BFPE3107 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 300

BFPE3107 : Thermodynamics for Engineers

Chapter 3: First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics is merely a statement of the principle of conservation of energy.
It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to
another.

3.1 Different statements of the first law of thermodynamics

The first law can be stated in several ways, all of which are equivalent to each other. Some
selected statements are as follows:
1. ‘When heat and work are interconverted, the amount of work done is equivalent to the amount of heat
supplied’.
2. ‘Although energy may be transformed from one form to another, the energy of an isolated system must
remain constant,’
3. ‘Energy in one form, if it disappears, will make its appearance in an exactly equivalent quantity in
another form’.
4. ‘It is not possible to design a perpetual motion machine that could produce work without spending an
equivalent amount of energy on it’.

3.2 General formulation of the first law

In this chapter, the mathematical formulation of the first law will be written base on the following
considerations:
- The thermodynamic that changes from state 1 to state 2.
- The change in state is accomplished by energy interactions between the system and the
surrounding.
- Energy interactions such as electrical, magnetic, torsional, surface energies are neglected.
The general formulation of first law for any system is given by equation (2.1):
∆𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 (2.1)

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In equation (2.1): ∆𝐸 is the change of the total energy of the system; Q is the net heat exchange and W
the net work done.

 Differential form of first law

Equations (2.2a) or (2.2b) represent the differential forms of the first law of thermodynamics.
2 2 2

𝑑𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 (2.2𝑎) 𝒐𝒓 ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 𝛿𝑄 − ∫ 𝛿𝑊 (2.2𝑏)
1 1 1

In equations (2.2a) and (2.2b):

- the differential of 𝐸 is a perfect or exact differential (𝑑) because 𝐸 is state function therefore
2

∫ 𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝐸 (2.3)
1

- the differential of 𝑄 and 𝑊 are inexact differentials (𝛿) because they are not state functions
then,
2 2

∫ 𝛿𝑄 = 𝑄 ≠ 𝑄2 − 𝑄1 (2.4) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ∫ 𝛿𝑊 = 𝑊 ≠ 𝑊2 − 𝑊1 (2.5)

1 1

So the first law of thermodynamics can also be written as follows:

∆𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 𝒐𝒓 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 (2.6)
The first law of thermodynamics can be written in term of :
- Energy that change in total energy, net heat exchange and work done all express in 𝐽 or 𝑘𝐽.
2 2 2

∆𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 𝒐𝒓 𝑑𝐸 = 𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊 𝒐𝒓 ∫ 𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 𝛿𝑄 − ∫ 𝛿𝑊 (𝟐. 𝟕)
1 1 1

- Specific energies: change of total energy, heat exchange and work done all express in 𝐽 or 𝑘𝐽.
∆𝐸 𝑄 𝑊
in specific total energy (∆𝑒 = ), specific heat (𝑞 = 𝑚) and specific work (𝑤 = 𝑚) all
𝑚

express in 𝐽/𝑘𝑔 or 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔.

2 2 2

∆𝑒 = 𝑞 − 𝑤 𝒐𝒓 𝑑𝑒 = 𝛿𝑞 − 𝛿𝑤 𝒐𝒓 ∫ 𝑑𝑒 = ∫ 𝛿𝑞 − ∫ 𝛿𝑤 (𝟐. 𝟖)
1 1 1
∆𝐸
- Energy rate that is rate of change of total energy change (∆𝐸̇ = ), rate of exchange of heat
∆𝑡
𝑄 𝑊
(𝑄̇ = ∆𝑡) and rate of work done (𝑊̇ = ∆𝑡) all express in in 𝐽/𝑠 or 𝑘𝐽/𝑠.

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2 2 2

∆𝐸̇ = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ 𝒐𝒓 𝑑𝐸̇ = 𝛿𝑄̇ − 𝛿𝑊̇ 𝒐𝒓 ∫ 𝑑𝐸̇ = ∫ 𝛿𝑄̇ − ∫ 𝛿𝑊̇ (𝟐. 𝟗)

1 1 1

 First law for a cyclic process

The first law of thermodynamic for a cyclic process is written as follows:

∮ 𝑑𝐸 = ∮ 𝛿𝑄 − ∮ 𝛿𝑊 ⟺ ∆𝐸𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 (2.10)

Since 𝐸 is a state function, its value depends only on the initial and the final states of the system. For a
cyclic process, the initial state and the final state are the same, then
𝐸2 = 𝐸1 ⟹ 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = 0
Therefore

∮ 𝑑𝐸 = 0 ⟹ ∮ 𝛿𝑄 − ∮ 𝛿𝑊 = 0 ⟹ ∮ 𝛿𝑄 = ∮ 𝛿𝑊 (2.11)

Then, the first law of thermodynamics for a cyclic process is written:

∮ 𝛿𝑄 = ∮ 𝛿𝑊 𝒐𝒓 ∮ 𝛿𝑞 = ∮ 𝛿𝑤 𝒐𝒓 ∮ 𝛿𝑄̇ = ∮ 𝛿𝑊̇ (𝟐. 𝟏𝟐)

Therefore, for a system subjects to any cyclic transformation, the work produced in the
surroundings is equal to the heat withdrawn from the surroundings.

