Mobile & Wireless

Communication
ESC-CSE-308G
• Introduction: Applications, History, Market Scenario, Reference Model and
Overview, Wireless Local loop and Cellular System
• Vehicles Applications of Wireless Networks and Mobile Communications
o transmission of news, road condition, weather, music via DAB
o personal communication using GSM
o position via GPS
o local ad-hoc network with vehicles close-by to prevent accidents, guidance system, redundancy
o vehicle data (e.g., from busses, high-speed trains) can be transmitted in advance for maintenance
• Emergencies
o early transmission of patient data to the hospital, current status, first diagnosis
o replacement of a fixed infrastructure in case of earthquakes, hurricanes, fire etc.
o crisis, war.
• Business - Travelling salesmen
o direct access to customer files stored in a central location
o consistent databases for all agents
o mobile office
• Replacement of fixed networks
o remote sensors, e.g., weather, earth activities
o flexibility for trade shows
o LANs in historic buildings
• Entertainment, education, ...
o outdoor Internet access
o intelligent travel guide with up-to-date location dependent information
o ad-hoc networks for multi user games
• Location dependent services
o Location aware services
▪ e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local environment
o Follow-on services
▪ automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current location
o Information services
▪ „push“: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
▪ „pull“: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cherry Cake?
o Support services
▪ caches, intermediate results, state information etc.
o Privacy
▪ who should gain knowledge about the location
Mobility & its types:

Mobility in wireless networks refers to a node known as mobile node or sometimes

a subnet, changing its point of attachment to the network while its communication
to the network remains uninterrupted.

Mobility is defined in two different kinds:

1. User Mobility
2. Device Mobility
User Mobility Device Mobility
• It refers to a user who has access to With device portability, the
the same or similar communication device moves with or
telecommunication services at without a user. Many mechanisms in the
different places i.e. the user can be network and inside the device have to
mobile and the services will follow make sure that communication is still
him or her. possible while the device is moving.
• Example: Simple call forwarding * Example: System supporting device
solutions known from the telephone portability is the mobile phone system. In
or computer desktops supporting this, the system itself hands the device
roaming. from one radio transmitter (eg. Base
station) to the next if the signal becomes
too weak.
Effects of device portability:

1. Power consumption
* limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due to limited battery capacity
*CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f
C: internal capacity, reduced by integration
V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally

2. Loss of data
*higher probability, has to be included in advance into the design (e.g., defects, theft)

3. Limited user interfaces

*compromise between size of fingers and portability
*integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols

4. Limited memory
*limited value of mass memories with moving parts, flash-memory or as alternative
 Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks
• Higher loss-rates due to interference
oemissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
• Restrictive regulations of frequencies
ofrequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all
occupied
• Low transmission rates
olocal some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 9.6kbit/s with GSM
• Higher delays, higher jitter
oconnection setup time with GSM in the second range,
oseveral hundred milliseconds for other wireless systems
• Lower security, simpler active attacking
oradio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated
• Always shared medium
A SIMPLIFIED REFERENCE MODEL

• service location
Application • new applications, multimedia
• adaptive applications

Transport • congestion and flow control

• quality of service
Network • addressing, routing, device location
• hand-over
Datalink • authentication, media access
• multiplexing, media access control
Physical • encryption, modulation, interference
• attenuation, frequency
 Wireless Local Loop (WLL)
• Local loop is a circuit line from a subscriber’s phone to the local central office (LCO). But
the implementation of local loop of wires is risky for the operators, especially in rural and
remote areas due to less number of users and increased cost of installation. Hence, the
solution for it is the usage of wireless local loop (WLL) which uses wireless links rather than
copper wires to connect subscribers to the local central office.
• WLL Architecture:
It consists of several components, including the PSTN (Public Switched
Telephone Network), Switch Function, WANU (Wireless Access
Network Unit), and WASU (Wireless Access Subscriber Unit).
➢ The PSTN serves as a circuit-switched network, while the Switch
Function manages connections between WANUs.
➢ The WANU takes care of authentication, operation, routing, and data
transmission, whereas the WASU is installed at the subscriber’s location.
➢ With its cost-effectiveness, enhanced security through digital encryption,
scalability options, and various features like internet access, voice
services, data transfer capabilities, and fax services – WLL proves to be a
dependable solution for telecommunication requirements specifically in
remote or rural areas.
WLL components:

1.PSTN: It is Public Switched Telephone Network which is a circuit switched network. It is a

collection of world’s interconnected circuit switched telephone networks.

