete if it is guaranteed to find a solution (if one exists) in a finite amount of
time.
Example: Breadth-First Search (BFS) is complete because it systematically explores all possible states
and will eventually reach the goal, provided the search space is finite.
Non-example: Depth-First Search (DFS) is not complete in infinite search spaces since it can get stuck
exploring one branch indefinitely.
Properties of Search Algorithms

Optimality

An algorithm is optimal if it guarantees finding the best (least-cost) solution, assuming one exists. In
cost-based search problems, this means finding the solution with the lowest path cost.
Example: A* search is optimal if the heuristic used is admissible (i.e., it never overestimates the cost
to reach the goal).
Non-example: Greedy Best-First Search is not optimal because it may find a solution that is not the
least cost by following a heuristic that only minimizes distance to the goal but ignores the total path
cost.
Properties of Search Algorithms

Time Complexity

Time complexity refers to the amount of time an algorithm takes to find a solution, usually measured in
terms of the number of nodes generated or explored. It is often expressed using Big-O notation (e.g.,
O(bd)O(b^d)O(bd)), where:
bbb is the branching factor (the average number of child nodes per state).
ddd is the depth of the solution (the number of steps to reach the goal).
Example: BFS has a time complexity of O(bd)O(b^d)O(bd) because it explores all nodes at each depth
level.
Properties of Search Algorithms

Space Complexity

Space complexity refers to the amount of memory an algorithm requires to store the nodes in the frontier
(open list) and explored set (closed list). It is also measured using Big-O notation.

Example: DFS has a space complexity of O(b×m)O(b \times m)O(b×m), where mmm is the maximum
depth, because it only needs to store the current path and the unexplored branches.
Non-example: BFS has a higher space complexity of O(bd)O(b^d)O(bd) since it stores all nodes at
each level of the search tree.
Types of Search Algorithms
Uninformed Search Algorithms
Uninformed search methods do not have additional information about the problem space beyond the
available actions and goal state. They explore the space in a general manner, relying only on the
structure of the problem.

Breadth-First Search (BFS): This algorithm explores all nodes (or states) at the present depth level
before moving on to nodes at the next depth level. It is guaranteed to find the shortest path in an
unweighted graph but can be memory-intensive as it stores all nodes at a given depth.

Depth-First Search (DFS): In DFS, the algorithm explores as far down a branch (or path) as possible
before backtracking to explore other branches. DFS is memory efficient but might get stuck in infinite
loops if cycles exist and can miss the optimal solution.

Uniform Cost Search (UCS): A variant of BFS, UCS expands the node with the lowest path cost first,
making it useful when path costs vary. It is optimal as it always finds the least-cost solution but can
be slow if the cost of paths increases slowly.
Informed Search Algorithms

Informed search algorithms use additional information, typically in the form of a heuristic, to guide the
search towards the goal more efficiently. A heuristic is an estimate of how close a given state is to the
goal state.
Greedy Best-First Search: This algorithm uses a heuristic to expand the node that appears to be
closest to the goal. It focuses on the goal by always expanding the node with the lowest heuristic
value.

A Search*: A* combines the benefits of UCS and greedy search by using both the path cost (like UCS)
and a heuristic (like greedy search).

A* is optimal and complete as long as the heuristic h(n)h(n)h(n) is admissible (never overestimates
the cost to reach the goal).
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Unit 2 - Part 2
Heuristic Search Technique

Heuristic search techniques are methods used in artificial intelligence and computer science to solve
problems by finding approximate solutions rather than perfect or optimal ones, especially when dealing
with complex or large-scale problems. These techniques use heuristics, which are problem-specific
knowledge or rules of thumb, to guide the search process towards a solution efficiently.

Key Features of Heuristic Search:

1. Guided Search: Unlike blind search techniques, heuristic search uses additional information
(heuristics) to decide which path to explore.
2. Efficiency: Heuristics help reduce the search space, making the search process faster.
3. Approximation: These techniques do not guarantee the optimal solution but aim for a "good enough"
solution within reasonable time and resources.
4. Domain-Specific: Heuristics are tailored to the specific problem and may not generalize to other
problems.
Heuristic Search Technique

Heuristic search techniques are methods used in artificial intelligence and computer science to solve
problems by finding approximate solutions rather than perfect or optimal ones, especially when dealing
with complex or large-scale problems. These techniques use heuristics, which are problem-specific
knowledge or rules of thumb, to guide the search process towards a solution efficiently.