3.2.1 Total energy

𝐸 is the total energy of the system and it is the sum of internal energy (𝑈) of a system, kinetic
energy (𝐾𝐸) of all the particles that constitute the system and the potential or gravitational energy (𝑃𝐸)
of interactions between particles (that is, atom-atom, atom-molecule and molecule-molecule
interactions).
Remarks:
(i) Internal energy of a solid or liquid is the energy attributed to the motions and configurations
of the individual molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles making up the matter in the system.
(ii) For gas, the internal energy is the energy attributed to the motions and configurations of the
individual molecules, atoms, and subatomic particles making up the matter in the system, and the energy
attributed to translation, rotation and vibration of these particles.
∆E represents the change in the amount of energy contained within the system and it is given by
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 (3.1)

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1
∆𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 ) + 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) (3.3)
2
The first law of thermodynamics becomes:
- In term of energy
1
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = (𝑈2 − 𝑈1 ) + 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = 𝑄 − 𝑊 (𝑰. 𝒂)
2
- In term of specific energies
(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
𝑒2 − 𝑒1 = (𝑢2 − 𝑢1 ) + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = 𝑞 − 𝑤 (𝑰. 𝒃)
2
- In term of rate flow
1 𝑄̇ 𝑊̇
𝐸2̇ − 𝐸1̇ = (𝑈2̇ − 𝑈1̇ ) + (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = − (𝑰. 𝒄)
2 𝑚̇ 𝑚̇

Equation (𝑰. 𝒂), (𝑰. 𝒃) or (𝑰. 𝒄) is the general form of the first law of thermodynamics.

3.2.2 Heat
Heat is defined as a quantity of energy that flows across the boundary of a system during a change
in its state in virtue of a difference in temperature between the system and its surroundings and from a
point of higher to a point of lower temperature. From this definition, heat has the following important
characteristics:
1. Heat appears only at the boundary of the system.
2. Heat appears only during a change in state.
3. Heat is manifested by its effects on the surroundings.
4. The quantity of heat is proportional to the mass of the substance contained in the system.
During change of state, heat can be absorbed from the surrounding (𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) and released into the
surrounding by the system (𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 ). Therefore, the heat exchanged (𝑄), during a change of state is
obtained by

𝑄 = ∑ 𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑡 − ∑ 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (4.1)

Heat is an algebraic quantity, then it can be positive or negative. By convention, heat absorbed
by the system or heat transferred to the system from the surrounding, is positive and heat released by the
system or heat transferred from the system to the surroundings is negative.
By definition, heat transferred by the system of mass 𝑚, is given by

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𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑄
𝑄 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑑𝑇 (4.2) 𝒐𝒓 𝑞 = = ∫ 𝑐𝑑𝑇 (4.3)
𝑚
𝑇1 𝑇1
If C is constant between the range of temperature the above equations are written as follows:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑇 𝒐𝒓 𝑞 = 𝑐∆𝑇
Where 𝑚 is the mass of the substance; 𝐶 heat capacity; 𝑐 specific heat capacity; ∆𝑇 temperature change.
3.2.3 Work
Work is defined as any quantity that flows across the boundary of a system during a change in its
state and is completely convertible into the lifting of a weight in the surroundings. Therefore, some
important characteristics of work are:
1. Work appears only at the boundary of a system
2. Work appears only during a change in state
3. Work is manifested by its effects on the surroundings
During a change in Work done by a system to its surrounding or work done by the surrounding
on the system. It is obtained as follow:

𝑊 = ∑ 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑡 − ∑ 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 (5.1)

Just like heat, work is an algebraic quantity and therefore can take positive or negative values. By
convention, work done by the system is positive and energy is added to system, and work done on the
system is negative and energy is removed from the system.

1. Mechanical work
By definition mechanical work done is given by
2

𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑠
1

where 𝐹 is the force exerted by the surroundings and 𝑠 the displacement produce by the force.
 Examples of mechanical work:
(i) Shaft work
Energy transmission with a rotating shaft is very common in engineering practice. The work done during
n revolutions is determined as follows:
𝑇
𝑊𝑠ℎ = 𝐹𝑠 = (2𝜋𝑟𝑛) = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇
𝑟

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𝑊̇𝑠ℎ = 2𝜋𝑛̇ 𝑇
Where T is the torque applied to shaft, 𝑊̇𝑠ℎ is the power transmitted through the shaft, it is the work
done by the shaft per unit time, and 𝑛̇ is the number of revolutions per unit time.