2.Switch Function: Switch Function switches the PSTN among various WANUs.

3.WANU: It is short for Wireless Access Network Unit. It is present at the local exchange
office. All local WASUs are connected to it. Its functions includes: Authentication, Operation &
maintenance, Routing, Trans receiving voice and data. It consists of following sub-components:
➢ Transceiver: It transmits/receives data.
➢ WLL Controller: It controls the wireless local loop component with WASU.
➢ AM: It is short form for Access Manager. It is responsible for authentication.
➢ HLR: It is short for Home Location Register. It stores the details of all local WASUs

4.WASU: It is short for Wireless Access Subscriber Units. It is present at the house of the
subscriber. It connects the subscriber to WANU and the power supply for it is provided locally.
Advantages of WLL:
1. It eliminates the first mile or last mile construction of the network
connection.
2. Low cost due to no use of conventional copper wires.
3. Much more secure due to digital encryption techniques used in wireless
communication.
4. Highly scalable as it doesn’t require the installation of more wires for
scaling it.

Features of WLL:
➢ Internet connection via modem
➢ Data service
➢ Voice service
➢ Fax service
 Cellular systems
• Implements Space Division Multiplexing - SDM
• Each transmitter, typically called a base station, covers a certain area, a cell.
• Mobile stations communicate only via the base station
• Cell sizes from some 100 m in cities to 35 km on the country side (GSM) - even less for
higher frequencies
• To reduce interference even further sectorized antennas can be used.
Frequency Planning
• Frequency reuse only with a certain distance between the base stations
• Standard model using 7 frequencies
• Fixed frequency assignment:
o certain frequencies are assigned to a certain cell
o problem: different traffic load in different cells
• Dynamic frequency assignment:
o base station chooses frequencies depending on the frequencies already used in neighbor
cells
o more capacity in cells with more traffic
o assignment can also be based on interference measurements
Individual CELL
Advantages of cell structures: Problems:
• higher capacity, higher number of • fixed network needed for the
users base stations
• less transmission power needed • handover (changing from one
• more robust, decentralized cell to another) necessary
• base station deals with • interference with other cells
interference, transmission area etc. • Frequency planning
locally
Methods to avoid interference in cell system
• Combining cells in clusters: Either three cells form a cluster
or seven cells form a cluster. All cells within a cluster use
disjointed sets of frequencies. (The transmission power of a
sender has to be limited to avoid interference with the next
cell using the same frequencies.
• Use of sectorized antennas: To reduce interference under
certain traffic conditions (i.e. number of users/km2)
sectorized antennas are used.
Combining cells in cluster

Use of sectorized
antennas in each cell
*Borrowing channel allocation (BCA)
➢ Cells with more traffic are dynamically allotted more frequencies

*Fixed channel allocation (FCA)

➢ Fixed assignment of frequencies to cell clusters and cells respectively
➢ FCA is used in the GSM system as it is much simpler to use, but it requires careful
traffic analysis before installation.

*Dynamic channel allocation (DCA)

➢ Frequencies can only be borrowed, but it is also possible to freely assign frequencies
to cells.
➢ Within dynamic assignment of frequencies to cells, the danger of interference with
cells using the same frequency exists. The borrowed frequency can be blocked in the
surrounding cells.
History of Mobile communication
The field of wireless and mobile communication has a
remarkable history that spans over a century of technology
innovations from Marconi's invention of the wireless
telegraph in 1895 to the launch of 5G networks in 2020. In
the late 1800s, wireless communications were used primarily
for point-to-point communications such as Morse code
transmissions. In the early 1900s, Guglielmo Marconi used
wireless telegraphy to send signals across the Atlantic Ocean.
Radio broadcasting was also developed during this time, and
the first commercial radio broadcasts began in the 1920s. In
the 1950s, the first cellular networks were developed and
commercialized, and the first mobile phones appeared in the
late 1970s. The first generations of cellular networks, known
as 1G networks, used analog technology and had limited
capabilities. In the 1980s, digital technologies were developed
and 2G networks were introduced, offering improved quality
and features. Subsequent generations of cellular networks,
such as 3G and 4G networks, have offered progressively
faster data speeds and more advanced features. In 2020, 5G
networks were launched, offering faster speeds and lower
latency than ever before.
The history of mobile phones is a multi-decade journey:

➢ 1940s-1970s: Early mobile communication was limited to car phones, and the concept of
handheld mobile phones started to emerge. However, the devices were large and impractical
for everyday use.

➢ 1973: Martin Cooper, an engineer at Motorola, made the first public mobile phone call
using the Motorola DynaTAC 8000X, a handheld device. This marked a significant
milestone in mobile communication.

➢ 1980s: Commercially available mobile phones became more accessible, but they were
bulky and expensive. The cellular network expanded, allowing for improved coverage and
communication.

➢ 1990s: Mobile phones became more compact, affordable, and featured digital technology.
The introduction of the GSM standard facilitated international communication and roaming.
➢ Late 1990s: The advent of text messaging (SMS) added a new dimension to
communication. Nokia emerged as a major player, dominating the market with user-
friendly devices.

➢ Early 2000s: The rollout of 2G and 3G networks facilitated faster data transfer and the rise
of mobile internet. Phones with cameras gained popularity, and flip phones became a trend.

➢ Late 2000s: The smartphone era began with the launch of devices like the iPhone (2007)
and Android-based phones. Touchscreens, app stores, and advanced functionalities
revolutionized the mobile landscape.

➢ 2010s: Smartphones became ubiquitous, with constant advancements in hardware and

software. The introduction of 4G networks further improved data speeds, enabling richer
multimedia experiences.