Key Features of Heuristic Search:

1. Guided Search: Unlike blind search techniques, heuristic search uses additional information
(heuristics) to decide which path to explore.
2. Efficiency: Heuristics help reduce the search space, making the search process faster.
3. Approximation: These techniques do not guarantee the optimal solution but aim for a "good enough"
solution within reasonable time and resources.
4. Domain-Specific: Heuristics are tailored to the specific problem and may not generalize to other
problems.
Heuristic Search Technique

Applications of Heuristic Search:

Pathfinding: Used in games, navigation systems, and robotics.
Optimization: Scheduling, route planning, and resource allocation.
Problem-Solving: Solving puzzles like the 8-puzzle or Sudoku.

Advantages:
Reduces computational overhead compared to exhaustive search methods.
Adapts well to various problems when heuristics are well-designed.

Disadvantages:
May not always find the optimal solution.
Performance heavily depends on the quality of the heuristic.
Risk of becoming stuck in local optima.
Generate & Test
The Generate and Test heuristic technique is a simple yet powerful problem-solving approach used in
Artificial Intelligence (AI). It involves generating possible solutions to a problem and then testing each
solution to determine if it satisfies the problem's requirements or achieves the goal.

Key Characteristics:

Trial and Error: The technique relies on systematically or randomly exploring the solution space and
testing each possibility.
Feedback Loop: The results from testing guide whether to stop or continue generating new solutions.
Efficiency: The effectiveness of this technique depends on how intelligently the solutions are
generated and how efficiently they can be tested.
Steps in Generate & Test

1. Generate:
Create potential solutions to the problem. This can be done randomly, systematically, or using
heuristics (rules of thumb).
The generation process may produce one or multiple solutions at a time.
2. Test:
Evaluate each generated solution to determine if it meets the desired criteria or solves the
problem.
If a solution satisfies the criteria, it is accepted as a valid solution.
3. Repeat:
If none of the generated solutions work, repeat the process by generating more potential
solutions.
This cycle continues until a satisfactory solution is found or the process is terminated (e.g., due to
a time limit or lack of further possibilities).
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
1. Simplicity:
Easy to implement and understand.
2. Broad Applicability:
Can be applied to a wide range of problems.
3. Works in Unknown Environments:
Effective when little is known about the problem structure.

Disadvantages:
1. Inefficiency:
May be slow if the solution space is large or if solutions are generated randomly.
2. No Guarantee of Success:
If the generation method isn’t well-designed, it may not find a solution.
3. Computational Expense:
Can be resource-intensive, especially if testing solutions is complex.
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Unit 2 - Part 3
Hill Climbing
Hill climbing is an iterative optimization technique used to solve problems where the goal is to find the
best possible solution. It works by continuously moving towards higher-valued states (or better
solutions) in the search space until a peak (optimum solution) is reached. It is commonly used in local
search problems where the search space is vast.

Types of Hill Climbing:

1. Simple Hill Climbing:
Evaluates one neighbor at a time and moves to it if it improves the solution.
2. Steepest-Ascent Hill Climbing:
Evaluates all neighbors and moves to the one with the greatest improvement.
3. Stochastic Hill Climbing:
Randomly selects a neighbor and moves to it if it improves the solution.
Features of Hill Climbing

1. Local Search Technique

Hill climbing focuses on the current state and its neighboring states, without considering the entire
search space.
It evaluates solutions incrementally, improving step by step.

2. Greedy Approach
The algorithm selects the best neighbor (based on the objective or heuristic value) to move toward an
optimal solution.
It is "greedy" because it always opts for immediate improvement, aiming for a higher-value state.
Features of Hill Climbing

3. Iterative Improvement
Hill climbing works by iteratively moving from the current state to a better state, improving the
solution with each step.
It stops when no better neighboring state is found.

4. Single-State Memory
The algorithm uses minimal memory, typically storing only the current state and its neighbors.
This makes hill climbing efficient in terms of memory usage.