(ii) Spring work or work done by the spring

𝑠2
1
𝛿𝑊𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 = 𝑘𝑠𝑑𝑠 ⟺ 𝑊𝑆𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 = ∫ 𝑘𝑠𝑑𝑠 = 𝑘(𝑠22 − 𝑠12 )
2
𝑠1

𝑠2 and 𝑠1 are the initial and the final length of the spring and 𝑘 the spring constant in 𝑘𝑁/𝑚.

(iii) Work done on elastic solid bars

2 2

𝑊𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝜎𝑛 𝐴𝑑𝑠

1 1

Where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar and 𝜎𝑛 is the normal stress
Remark: Solids are often modeled as linear springs because under the action of a force they contract or elongate,
therefore, the equations given for a linear spring can also be used for elastic solid bars.

(iv) Surface tension work

2 2

𝑊𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝜎𝑠 𝑑𝐴
1 1

Where 𝑑𝐴 is the change in the surface area of the film and 𝜎𝑛 is the surface tension force per unit length
in 𝑁/𝑚
(v) Pressure-volume work or boundary work.
It is work done when the volume of a quantity of a gas (or liquid) changes by expansion or
compression. The most common form of work studied by basic thermodynamics involves the changing
volume of a system. By definition
V2

𝛿𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 = 𝐹𝐴𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑉 𝐨𝐫 W = ∫ pext dV

V1

 Quasi-reversible p-v work and irreversible p-v work

Consider a cylinder having a piston and containing a gas and a small mass m is placed on the
piston, this mass is small enough so that when the state 1 are pulled out, the piston will rise and be forced
against the state 2. The force exerted by the mass m on the piston is F and the cross sectional area of
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piston is A. The piston is assumed to have no mass and to move without friction. The following cases are
possible:

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

Comparison of the work accomplished following four different paths during an isothermal expansion.
(a) Single-stage expansion (i): Irreversible work
When the expansion takes place in only one stage, the pressure is reduced in one step from 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡,1
to 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡,2 and the volume increase from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2. Where 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡,2 is the pressure which opposes the motion
of the piston that is, the pressure exerted on the surroundings. Expansion is out of control and occurs
until a volume is obtained in which 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡,2 = 𝑝. This is an irreversible process.
During a one stage expansion process, 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡,2 is contant and the work is given by
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 × 𝑑 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 × 𝐴 × 𝑑 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑊 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∆𝑉
(b) Multistages expansion (ii) and (iii): Quasi-static or quasi reversible work
An expansion is said to be a multistage when the mass on top of the piston is reducing during
expansion, that is the external pressure is not constant during the expansion process but it is constant
during each stage of the process. In a multistage expansion the work produced is the sum of the small
amounts of work produced in each stage.
If the mass removed are small, each step does not represent a very large departure from
equilibrium between 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡,2 and 𝑝 (graph iii). This process is an example of a quasi-static process; that is,
one in which the process is never far from equilibrium during the expansion.
2

𝛿𝑤 = −𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑉 ⟹ 𝑤 = − ∫ 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑉 (6.1)

1

Equation (6.1) is the general expression for the work of expansion of any system.
Remark: If 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡,
2 2

𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑡 ∆𝑉

1 1

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Therefore, a one stage expansion is a special case of multistage expansion.

(c) The Reversible Process (iv):
𝑝 and 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡 never differ by more than an infinitesimal 𝑑𝑝. In each step, 𝑝 never differs from 𝑝𝑒𝑥𝑡
by more than an infinitesimal amount. The process is under control and can be reversed at any time by
increasing the pressure by an infinitesimal amount. For reversible process, work is obtained as follows:
2

𝛿𝑤 = −𝑝𝑑𝑉 ⟹ 𝑤 = − ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑉 (6.1)

1

Remarks: The greatest work effect is produced during reversible expansion process, then the maximum
work is produced during reversible expansion processes. For expansion process, reversible work is
always higher than the irreversible work. For compression process, the lowest work effect is produced
during reversible process, then the minimum work is produced during reversible compression processes;
Reversible compression work is always lower than the irreversible compression work.

SAQ: Show that the work of a cyclic reversible process is zero while the work of an cyclic
irreversible process is different from zero.

2. Non-mechanical work
Non-mechanical work modes can be treated in a similar manner by identifying a generalized force
F acting in the direction of a generalized displacement s. Then the work associated with the differential
displacement under the influence of this force is determined from δW = Fds.

(i) Electrical work (𝐖𝐞 ) : where the generalized force is the voltage (the electrical potential)
and the generalized displacement is the electrical charge,
We = VN and Ẇe = VI
By definition,
𝑡2

𝛿𝑊𝑒 = 𝑊̇𝑒 𝑑𝑡 ⟺ 𝑊𝑒 = ∫ 𝑊̇𝑒 𝑑𝑡

𝑡1

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Ẇe is the electrical power, We is the electrical work, 𝑁 is the electrical charge move through a
potential difference 𝑉, 𝐼 is the number of electrical charges flowing per unit time, that is, the current.

