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Definition of Limit

Let f (x) be a function defined on an open interval around a (except

possibly at a itself). If f (x) gets arbitrary close to L for all x sufficiently
close to a, we say that f approaches the limit L as x approaches a, and we
write:
lim f (x) = L
x→a

if for every ϵ > 0, there exists a δ > 0 such that if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then:

|f (x) − L| < ϵ.

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Some Properties of Limits

Some Properties of Limits

limx→a [f (x) + g (x)] = limx→a f (x) + limx→a g (x)
limx→a [f (x) · g (x)] = limx→a f (x) · limx→a g (x)
 
limx→a gf (x) limx→a f (x)
(x) = limx→a g (x) , g (x) ̸= 0

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Some Standard limits

sin x
limx→0 x =1
1
limx→∞ x = 0
limx→0 sinx x = 1
limx→0 1−cos
x2
x
= 12
limx→0 tanx x = 1
x
limx→0 e x−1 = 1
1
limx→0 (1 + x) x = e

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Example:

Example:1 limx→2 (x 2 + 3x + 4)

x 2 −9
Example:2 limx→3 x−3

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Example:
√
x−2
Example:3 limx→4 x−4

e 4x −1
Example:4 limx→0 x

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Example:
tan x−sin x
Example:5 limx→0 x·sin2 x

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Continuity

The function f (x) is said to be continuors at x = a if

f(a) is defined.
limx→a+ f (x)and limx→a− f (x) exists.
limx→a+ f (x) = limx→a− f (x) = f (a)

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Example

Example:1 Check whether the function f (x) = |x| is continuous or not.

Here
f (0) = |0| = 0
lim f (x) = lim (−x) = 0
x→0− x→0−

lim f (x) = lim+ (x) = 0

x→0+ x→0

Since:
lim f (x) = lim+ f (x) = 0 and f (0) = 0,
x→0− x→0

The function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0.

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Example
(
x 2 −9
x−3 if x ̸= 3
Example 1 f (x) = at point x = 3.
6 it x = 3

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Example
Example 2 f (x) = [x] at point x = 5 and x = 5.5

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Example
|x|
Example 3 f (x) = x at x = 0

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Example 4

2x + 3 if x < 0
Example 4 f (x) = at x = 0
3x − 1 if x = 0

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Difterentiability

The function f (x) is called differentiable at x = a if

limx→a f (x)−f
x−a
(a)
or limh→0 f (a+h)−f
h
(a)
exists and it is denoted by f ′ (x).

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Example
Example-1 Prove that |x − 2| is continuous at x = 2 but not differentiable
at x = 2.

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Example
Example-2 Check the differentiability of f (x) = x 3 at x = 4.

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Roll’s Theorem

Rolle’s Theorem:
If (i) f (x) is continuous at every point of the closed interval [a, b], i.e.
a≤x≤b
(ii) differentiable at every point of the open interval (a, b), i.e. a < x < b.
(iii) f(a) = f(b) = 0 then, there is at least one value of x , say c which is
strictly within (a, b), at which f ′ (c) = 0

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Example

EXAMPLE-1: Use Rolle’s theorem to prove that ax2 + bx = 3a + b2 has a

root between 0 and 1 .
3 2
SOLUTION Let f (x) = ax3 + bx2 − 3a + b2 x in [0, 1].

Here f (x) being polynomial in x, is continuous in [0, 1] and is

differentiable in (0, 1) and f (0) = f (1) = 0.
Thus, the conditions of Rolle’s theorem are satisfied, i.e. Rolle’s theorem is
applicable.
∴ There exists c ∈ (0, 1) such that f ′ (c) = 0
i.e. f ′ (x) = 0 has a root in (0, 1).
Now f ′ (x) = ax 2 + bx − 3a − b2 Hence, ax 2 + bx − 3a − b2 = 0 has a root
between 0 and 1 .