5. Goal-Oriented
Hill climbing is designed to maximize (or minimize) a specific objective or heuristic function, guiding
the search process toward a predefined goal.
Steps of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

1. Initialize:
Start with an initial solution (state) in the search space.
2. Evaluate Current State:
Compute the objective function or heuristic value for the current state.
3. Generate Neighbors:
Create neighboring solutions by making small changes to the current solution.
4. Select the Best Neighbor:
Among all the neighbors, choose the one with the highest objective or heuristic value.
5. Move to the Best Neighbor:
If the best neighbor has a higher value than the current state, move to it and repeat from Step 2.
6. Check for Termination:
If no neighbor has a better value than the current state, terminate the algorithm. The current state
is considered the optimal solution (local maximum).
Advantages of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

1. Simple and Easy to Implement: Hill climbing is straightforward and requires minimal
resources.
2. Effective for Local Optimization: Works well for problems where the search space is small
and well-behaved.
3. Fast Convergence: Quickly finds solutions for many problems.
Disadvantages of Hill Climbing Algorithm:

Local Maxima: The algorithm may stop at a local maximum, which is not the best solution.
Plateau Problem: In a flat area (plateau), the algorithm may fail to find a direction to move.
Ridges: If the solution involves a steep path, the algorithm may struggle to find the
correct direction.
Algorithm of Hill Climbing Algorithm:
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Unit 2 - Part 4
A* Algorithm

The A* (A-star) algorithm is a popular graph traversal and search algorithm used to find the shortest path
from a starting node to a goal node. It combines the advantages of both Dijkstra's algorithm (which
guarantees the shortest path) and Greedy Best-First Search (which focuses on goal-directed search).

Key Concepts
Heuristic Function h(n)h(n)h(n):
Determines how close a node is to the goal.
Must be admissible (never overestimates the actual cost) to ensure optimality.
Optimality:
A* guarantees the shortest path if h(n)h(n)h(n) is admissible.
Completeness:
A* always finds a solution if one exists.
Steps of A* Algorithm
1. Initialize:
Create an open list (nodes to explore) and a closed list (already explored nodes).
Add the starting node to the open list with g(start)=0g(start) = 0g(start)=0 and
h(start)h(start)h(start) estimated using the heuristic.
2. Select Node:
From the open list, select the node nnn with the lowest f(n)f(n)f(n) value (i.e., smallest
g(n)+h(n)g(n) + h(n)g(n)+h(n)).
3. Goal Check:
If the selected node is the goal node, stop and reconstruct the path.
4. Expand Node:
For each neighbor of nnn:
Calculate its ggg-value (cost to reach the neighbor).
Calculate its fff-value using f(n)=g(n)+h(n)f(n) = g(n) + h(n)f(n)=g(n)+h(n).
If the neighbor is not in the open list or has a lower fff-value than before, update its values and
parent node.
Steps of A* Algorithm

6. Update Lists:
Move the current node nnn from the open list to the closed list.
Add or update neighbors in the open list.
7. Repeat:
Continue the process until the goal node is found or the open list is empty (no solution).
Advantages of A* Algorithm

Advantages
1. Optimal and Complete:
A* always finds the shortest path if one exists and the heuristic is admissible.
2. Efficient:
Explores fewer nodes than uninformed algorithms like BFS or Dijkstra's algorithm.
3. Flexible:
Can be adapted for different problem domains using appropriate heuristics.
Disadvantages of A* Algorithm

Disadvantages
1. Memory-Intensive:
A* stores all visited nodes in memory, which can be costly for large graphs.
2. Performance Depends on Heuristic:
Poor heuristics can degrade efficiency or result in suboptimal paths.
3. Slower for Dense Graphs:
In graphs with many nodes and edges, it may explore extensively before finding the goal.
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Unit 2 - Part 5
Best First Search
Best-First Search (BFS) is a heuristic search algorithm that explores a graph by selecting the node that
appears to be the "most promising" based on a given evaluation function. It uses a priority queue to keep
track of the nodes, sorted by their heuristic values.