(ii) Magnetic work where the generalized force is the magnetic field strength and the generalized
displacement is the total magnetic dipole moment;

(iii) Electrical polarization work: where the generalized force is the electric field strength and
the generalized displacement is the polarization of the medium.

3.3 Application of first law of thermodynamics to closed system

A closed system is a non-flow system. It is a system that exchanges energy with the surrounding
but doesn’t exchange mass. Closed systems are usually described as stationary closed system that is a
closed system in which velocity and elevation of the center of gravity remains constant during a process. For a
such system:
- Energy is transferred between the system and the surroundings in the form of heat and work,
resulting in a change of internal energy of the system.
- The change in kinetic energy is nil because 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⟹ 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ⟹ ∆𝑉 = 0 ⟹ ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0
- The change in potential energy is nil because 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ⟹ 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ⟹ ∆𝑧 = 0 ⟹ ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0
- The change in total energy of the system is equal to the change in internal energy of the system
because ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0 and ∆𝐾𝐸 = 0.
The first law of thermodynamics for a closed system is written as follows:
- In term of energy
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑄 − 𝑊𝑝𝑣 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 (𝑰𝑰. 𝒂)
- In term of specific energies
𝑒2 − 𝑒1 = ∆𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑞 − 𝑤𝑝𝑣 − 𝑤𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 (𝑰𝑰. 𝒃)
- In term of rate flow
𝑄̇ 𝑊̇𝑝𝑣 𝑊̇𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝐸2̇ − 𝐸1̇ = ∆𝑢̇ = 𝑢2̇ − 𝑢1̇ = − − (𝑰𝑰. 𝒄)
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
Equation (𝑰𝑰. 𝒂), (𝑰𝑰. 𝒃) or (𝑰𝑰. 𝒄) is called the non-flow energy equation (NFEE).

3.3.1 Work and heat of an isobaric process

For isobaric process, 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 then

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𝑉2 𝑉2

𝑊𝑝𝑣 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑃∆𝑉

𝑉1 𝑉1

𝛿𝑄𝑃 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
𝑇2

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ⟺ ∆𝑈 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑃∆𝑉 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

𝑇1
𝑇2 𝑇2

⟺ ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ⟺ ∆𝐻 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

𝑇1 𝑇1

Therefore, for an isobaric process, the first law of thermodynamics is written as follows:
𝑇2 𝑇2

𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝒐𝒓 𝑑ℎ = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑇1 𝑇1

- If 𝐶𝑝 is constant between 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , the above equation become

∆𝐻 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

- If 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0 then the above equation become

𝑇2

∆𝐻 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 𝒐𝒓 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝐶𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑇1

- If the gas consider is a perfect gas,

𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑉2
𝑊𝑝𝑣 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉 𝑉1
𝑉1 𝑉1

Then
𝑇2
𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑉2
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑑𝑉 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ⟺ ∆𝑈 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑉 𝑉1
𝑇1

If 𝐶𝑝 is constant between 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , the above equation become

𝑉2 𝑉2
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 − 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝒐𝒓 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) − 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑉1 𝑉1
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In the above equations, CP is the heat capacity of the system at constant pressure and it is defined as
the change in the enthalpy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant pressure.
3.3.2 Work and heat of an isochoric process
When 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, then 𝑑𝑉 = 0 ⟹ 𝛿𝑊𝑝𝑣 = 0 ⟹ 𝑑𝑈 = 𝛿𝑄𝑉 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑇2

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 ⟺ ∆𝑈 = ∫ 𝑚𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

𝑇1

- If 𝐶𝑉 is constant between 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , the above equation become

∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 ∆𝑇 − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

- If 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0 then the above equation become

𝑇2

∆𝑈 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 𝒐𝒓 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑖𝑓 𝐶𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑇1

In the above equations, CV is the heat capacity of the system at constant volume and it is defined
as the change in the internal energy of a substance per unit change in temperature at constant volume.
Using the above equation, ∆𝑈 can be calculated exclusively from properties of the system. These
equations apply to any system: solids, liquids, gases, mixtures.