➢ 2020s: 5G networks began rolling out, promising even faster data speeds and lower latency.
Foldable smartphones and advancements in artificial intelligence continued to shape the
mobile industry.
WIRELESS TRANSMISSION : Frequencies, Signals, Antennas,
Signal Propagation, Multiplexing, Modulation, Spread spectrum
Frequencies for radio transmission
• Radio transmission can take place using many different frequency bands.
• Each frequency band exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages.
Band Description Frequency Range Wavelength
ELF Extremely low 3 Hz - 30 Hz 100,000 Km - 10,000 Km
frequency
SLF Super low frequency 30 Hz - 300 Hz 10,000 Km - 1,000 Km
ULF Ultra low frequency 300 Hz - 3 KHz 1,000 Km - 100 Km
VLF Very low frequency 3 KHz - 30 KHz 100 Km - 10 Km
LF Low frequency 30 KHz - 300 KHz 10 Km - 1 Km
MF Medium frequency 300 KHz - 3 MHz 1 Km - 100 meters
HF High frequency 3 MHz - 30 MHz 100 meters - 10 meters
VHF Very high frequency 30 MHz - 300 MHz 10 meters - 1 meter
UHF Ultra high frequency 300 - 3,000 MHz 1 meter - 10 cm
SHF Super high frequency 3 - 30 GHz 10 cm - 10 mm
EHF Extremely high 30 - 300 GHz 10 mm - 1 mm
frequency
THF Tremendously high 300 - 3,000 GHz 1 mm - 0.1 mm
frequency
Band Frequency Range Wavelength
HF 3 to 30 MHz 10 meter to 1 meter
VHF 30 MHz - 300 MHz 1,000cm to 100cm
UHF 300 MHz - 1 GHz 100cm to 30 cm
L band 1 to 2 GHz 30cm to 15cm
S band 2 GHz - 4 GHz 15cm to 7.5cm
C band 4 GHz - 8 GHz 7.5cm to 3.8cm
X band 8 GHz - 12 GHz 3.8cm to 2.5cm
Ku band 12 GHz - 18 GHz 2.5 to 1.7 cm
K band 18 GHz - 27 GHz 1.7 to 1.1 cm
Ka band 27 GHz - 40 GHz 1.1 to 0.75 cm
V band 40 GHz - 75 GHz 0.75 to 0.40 cm
W band 75 GHz - 100 GHz 0.40 to 0.27 cm
mm 110 to 300 GHz 0.27 to 0.10 cm
 Band Frequency Range
AM broadcasting 535 to 1605 KHz;
extended to 1705 kHz
FM broadcasting 88 to 108 MHz
Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA) 300 to 1 GHz
CDMA 450 420 to 495 MHz
700 MHz Public Safety Band 764 to 869 MHz
800 MHz Cellular / GSM 850 / CDMA 850 824 to 849 MHz; 869 to 894 MHz
GSM 900 890 to 915 MHz; 935 to 960 MHz
Global Positioning System (GPS) L1: 1575.42 MHz; L2: 1227.60 MHz
GSM 1800 1710 to 1785 MHz; 1805 to 1880 MHz
GSM 1900 / WCDMA 1900 / PCS 1900 1850 to 1910 MHz; 1930 to 1990 MHz
UMTS / Advanced Wireless Services (AWS) 1710 to 1755; 2110 to 2155 MHz
WCDMA-3G 1920 to 1980 MHz; 2110 to 2170 MHz
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) 860 to 960 MHz; 2.4 to 2.5 GHz
IEEE 802.11b/g / Industrial, Scientific and Medical 2.4 to 2.5 GHz
(ISM) / WiFi
WiMAX 2.3 GHz; 2.5 GHz; 3.5 GHz; 5.8 GHz
4.9 GHz Public Safety 4.940 to 4.990 GHz
• Frequency and wave length:λ = c/f
owhere wave length λ , speed of light c =3x108m/s, frequency f
• VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
osimple, small antenna for cars
odeterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
• SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite communication
osmall antenna, focusing
olarge bandwidth available
• Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF spectrum
osome systems planned up to EHF
olimitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
▪ weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall etc
Signals
• Signals are the physical representation of data. Users of a communication system can only
exchange data through the transmission of signals.
• Signals are function of time and location (space).
• Layer 1 of the ISO/OSI basic reference model is responsible for the conversion of data
i.e. bits into signals and vice-versa.
• signal parameters: parameters representing the value of data
• Classification of signals:
o continuous time/discrete time
o continuous values/discrete values
o analog signal = continuous time and continuous values
o digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
• signal parameters of periodic signals:
o period T,
o frequency f=1/T,
o amplitude A,
o phase shift φ
• sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier.
• it is possible to construct every periodic signal g(t) by using only sine and cosine
functions according to a fundamental equation of Fourier.
In Mobile and wireless transmission, sine waves are of special interest as it is possible
to construct every periodic signal by using only sine and cosine functions.

* parameter c determines the Direct Current (DC) component of the signal,

the coefficients an and bn are the amplitudes of the nth sine and cosine function
Different representations of signals:
1. Amplitude (amplitude domain)
2. Frequency spectrum (frequency domain)
3. Phase state diagram (amplitude in M and phase in polar coordinates)

Time Domain Frequency Domain Phase Domain

Antennas
• Antennas are passive elements which couples the energy from the
transmitter to the outside world in the form of electromagnetic
radiations. Similarly, extracts electromagnetic signals from the outside
world and convert into energy for the receiver.
• It is used for radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves,
coupling of wires to space for radio transmission
• Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional)
- only a theoretical reference antenna
• Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or
horizontally)
 Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna

Simple Dipoles (Practical Antenna)

➢ Real antennas are not isotropic radiators
▪ dipoles with lengths λ/4 on car roofs or λ/2 as Hertzian dipole
▪ shape of antenna proportional to wavelength
▪ The simplest real antenna is a thin, center-fed dipole, also called Hertzian dipole.
➢ The dipole consists of two collinear conductors of equal length, separated by a small feeding
gap.
➢ The length of the dipole is not arbitrary, example, half the wavelength λ of the signal to
transmit results in a very efficient radiation of the energy
➢ If mounted on the roof of a car, the length of λ/4 is efficient. This is also known as Marconi
antenna
Radiation pattern of a simple dipole
• A λ/2 dipole has a uniform or omni-directional radiation pattern in one plane and a figure
eight pattern in the other two planes
Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the power of an
isotropic radiator (with the same average power)

An antenna can only overcome environmental challenges by boosting the power level of the
signal. Challenges could be mountains, valleys, buildings etc. If an antenna is positioned, in a
valley or between buildings, an omnidirectional radiation pattern is not very useful.