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Example
Example-2 Verify Roll’s theorem for f (x) = x 3 − 3x 2 + 2x; x ∈ [0, 2]
f (x) = |x| : x ∈ [−1, 1]

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Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem

Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem:

If (i) f (x) is continuous in the closed interval [a, b] i.e. a ≤ x ≤ b. and (ii)
differentiable in the open interval (a, b) i.e. a < x < b then there exist at
least one value c in the open interval (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a

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Example

EXAMPLE 1 Find ’ c ’ of the Lagrange Mean value theorem. if

f (x) = x(x − 1)(x − 2), a = 0, b = 12 .
SOLUTION We have f (a) = f (0) = 0
 
1 3
f (b) = f =
2 8
3
f (b) − f (a) 8 3
∴ = 1
=
b−a 2
4
Also f ′ (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2) + x(x − 2) + x(x − 1)

= 3x 2 − 6x + 2
∴ f ′ (c) = 3c 2 − 6c + 2

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Example:1

Consider now the equation

f (b) − f (a)
f ′ (c) =
b−a
From (i) and (ii) we have,

3
3c 2 − 6c + 2 =
4
√
6± 21
or 12c2 − 24c + 5 = 0 Solving c = 6 .
√
6− 21
belongs to the interval 0, 21 .


We see that c = 6

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Example

Example-2 Find c by Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for

f (x) = 2x 2 + 3x + 4; x ∈ [2, 5]

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Example

Example-3 Find c by Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem for

f (x) = tan1 x; x ∈ [0, 1]

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Example

Example-4 Prove that sin x < x for all x > 0

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Example

1 1
Example-5 Prove that 0 < log(1+x) − x < 1 for x ⩾ 0

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Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem

Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem If two functions f (x) and g (x) are
(i) continuous in the closed interval [a, b].
(ii) differentiable in the open interval (a, b).
(iii) g′ (x) ̸= 0 for any point in (a,b),
then there exists at least one ’ c ’ in the open interval (a, b) such that

f (b) − f (a) f ′ (c)

= ′
g (b) − g (a) g (c)

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Frame Title
Example:1 Verify Cauchy’s mean value theorem for the following functions

f (x) = x 2 . g (x) = x 3 in 1 ≤ x ≤ 2

.
SOLUTION: We know by Cauchy’s mean value theorem that

f (x) = x 2

f (2) = 4, f (1) = 1,
f ′ (c) = 2c
and g (x) = x 3 g (2) = 8 g (1) = 1, g′ (c) = 3c′
Therefore we have from (1)
4−1 2c 14
= 2 ⇒c=
8−1 3c 9
This value of c lies between 1 and 2 .
Hence Cauchy’s mean value theorem is verified.
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Example

1
Example-2 Find c by Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem for x and
1
x2
: x ∈ [2; 3]

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Example

Example-3  Find c by Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem for sin x and cos x for
x ∈ 0, π2


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Taylor’s series

Taylor’s series:- If f (x) is differentiable on times the f (x) can be expanded

as a convergent power sereies in Powers of (x − a) as

(x − a) ′ (x − a)2 ′′
f (x) = f (a) + f (a) + f (a) + · · ·
1! 2!
let x = a then

h ′ h2
f ′ (a + h) = f (a) + f (a) + f ′′ (a)+
1! 2!
⇒ Maclaurin Series

x ′ x2
f (x) = f (0) + f (0) + f ′′ (0) + · · · ·
11 2!

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Example

Example-1 Expand by maclaurin series f (x) = e x

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Some Standard Expansions

2 3
(I) e x = 1 + x + x2! + x3! + ...
3 5 7
(II) sin x = x − x3! + x5! − x7! + ...
3 5 7
(III) sinh x = x + x3! + x5! + x7! + ...
2 4 6
(IV) cos x = 1 − x2! + x4! − x6! + ...
2 4 6
(V) cosh x = 1 + x2! + x4! + x6! + ...
2 3 4
(VI) log(1 + x) = x − x2 + x3 − x4 + ...

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Example

√
Example-2 Expand by maclaurin series 1/ 4 − x

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Example

Example-3 Expand by maclaurin series ln(1 + x)

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Example

Example-4 Expand log x in powers of (x − 1).

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Example

π
+ x in powers of x. Also find sin 44◦ , sin 46◦


Example-5 Expand sin 4

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Thank You

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