Best-First Search uses a heuristic function h(n)h(n)h(n) to estimate the cost from a node nnn to the
goal.
At each step, the algorithm expands the node with the smallest heuristic value, assuming it is closest
to the goal.
It focuses on exploring the most promising paths first, making it more efficient than uninformed
search strategies like Breadth-First Search or Depth-First Search.
Steps of Best-First Search
1. Initialize:
Start with the initial node (start state).
Add the start node to a priority queue, with its priority determined by the heuristic function
h(n)h(n)h(n).
2. Select Node:
Remove the node with the lowest heuristic value from the priority queue. This is the "most
promising" node.
3. Goal Test:
If the selected node is the goal, terminate and reconstruct the path.
4. Expand Node:
Generate all possible successor nodes (children) of the current node.
5. Evaluate and Add:
For each successor, calculate its heuristic value h(n)h(n)h(n).
Add the successors to the priority queue.
6. Repeat:
Repeat steps 2–5 until the goal is found or the queue is empty (no solution).
Key Characteristics
1. Uses Heuristic Function:
Best-First Search relies on the heuristic h(n)h(n)h(n) to guide the search.
The quality of the heuristic affects the algorithm's performance.
2. Greedy Strategy:
It prioritizes nodes that appear closer to the goal, making it a goal-driven
search.
3. Priority Queue:
Nodes are stored in a priority queue, with priority determined by their
heuristic value h(n)h(n)h(n).
4. Not Always Optimal:
The algorithm may not find the shortest path unless the heuristic is both
admissible (never overestimates the cost) and consistent (satisfies the
triangle inequality).
Advantages

1. Goal-Oriented:
Focuses directly on the goal, reducing the number of explored nodes
compared to uninformed search.
2. Efficient for Many Problems:
Faster than algorithms like Depth-First Search or Breadth-First Search in
heuristic-driven domains.
3. Flexible:
Can be adapted to different problems by changing the heuristic function.
Disadvantages

1. May Not Be Optimal:

If the heuristic function is not well-designed, it may find suboptimal
solutions.
2. Heuristic Dependence:
Performance depends heavily on the accuracy and design of h(n)h(n)h(n).
3. Memory Usage:
Storing nodes in a priority queue can be memory-intensive for large
graphs.
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Unit 2 - Part 6
Local Search Algorithm
A local search algorithm is an optimization technique that explores solutions in the search space by
moving from one solution to a neighboring solution, with the aim of improving a given objective
function. It is commonly used when the search space is very large or infinite, making exhaustive search
impractical.
Local Search Algorithm
Characteristics of Local Search

Focus on Feasible Solutions: Local search doesn't explore the entire search space but rather
concentrates on solutions close to the current state.

Memory Efficiency: It typically requires minimal memory since it only needs to store the current state
and its neighbors.

Incomplete Search: Local search is not guaranteed to find the global optimum but may find a local
optimum.

Scalability: It is well-suited for problems with large or complex search spaces.

Steps of a Basic Local Search Algorithm
1. Initialize:
Start with an initial state (random or predefined).
2. Evaluate:
Compute the value of the objective function for the current state.
3. Find Neighbors:
Generate all neighboring states of the current state.
4. Select Next State:
Move to the neighbor with the highest (or lowest, for minimization problems) objective function
value.
5. Repeat:
Continue the process until a termination condition is met (e.g., no better neighbor exists).
Steps of a Basic Local Search Algorithm
Examples of Local Search Algorithms
1. Hill Climbing: Starts at an initial state and moves to the neighbor with the highest improvement in the
objective function.
2. Simulated Annealing: Introduces randomness to escape local optima by occasionally allowing worse
moves early in the search.
3. Genetic Algorithms: Combines and mutates solutions to explore the search space and find optimal
solutions.
4. Tabu Search: Uses memory to avoid revisiting recently explored states, helping to escape cycles.
5. Local Beam Search: Maintains multiple candidate solutions simultaneously and explores their
neighborhoods.
Advantages of Local Search
1. Simple and Efficient: Easy to implement and computationally inexpensive for many problems.
2. Scalable: Works well for problems with very large or infinite search spaces.
3. Widely Applicable: Suitable for optimization problems like scheduling, pathfinding, and layout
design.

Disadvantages of Local Search

1. Local Optima: Can get stuck in local maxima/minima or plateaus (regions with no improvement).
2. Incomplete: Does not guarantee finding the global optimum solution.
3. Problem-Specific Design: Requires careful design of the neighborhood structure and objective
function.
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