Directional antennas
➢ In cellular system, directional antennas with certain fixed preferential transmission and
reception directions can be used.
➢ Several directed antennas can be combined on a single pole o construct a sectorized
antenna.
Radiation pattern of a directed antenna
Sectorized antenna
• Several directed antennas can be combined on a single pole
• A cell can be sectorized into, for example, three or six sectors, thus enabling frequency
reuse
Radiation patterns of sectorized antennas
Multi-element antenna arrays
➢ Two or more antennas can also be combined to improve reception by counteracting the
negative effects of multi-path propagation
➢ They allow different diversity schemes such as switched diversity or selection diversity.
➢ Switched diversity or selection diversity is a scheme where the receiver always uses the
antenna elements with the largest output.
➢ Diversity combining constitutes a combination of the power of all signals to produce
gain.
Smart Antennas
• Working Principle: On combining multiple antenna elements (also called antenna
array) with signal processing, it helps to optimize the radiation/reception pattern in
response to the signal environment.
➢ These antennas can adapt to changes in reception power, transmission conditions and
many signal propagation effects.
➢ Smart antenna arrays can also be used for beam forming.
 Signal propagation
For wireless transmission, the predicted behaviour is only valid in the vacuum i.e.
without matter between the sender and the receiver. However, real life doesn’t happen
in a vacuum, radio transmission has to contend with atmosphere, mountains,
buildings, moving senders and receivers.
Transmission Range Detection Range Interference Range
Within a certain radius of the Within a second radius, Within a third even larger
sender, transmission is detection of the transmission radius, the sender may
possible i.e. a receiver is possible i.e. the interfere with other
receives the signals with an transmitted power is large transmission by adding to
error rate low enough to be enough to differ from the background noise. A
able to communicate and can background noise. However, receiver will not be able to
also act as sender. the error rate is too high to detect the signals but the
o communication establish communication. signals may disturb other
possible o detection of the signal signal.
o low error rate possible o signal may not be Ranges for
o no communication detected transmission, detection
possible o signal adds to the and interference of
background noise signals.
 Signal Propagation Behaviours'
Radio waves can exhibit three fundamental propagation behaviours depending on their
frequency.
GROUND WAVE (< 2MHz) SKY WAVE (2-30 MHz) LINE-OF-SIGHT (> 30MHz)
Waves with low
Many international The emitted waves follow
frequencies follow the broadcasts use these short a straight line of sight. This
earth’s surface and can waves that are reflected at enables direct
propagate long distances.
the ionosphere. This way communication with
the waves can bounce back satellite or microwave link
Applications: Submarine & forth between the on the ground.
communication or AM ionosphere and the earth’s
Radio surface, travelling around Applications: Mobile
the world. phone systems, satellite
systems, cordless
Applications: Radar and telephones.
satellite communication,
television broadcasting
 Layers of
Ionosphere