3.3.3 Work and heat of an isothermal process

When the temperature is constant, the change in internal energy of the system is zero (∆𝑈 = 0)
because the internal energy of a system is function of the temperature. Therefore, the first law of
thermodynamic for an isothermal process is written as:
𝛿𝑄 − 𝛿𝑊𝑝𝑣 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0 ⟺ 𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑊𝑝𝑣 + 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 + 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
Isothermal process follows Boyle’s law which states that, at constant temperature,
𝐶
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐶 ⟺ 𝑃=
𝑉
where 𝐶 is a constant. Then,
𝑉2
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝑉2
𝛿𝑊𝑝𝑣 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑉 ⟺ 𝑊𝑝𝑣 = 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉1
𝑉1

At t=0,

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𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑃1
𝐶 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 ⟹ 𝑊𝑝𝑣 = 𝐶𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑃2
𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑄 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑉1 𝑃2
 for an ideal gas, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇 therefore,
𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 + 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝑉1 𝑃2
If 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0 then,
𝑉2 𝑃1
𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑄 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
𝑉1 𝑃2
3.3.4 Work and heat for an adiabatic process
For an adiabatic process 𝑄 = 0.
∆𝑈 = 0 − 𝛿𝑊𝑝𝑣 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 0 ⟺ ∆𝑈 = −𝛿𝑊𝑝𝑣 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = −𝑃𝑑𝑉 − 𝛿𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
The adiabatic process follows the law 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝐶 where 𝛾 is called adiabatic index and is given by
the ratio of two specific heats and 𝐶 a constant.
𝑉2 𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑑𝑉 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝛾 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑑𝑉 =
𝑉 𝛾−1
𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉1

𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
∆𝑈 = − − 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
𝛾−1
Therefore,
(i) if work is produced (that is in 𝑊 > 0) in an adiabatic change in state, the temperature of the system
falls and the internal energy decreases (∆𝑈 < 0).
(ii) if work is destroyed (that is in 𝑊 < 0) in an adiabatic change in state, the temperature of the system
increases and the energy also increases (∆𝑈 > 0).

3.3.5 Polytropic process

The polytropic process follows the law 𝑃𝑉 𝑛 = 𝐶 where 𝑛 is the index which can vary from – ∞
to + ∞. and 𝐶 a constant.
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝑑𝑉 𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝑤 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫ =
𝑉𝑛 𝑛−1
𝑉1 𝑉1

Isobaric, isochoric and isothermal are particular cases of polytropic process. In fact, when

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𝑛 = 0 it is isobaric process, for 𝑛 = 1 isothermal process, 𝑛 = 2 polytropic process and n= ∞ isochoreic

process.

3.3.7 Free Expansion:

Free expansion is the unrestrained expansion of a gas.
Let’s take an insulated tank having two compartments separated by a partition, say A and B. Let
us assume that compartment A is filled with gas while B is having vacuum. If now the partition is removed
and gas allowed to occupy the whole volume of tank, then the gas expands to fill the complete volume
space. New pressure of gas will be lesser as compared to initial pressure of gas occupying the
compartment A.
A close look at the expansion process shows that the expansion due to removal of partition is
unresisted expansion due to gas expanding in vacuum. This is also known as free expansion. The reverse
of free expansion is impossible and so it is an irreversible process.
During free expansion no work is be done by the gas or on the gas due to no boundary
displacement in the system (𝑊 = 0) and no heat interaction as tank is insulated (𝑄 = 0).

Example 3.1: Considered a system comprising of gas in cylinder at pressure of 689 kPa. Fluid expands
from a volume of 0.04 m3 to 0.045 m3 while pressure remains constant. Paddle wheel in the system does
a work of 4.88 kJ on the system. Determine (a) work done by system on the piston (b) the net amount of
work done on or by the system.

Example 3.2: A gas at 65 kPa, 200°C is heated in a closed, rigid vessel till it reaches to 400°C.
Determine the amount of heat required for 0.5 kg of this gas if internal energy at 200°C and 400°C are
26.6 kJ/kg and 37.8 kJ/kg respectively.
3.9 First law of thermodynamic applied to chemical reactions
One of the important applications of the first law of thermodynamics is the calculation of
enthalpies of reaction. In fact, in the laboratory the majority of chemical reactions are performed under
a constant pressure then chemical reactions can be considered as isobaric process.
From the first law of thermodynamics, for an isobaric process 𝑄𝑃 = ∆𝐻, therefore, the heat
transfer during a chemical reaction is the equal to the enthalpy change of the reaction.
The enthalpy of reaction is the enthalpy change (amount of heat evolved or absorbed) when
the moles of reactants and products as indicated by a balanced chemical equation react completely.

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In practice, it is the standard enthalpy of reaction that is calculate and it is obtained as the
difference between the sum of enthalpy of formation of products and the sum of enthalpy of formation
of reactants.

∆𝑯°𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = ∑ 𝜺𝒊 ∆𝑯°𝒇 (𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔) − ∑ 𝜺𝒋 ∆𝑯°𝒇 (𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒔)

Where 𝜀 is the stoichiometry coefficient of reactants and products.