Ground wave, Sky wave and Line-of-sight modes of propagation

 PROBLEMS IN WIRELESS TRANSMISSION
1. Path loss of radio signals
• If a straight line exists between a sender and a receiver it is called line-of-sight (LOS).
• Even if no matter exists between the sender and the receiver (i.e., if there is a vacuum),
the signal still experiences the free space loss.
• Propagation in free space is always like light travelling in a straight line
• Receiving power is proportional to 1/d²
(d = distance between sender and receiver, inverse square law)
2. Additional signal propagation effects
• Rx power additionally influenced by
o fading (frequency dependent)
o shadowing
o reflection at large obstacles
o scattering at small obstacles
o diffraction at edges
3. Multi-path propagation
➢ Signal can take many different paths between sender and receiver due to reflection,
scattering, diffraction. It means the signal has multi-path propagation.
➢ Due to the finite speed of light, signals travelling along different paths with different
lengths arrive at the receiver at different times. This effect (caused by multi-path
propagation) is called delay spread: the original signal is spread due to different delays of
parts of the signal.
➢ Typical values for delay spread are approximately 3 μs in cities, up to 12 μs can be
observed. GSM, for example, can tolerate up to 16 μs of delay spread, i.e., almost a 5 km
path difference
Multi-path propagation and intersymbol interference
4. Intersymbol interference (ISI)
• It is an effect , where the energy intended for one
symbol (each impulse) now spills over to the adjacent
symbol.
• Higher the symbol rate to be transmitted, the worse the
effects of ISI will be, as the original symbols are moved
closer and closer to each other.
• ISI limits the bandwidth of a radio channel with multi-
path propagation. Due to this interference, the signals of
different symbols can cancel each other out leading to
misinterpretations at the receiver and causing
transmission errors.
• Method to minimize the effect of ISI: sender may first
transmit a training sequence known by the receiver. The
receiver then compares the received signal to the
original training sequence and programs an equalizer
that compensates for the distortion
5. Fading
The time variation of received signal power due to changes in transmission medium or paths
is known as fading.
Fading depends on :
a) Atmospheric conditions such as rainfall, lightening-in fixed scenario.
b) Obstacles over the path which are varying w.r.t. time-in mobile scenario (these obstacles
create complex transmission effects to the transmitted signal.
Short-term fading (small scale fading)
• receivers, or senders, or both, move.
• channel characteristics change over time
• quick changes in the received power
Long-term fading (large scale fading)
• average power over time
• caused by, for example, varying distance to the sender or more remote obstacles
• senders can compensate for long-term fading by increasing/decreasing sending power
 Multiplexing

Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum or no
interference.

Important: guard spaces needed

Multiplexing can be done in 4 dimensions

1. space (s): Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
2. time (t): Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. frequency (f): Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
4. code (c): Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
Space Division Multiplexing
➢ Separate sender for each communication channel
with a wide enough distance between senders.
➢ The channels k1 to k3 can be mapped onto the three
‘spaces’ s1 to s3 which clearly separate the
channels and prevent the interference ranges from
overlapping.
➢ The space between the interference ranges is
sometimes called guard space.
➢ For the remaining channels (k4 to k6) three
additional spaces would be needed.
➢ FM radio stations where the transmission range is
limited to a certain region.
➢ Problems arise if two or more channels were
established within the same space.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing
➢ Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller frequency
bands
➢ A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the
whole time
➢ Advantages:
▪ no dynamic coordination necessary
▪ works also for analog signals
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ waste of bandwidth if the traffic is distributed unevenly
▪ inflexible
▪ guard spaces
 Time Division Multiplexing

➢ A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain amount of time

➢ Advantages:
▪ only one carrier in the medium at any time
▪ throughput high even for many users
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ precise synchronization necessary
Time and Frequency Multiplexing
➢ Combination of both methods
➢ A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
➢ Example: GSM
➢ Advantages:
▪ better protection against tapping
▪ protection against frequency selective interference
▪ higher data rates compared to code multiplex
➢ Limitation: precise coordination required
Code Division Multiplexing
➢ Each channel has a unique code
➢ All channels use the same spectrum at the same time
➢ Advantages:
▪ bandwidth efficient
▪ no coordination and synchronization necessary
▪ good protection against interference and tapping
➢ Disadvantages:
▪ lower user data rates
▪ more complex signal regeneration
▪ Implemented using spread spectrum technology
 Modulation
➢ Digital modulation
➢ digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK
➢ differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
➢ Analog modulation
▪ shifts centre frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier

➢ Motivation
• smaller antennas (e.g., λ/4)
• Frequency Division Multiplexing
• medium characteristics
➢ Basic schemes
• Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• Frequency Modulation (FM)
• Phase Modulation (PM)
Modulation and Demodulation
Modulation in a transmitter

Demodulation and data reconstruction in a receiver

Amplitude shift keying
➢ The two binary values, 1 and 0, are
represented by two different amplitudes
➢ very simple
➢ low bandwidth requirements
➢ very susceptible to interference
Frequency shift keying
➢ The simplest form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK)
➢ assigns one frequency f1 to the binary 1 and another
frequency f2 to the binary 0.
➢ needs larger bandwidth
➢ To avoid sudden changes in phase, special frequency
modulators with continuous phase modulation, (CPM) can be
used
➢ demodulation is by using two bandpass filters
➢ A comparator can then compare the signal levels of the filter
outputs to decide which of them is stronger
Phase shift keying
➢ uses shifts in the phase of a signal to represent data.
➢ phase shift of 180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same
happens as the 1 follows the 0).
➢ Binary PSK (BPSK).
▪ shifting the phase by 180° each time the value of data
changes
▪ receiver must synchronize in frequency and phase with the
transmitter using a phase lock loop (PLL).
Advanced frequency shift keying
➢ Minimum shift keying (MSK)
➢ MSK is basically BFSK without abrupt
phase changes
• data bits are separated into even and
odd bits,
• the duration of each bit being doubled.
• uses two frequencies: f1, the lower
frequency, and f2, the higher frequency,
with f2 = 2f1.
• if the even and the odd bit are
both 0, then the higher frequency
f2 is inverted (i.e., f2 is used with a
phase shift of 180°);
• if the even bit is 1, the odd bit 0, then
the lower frequency f1 is inverted
Gaussian MSK (GMSK)

➢ Adding a Gaussian lowpass filter to the MSK scheme

➢ digital modulation scheme for many European wireless
standards
➢ The filter reduces the large spectrum needed by MSK

Advanced phase shift keying

1. BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):

• bit value 0: sine wave
• bit value 1: inverted sine wave
• very simple PSK
• low spectral efficiency
• robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
2. Quadrature PSK (QPSK) also called Quaternary PSK

• 2 bits coded as one symbol

• symbol determines shift of sine wave
• needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK
• more complex
• higher bit rates can be achieved for the same bandwidth by coding two bits into one phase
shift
• can reduce the bandwidth and still achieve the same bit rates as for BPSK.
• The phase shift can always be relative to a reference signal (with the same frequency)
3. Differential QPSK (DQPSK)
➢ The phase shift is not relative to a reference signal but to the phase of the previous
two bits
➢ The receiver does not need the reference signal but only compares two signals to
reconstruct data.
➢ DQPSK is used in US wireless technologies IS-136 and PACS and in Japanese PHS

4. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

➢ PSK scheme could be combined with ASK
➢ Three different amplitudes and 12 angles are combined coding 4 bits per
phase/amplitude change
➢ It is possible to code n bits using one symbol
• 2n discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
• bit error rate increases with n, but less errors compared to comparable PSK schemes
• 16 quadrature amplitude modulation (4 bits = 1 symbol)
• Symbols 0011 and 0001 have the same phase, but different amplitude
• 0000 and 1000 have different phase, but same amplitude.
➢ used in standard 9600 bit/s modems
Special modulation schemes
1. Multi-carrier modulation (MCM)
➢ It has good ISI mitigation property
➢ MCM splits the high bit rate stream into many lower bit rate streams
➢ Each stream being sent using an independent carrier frequency
➢ Physical layer of HiperLAN2 and IEEE 802.11a uses 48 subcarriers for data
➢ Parallel data transmission on several subcarriers with lower rate
2. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
➢ Max of one subcarrier frequency appears exactly at a frequency where all other
subcarriers equal zero
➢ Method of implementing MCM using orthogonal carriers
➢ Based on fast Fourier transform (FFT) for modulation / demodulation

3. Coded OFDM (COFDM)

➢ Additional error-control coding across the symbols in different subcarriers is applied
Spread spectrum
Problem of radio transmission: Frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow band
signals for duration of the interference
Solution: Spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special code
protection against narrow band interference
Advantage: Resistance to narrowband interference