The enthalpy of formation (∆Hf) of a compound is the change in enthalpy when one mole of a
compound (in its standard state) is formed from its elements (in their standard states).
Example 3.3: Calculation of the standard enthalpy of the following reaction
𝐶𝐻4(𝑔) + 2𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Knowing:
𝑪𝑯𝟒(𝒈) 𝟐𝑶𝟐(𝒈) 𝑪𝑶𝟐(𝒈) 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)

∆𝑯°𝒇 (𝒌𝑱/𝒎𝒐𝒍) - 74.8 0 - 393.5 - 285.8

3.10 First law of thermodynamics applied to steady flow system

A system is at steady state if none of its properties change with time. But, the properties need not
be the same in all points of the flow. Many devices operate at steady state or nearly at steady state,
meaning that property variations with time are small enough to be ignored.
In many engineering applications, devices such as turbines, pumps, compressors, heat
exchangers and boilers are operated under steady flow conditions for long periods of time. A steady
flow process is a process in which matter and energy flow in and out of an open system at steady rates.
Moreover, an open system undergoing a steady flow process does not experience any change in the
mass and energy of the system.
A steady flow has the following characteristics:
(i) No property at any given location within the system boundary changes with time.
Therefore, during an entire steady flow process, the total volume 𝑉, the total mass 𝑚 and the total
energy content 𝐸 of the system remain constant.
(ii) The system boundary also remains the same because the system remains unchanged with
time during a steady flow process.
(iii) No property at an inlet or at an exit to the open system changes with time. That means that
during a steady flow process, the mass flow rate, the energy flow rate, pressure, temperature, specific (or
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molar) volume, specific (or molar) internal energy, specific (or molar) enthalpy, and the velocity of flow
at an inlet or at an exit remain constant.
(iv) Heat and work transferred across the boundary of the system remain unchanged.
The first law of thermodynamics of a steady flow process is written as follow:
∆𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 + ∆(𝑃𝑣) = 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉
𝐸1 = 𝑈1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1 + 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝐻1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1
𝐸2 = 𝑈2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2 + 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝐻2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2
𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = (𝐻2 + 𝐾𝐸2 + 𝑃𝐸2 ) − (𝐻1 + 𝐾𝐸1 + 𝑃𝐸1 ) = 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉
(𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) + (𝐾𝐸2 − 𝐾𝐸1 ) + (𝑃𝐸2 − 𝑃𝐸1 ) = 𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 (10.1)
Equation (10.1) is referred to as steady flow energy equation (SFEE). This equation can be written as
1
𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 = (𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) + 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + 𝑚𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
2
Or
1
𝑄𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊𝐶𝑉 = ∆𝐻 + 𝑚∆𝑉 2 + 𝑚𝑔∆𝑧
2
On a unit basis SFEE is written as
𝑄𝐶𝑉 𝑊𝐶𝑉 (𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
− (ℎ )
= 2 − ℎ1 + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
𝑚 𝑚 2
Or
∆𝑉 2
𝑞𝐶𝑉 − 𝑤𝐶𝑉 = ∆ℎ + + 𝑔∆𝑧
2
Note that
𝐻 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑈 𝑉
ℎ= = = + 𝑃 ( ) = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
where 𝑣 is a specific volume
Remarks:
(i) In the above equations, 𝑃1 𝑉1 and 𝑃2 𝑉2 account for the work associated with the pressure at
the inlet and exit, respectively. They are commonly referred to as flow work.
(ii) W accounts for all other energy transfer by work across the boundaries of the control volume
except flow work.

3.11 Mass flow rate and volume flow rate

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In all open process, there are energy and material exchanges between system and surrounding
then, there is a mass and volume of substance that passing the section.
By definition,
(i) The volume of substance passing the section per second (𝑉̇ )
𝑉̇ = 𝐴 × 𝑉
𝑉̇ is the volume flow rate, 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area and 𝑉 the velocity of the substance passing through
the cross-section.
(ii) The mass of substance passing the section per second (𝑚̇)
𝑚̇ = 𝜌 × 𝐴 × 𝑉
𝑚̇ is that mass flow rate and 𝜌 the density of the substance.
Then the volume flow rate (𝑉̇ ) is related to the mass flow rate (𝑚̇) by
𝑚̇
𝑉̇ = 𝑜𝑟 𝑚̇ = 𝑉̇ × 𝜌
𝜌
Remark: The mass flow rate is constant for a steady flow process therefore, the total incoming rate of
mass flow and the total outgoing rate mass flow are the same for a steady flow process.
The first law of thermodynamics can be written in terms of time, rate of change of energy as
follows:
𝑑𝐸
= 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
𝑑𝑡
𝑄̇ is the rate of heat transfer between the control volume and its surroundings. When the control volume
is losing heat, 𝑄̇ is negative. If the control volume is well insulated, 𝑄̇ = 0.
By definition,
- the rate of heat transfer (Q̇) is the amount of energy transfer by heat during a period of time can
be found by
𝑡2
𝑑𝑄
𝑄̇ = ⟹ 𝑄 = ∫ 𝑄̇ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