➢ The spread spectrum is a type of modulation where modulated signal bandwidth is

much larger than the baseband signal bandwidth i.e. spread spectrum is a wide band
scheme.
➢ A special code (pseudo noise) is used for spectrum spreading and the same code is to
be used to despread the signal at the receiver.
 Spread spectrum: spreading and dispreading
for single channel

➢ Idealized narrowband signal from a sender of user data (here power density dP/df versus
frequency f).
➢ The sender now spreads the signal i.e., converts the narrowband signal into a broadband
signal in step ii)
➢ During transmission, narrowband and broadband interference add to the signal in step
iii).
➢ The sum of interference and user signal is received in iv)
➢ The receiver applies a bandpass filter to cut off frequencies left and right of the
narrowband signal
 Spread Spectrum for Multiple Channels
➢ Narrowband interference without spread spectrum
➢ Six different channels use FDM for multiplexing
➢ Between each frequency band a guard space is needed to avoid adjacent channel interference.
➢ Depending on receiver characteristics, channels 1, 2, 5, and 6 could be received while the
quality of channels 3 and 4 is too bad to reconstruct transmitted data.
➢ Narrowband interference destroys the transmission of channels 3 and 4.

Solution:
➢ All narrowband signals are now spread into
broadband signals using the same frequency
range.
➢ To separate different channels, CDM is now
used instead of FDM
Techniques to spread the spectrum are:
1. Direct Sequence (DS) which introduces rapid phase transition to the data to make it
larger in bandwidth.
2. Frequency Hopping (FH), which makes the narrowband signal jump in random
narrow bands within a larger bandwidth.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
➢ XOR of the signal with pseudo-random number (chipping sequence)
➢ many chips per bit (e.g., 128) result in higher bandwidth of the signal
➢ Barker code
Advantages
• reduces frequency selective fading in cellular networks
• base stations can use the same frequency range
• several base stations can detect and recover the signal
• soft handover
Disadvantages
precise power control necessary
 DSSS transmitter
➢ a user signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz.
➢ Spreading with the above 11-chip Barker code
would result in a signal with 11 MHz
bandwidth. DSSS Transmitter
➢ The radio carrier then shifts this signal to the
carrier frequency (e.g., 2.4 GHz in the ISM
band).
➢ This signal is then transmitted
DSSS receiver
DSSS Receiver
➢ first step in the receiver involves demodulating the received signal
➢ an integrator adds all these products
➢ Calculating the products of chips and signal, and adding the products in an integrator is also
called correlation, the device a correlator.
➢ decision unit samples the sums by the integrator and decides if this sum represents a binary
1 or a 0
➢ A rake receiver uses n correlators for the n strongest paths
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
➢ Total available bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth plus guard spaces
➢ Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for a certain time and then hop to
another channel.
➢ Implements FDM and TDM.
➢ Pattern of channel usage is called the hopping sequence
➢ Time spend on a channel with a certain frequency is called the dwell time.
➢ Discrete changes of carrier frequency
➢ sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number sequence
➢ Two variants
• Slow : one frequency for several bit periods
• Fast: changes the frequency several times during the transmission of a single bit.
Advantages
▪ frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period
▪ simple implementation
▪ uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
Disadvantages: 1. not as robust as DSSS, 2. simpler to detect
FHSS Transmitter
➢ Modulation of user data according to one of the digital-to-analog modulation schemes, e.g.,
FSK or BPSK
➢ if FSK is used with a frequency f0 for a binary 0 and f1 for a binary
➢ frequency hopping is performed, based on a hopping sequence
➢ The hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer generating the carrier frequencies
fi
➢ A second modulation uses the modulated narrowband signal and the carrier frequency to
generate a new spread signal with frequency of fi+f0 for a 0 and fi+f1 for a 1 respectively.
FHSS receiver
➢ It has to know the hopping sequence and must stay synchronized.
➢ It then performs the inverse operations of the modulation to reconstruct user data.
➢ Several filters are also needed
Comparison:

DSSS
• always use the total bandwidth available
• more resistant to fading and multi-path effects
• much harder to detect – without knowing the spreading code, detection is virtually
impossible

FHSS
• spreading is simpler
• only use a portion of the total band at any time