In some case it is convenient to use the heat flux (𝑞̇ ), which is the heat transfer rate per unit of system
surface area. The net rate of heat transfer is related to the heat flux by the integral:

𝑄̇ = ∫ 𝑞̇ 𝑑𝐴

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𝑄̇ the unit of heat transfer rate is 𝑘𝐽/𝑠 which is equivalent to 𝑘𝑊. When 𝑄̇ remains constant during a
process, this relation reduces to
𝑄 = 𝑄̇ (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝑄̇ ∆𝑡
- the rate of work done (Ẇ) is the amount of energy transfer by work across the boundary during
a period of time can be found by
𝑡2
𝑑𝑊
𝑊̇ = ⟹ 𝑄 = ∫ 𝑊̇ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

When 𝑊̇ remains constant during a process, this relation reduces to

𝑊
𝑊 = 𝑊̇ (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) = 𝑊̇ ∆𝑡 ⟹ 𝑊̇ =
∆𝑡
Recalled that 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝑉
𝑑𝐸 𝑑 𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝐾𝐸 𝑑𝑃𝐸 𝑑(𝑃𝑉)
= (𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝑉) = + + + = 𝑄̇𝐶𝑉 − 𝑊̇𝐶𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝐸2 𝑑𝐸1
= − = 𝐸̇2 − 𝐸̇1 = 𝑚̇2 𝑒2 − 𝑚̇1 𝑒1 = 𝑚̇(𝑒2 − 𝑒1 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
For a steady flow process
𝑚̇2 = 𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇
̇ + ∆𝑃𝐸̇ + ∆𝑃𝑣̇ = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
∆𝐸̇ = ∆𝑈̇ + ∆𝐾𝐸
∆𝐸̇ = 𝑚̇∆𝑒 = 𝑚̇∆𝑢 + 𝑚̇∆𝑘𝑒 + 𝑚̇∆𝑝𝑒 + 𝑚̇∆𝑝𝑣 = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
𝑚̇(∆𝑢 + ∆𝑘𝑒 + ∆𝑝𝑒) = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇
(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
𝑚̇ [(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )] = 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ (11.1)
2
(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) 𝑄̇ 𝑊̇
(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + + 𝑔(𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) = −
2 𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
Q̇ Ẇ
and ṁ are respectively the rate of heat transfer and the rate of work done per unit mass flowing through
ṁ

the control volume.

Equation (10.1) is referred to as steady flow energy equation (SFEE).
Remark: The general form of SFEE is written as follow:

𝑞 −𝑤 = ∑𝑒 − ∑𝑒 𝒐𝒓 𝑄̇ − 𝑊̇ = ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑒
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

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 BFPE3107 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 300

3.11 Application of the first law to some steady flow engineering devices
Many engineering devices operate essentially under the same conditions for long periods of time.
The components of a steam power plant such as turbines, nozzles, diffusers, throttling devices,
compressors, heat exchangers, and pumps, operate nonstop for months before the system is shut down
for maintenance. Therefore, these devices can be conveniently analyzed as steady flow devices.

1. Nozzles and diffusers

A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross-sectional area in which the velocity of a gas or liquid
increases (that is the pressure decreases) in the direction of flow. In a diffuser, the gas or liquid decelerates
(that is the pressure increases) in the direction of flow.
For these two devices,
- the only work is flow work at locations where mass enters and exits the control volume: 𝑊 = 0
- the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is negligible under most conditions 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ≈ 0
then ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0.
- The heat transfer between the fluid flowing through a nozzle or a diffuser and the surroundings
is usually very small since the fluid has high velocities, and thus it does not spend enough time in the
device for any significant heat transfer to take place: 𝑄 = 𝑂
The first law of thermodynamics for these two system is written as:
1 1
0 = (𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) + 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) ⟺ (𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) = 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 )
2 2

2. Turbines
A turbine is a device in which work is developed as a result of a gas or liquid passing through a
set of blades attached to a shaft free to rotate. Turbines are widely used in vapor power plants, gas turbine
power plants, and aircraft engines. In these applications, superheated steam or a gas enters the turbine
and expands to a lower exit pressure as work is developed.
- Heat transfer from turbines is usually negligible (Q˙ ≈ 0) since they are typically well insulated.
- Potential energy changes are negligible for all of these devices; 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ≈ 0 then ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0.
- The fluid velocities encountered in most turbines are very high, and the fluid experiences a significant
change in its kinetic energy. However, this change is usually very small relative to the change in enthalpy,
and thus it is often disregarded:

Chap3 By Dr. JH NONO |CBE, NAHPI, UBa

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 BFPE3107 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 300

1 1
(𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) ≫ 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) then (𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ) + 𝑚(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) ≈ 𝐻2 − 𝐻1
2 2

Then the first law for these systems is

−𝑊 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ⟺ 𝑊 = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2

3. Compressors
Compressors, are devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to these
devices from an external source through a rotating shaft. Therefore, compressors involve work inputs.
Work is supplied to these devices from an external source through a rotating shaft. Therefore,
compressors involve work inputs.
- Heat transfer with the surroundings is frequently a secondary effect in both compressors and pumps.
Hence heat transfer is also negligible for compressors unless there is intentional cooling.
- Potential energy changes are negligible for all of these devices (Δpe ≌ 0).
- The changes in specific kinetic and potential energies from inlet to exit are often small relative to the
work done per unit of mass passing through the device: ∆𝐾𝐸 ≪ 𝑊
−𝑊 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ⟺ 𝑊 = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2
Remark: Other devices like pumps and fans can be also used to increase the pressure of a fluid. A fan
increases the pressure of a gas slightly and is mainly used to mobilize a gas. A compressor is capable of
compressing the gas to very high pressures. Pumps work very much like compressors except that they
handle liquids instead of gases.

4. Boiler
Boiler is the engineering device used for steam generation at constant pressure. Heat is supplied
externally to the boiler for steam generation depending upon state of steam desired.
Boiler may be assumed similar to a closed vessel having no work interaction (W = 0), no change
in kinetic energy (∆KE = 0), no change in potential energy (∆PE = 0).
Applying steady flow energy equation
𝑄𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑟 = 𝐻2 − 𝐻1

5. Condenser

Chap3 By Dr. JH NONO |CBE, NAHPI, UBa

19/21
 BFPE3107 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 300

Condenser is the device used for condensing vapour into liquid at constant pressure. It is a type of heat
exchanger in which another cool fluid is used for condensing the vapours into liquid. Heat exchange between the
hot fluid and cold fluid takes place indirectly as cold fluid passes through the tubes and hot vapours are outside
tubes in the shell.
Just like a boiler, a condenser can be assumed to be similar to a closed vessel having no work
interaction (𝑊 = 0), no change in kinetic energy (∆𝐾𝐸 = 0), no change in potential energy (∆𝑃𝐸 =
0).

5. Throttling valves
Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant pressure drop in
the fluid. Some familiar examples are ordinary adjustable valves, capillary tubes, and porous plugs.
Unlike turbines, they produce a pressure drop without involving any work.
Throttling valves are usually small devices, and the flow through them may be assumed to be
adiabatic (𝑞 ≅ 0) since there is neither sufficient time nor large enough area for any effective heat transfer
to take place.
There is no work done (𝑤 = 0), and the change in potential energy, if any, is very small (∆𝑝𝑒 ≅
0).
Even though the exit velocity is often considerably higher than the inlet velocity, in many cases,
the increase in kinetic energy is insignificant (∆𝑘𝑒 ≅ 0).
Then the conservation of energy equation for this single-stream steady-flow device reduces to:
ℎ2 ≅ ℎ1 ⟺ 𝑢2 + 𝑃2 𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑃1 𝑣1
Remark: The same equation is obtained in the case of mixing chamber. However the assumptions made
are: mixing chambers are considered as well insulated (𝑞 ≅ 0) and do not involve any kind of work (𝑤 =
0). Also, the kinetic and potential energies of the fluid streams are usually negligible (𝑘𝑒 ≅ 0 , 𝑝𝑒 ≅ 0).

Example 3.4: In a nozzle air at 627°C and twice atmospheric pressure enters with negligible velocity
and leaves at a temperature of 27°C. Determine velocity of air at exit, assuming no heat loss and nozzle
being horizontal. Take CP = 1.005 kJ/kg.K for air.

Example 3.5: An air compressor requires shaft work of 200 kJ/kg of air and the compression of air
causes increase in enthalpy of air by 100 kJ/kg of air. Cooling water required for cooling the compressor
picks up heat of 90 kJ/kg of air. Determine the heat transferred from compressor to atmosphere.

Chap3 By Dr. JH NONO |CBE, NAHPI, UBa

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 BFPE3107 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 300

3.12 Application of the first Law to unsteady-flow or transient flow processes

Many processes of interest, however, involve changes within the control volume with time. Such
processes are called unsteady-flow, or transient flow, processes. Some familiar unsteady-flow processes
are the charging of rigid vessels from supply lines, discharging a fluid from a pressurized vessel, driving
a gas turbine with pressurized air stored in a large container, inflating tires or balloons, and even cooking
with an ordinary pressure cooker.
Most unsteady-flow processes, however, can be represented reasonably well by the uniform-flow
process, which involves the following idealization: The fluid flow at any inlet or exit is uniform and
steady, and thus the fluid properties do not change with time or position over the cross section of an inlet
or exit. If they do, they are averaged and treated as constants for the entire process.
When the kinetic and potential energy changes associated with the control volume and fluid
streams are negligible, as is usually the case, the first law is written
𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝑚∆ℎ + (𝑚2 𝑢2 − 𝑚1 𝑢1 )𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

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