MSCE

SOCIAL STUDIES

STUDY NOTES

FORMS 3 & 4

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FORM 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. WESTERN AND EASTERN CULTURES ……………………………….…………………………….…2
2. CULTURAL PRESERVATION …………..……………………………...………………………………..5
3. RIGHTS OF SPECIAL GROUPS ….…………………………………...…...……………………………..7
4. TAXATION ……………………………………………………………...….…………………………….11
5. EMPLOYMENT ……………………………………………….……………...…………………………..16
6. DEVELOPMENT ………………………………………………………….…...………………………....19
7. POPULATION CHANGE …………………………..…………………….……...……………………....25
8. PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION ………………………………….………..……….……………27
9. GENDER ISSUES IN AFRICA …………………………………………….…………………………….29
10. GOVERNMENT …………………………………………………………………..………………...…….31
11. ELECTIONS ……………………………………………………………………………………….……...33
12. PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE …………………………………………………….……………………...36
13. INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS …………………………………..……………………...……………..38
14. SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS …………………………………….…………………………………42
15. INTER-DEPENDENCE IN THE ECO-SYSTEM …………………………………………………...…...46
16. PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT ………………………………………………………………………..48
17. COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE ………...……………………………………………………….……...51
18. SECURITY …………………………………………………………………………….………………….55
19. CORRUPTION AND THE LAW ………………………………………………………..………………..56
20. SOCIAL INJUSTICE IN AFRICA ………………………………………………………..………………57
21. SOCIAL SERVICES …………………………………………………………………….………………..59
22. GENDER ISSUES IN AFRICA ………………….………………………………………...…..…………61
23. CLIMATE CHANGE ……………………………………….…………………………….………………64
24. DISASTER RISKY MANAGEMENT ……………………...…………………………………….………65
25. GLOBAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES …………………….…………………………....…..………...70
REFERENCES ……………………………….…………………………………...…………………..72

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TOPIC 1

WESTERN AND EASTERN CULTURES

Culture refers to whatever one has to know or  Individualism

believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable to Western culture promotes individual values over
members of the society. collective ideas. People are responsible for
themselves and their immediate families.
Cultural characteristics of Eastern Cultures
 Family structure: Extended families are Impact of Western cultures on Malawi and
common. In some societies in India, joint. There Africa
are ore than one married couple living in the  Changes in family structure: The missionaries
same house. disapproved polygamy. Later, due to
 Food: Herbs and spices are part of everyday urbanization, people began to practice nuclear
cooking. families.
 Marriage practice: Pre-arranged  Women in Africa have started getting paid jobs.
(bethrothed) marriages are common.  Nowadays men and women share in decision-
 Religion: Islam and Hinduism are common making.
religions here.  Introduction of Christianity as a result of several
 Legal system: Islamic law (sharia) is used in missionaries who came to Africa as early as
legal systems. 1800s.
 Dressing styles: Most women especially in  Dissolution of traditional religions: Most
Moslem communities dress in clothes that cover African societies have abandoned traditional
the whole face while men wear long-sleeved beliefs in favour of either Christianity
one piece dress.  Review of certain beliefs and practices:
 Collectivivism: Eastern culture promotes Initiation ceremonies are now under review
collective values over collective ideas. Their because they are dangerous to health.
main interest and concern is on the entire society  Copying western music and dance, western
rather than individual interests. ways of dressing, languages and food
preparation.
Cultural characteristics of Western Cultures  Copying of western dressing style
 Family structure  Copying of western languages
Nuclear and single parent families are common.  Copying of western ways of preparing food
 Food
o Common types of food are rice, bread and Western culture and religion
pasta. Meat and vegetables form the main  Christianity is the main religion in Europe.
part of their diet.  It is the largest religion in the world.
o They also like to eat in restaurants  It started among the Jews in Israel and later
o Recipe books are used for preparing meals grew in rise and influence engulfing the whole
 Hospitality and greetings Europe.
o They respect privacy  It was declared as a state religion by the Roman
o Visits are upon invitation and notification in Empire in the 4th century.
advance  Christianity is based on the life and teachings of
o If you are invited for dinner or lunch, Jesus.
everyone pays for themselves.  It shaped the western civilisation.
o Greetings are by a handshake or a kiss.
 During the Enlightenment Age, the idea of
 Arranged marriages secularism was adopted where people were
 Dressing style granted freedom of worship. This then resulted
Men wear shirts, trousers or suit Swahili women into the development of Atheism or secular
wear dresses, skirts, blouses, suits and humanism. Atheism or secular humanism is a
sometimes trouser s belief that there is no God.
 Languages
Common language is English which is Western culture and religion
widely spoken in Europe. The main religions in eastern countries are the
following:

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1. Islam Four principles of Buddhism

 It is the second largest religion in the world 1. Suffering (dukkha)
after Christianity 2. Origin of suffering (samudaya)
 It is a monotheic religion that started in 3. Cessation of suffering
Mecca, Saudi Arabia in the 7th century. 4. Path of cessation of suffering (Magga)
 It spread through conquests, trade and
preaching. Other religions in eastern countries
 Muslims believe that the word of God was 4. Sikhism:
revealed to Prophet Muhammad through the  It is a monotheistic religion founded in the
archangel Gabriel and the revelations were Punjab in India by the Guru Nanak.
collected and written in the Holy Book of  The central teaching in Sikhism is a belief in
Qur’an. the concept of the oneness of God who is
shapeless, has no gender, timeless, and
Pillars of Islam religion cannot be seen with physical eyes.
1. Shahadah: reciting the Muslim confession  Sikh teaching emphasizes on the principle of
of faith that there is no God but Allah and equality and rejects discrimination on
that Muhammad is His servant and His various social backgrounds.
messenger. 5. Shinto
2. Salat: making ritual prayers five times a It is an indigenous polytheistic belief in Japan.
day. They believe in many gods and goddesses which
3. Sakat: fasting during the month of are suited to different purposes. There is no
Ramadan. formal membership to a particular sect.
4. Hajj: making a pilgrimage to Mecca.
Impact of Eastern cultures on Malawi and Africa
2. Hinduism  Introduction of Islamic religion that spread
 It is the third largest religion in the world across many parts of Africa from Arabia during
and dominant in India. the 7th century AD through military conquests.
 It has many diverse roots, no single founder.  Introduction of Swahili language in East Africa
 It consists of many diverse traditions and a by the early Arab traders. Swahili language
wide spectrum of laws and prescriptions of gradually replaced Bantu language.
daily morality.  Copying of Eastern ways of dressing. Men wear
 Hindu is a traditional of life according to the long dresses with a cap while women cover their
Hindu adherents. face and entire body.
 Caste system is the oldest aspect of  Consumption of herbs and spices. The Arab
Hinduism (caste system divides people into traders and Indians introduced the use of spices
social classes) in their meals.
 Hindu books are classified into Srut
(revealed) and Smriti (remembered) The influence of culture on religion
 They believe in three in one gods such as Culture has a direct and indirect influence on
Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the religion. Below are some points on how culture
preserver) and Shiva (the destroyer) influences religion;
 Sionist independent churches or spirit
3. Buddhism churches put emphasis on spiritual and physical
 It is a non - theistic religion which is based healing through the intervention of a Holy Spirit
on a variety of traditions, beliefs and which reflects the influence of African
practices. Traditional Religion.
 Non - theistic means believing in many  Sionist worship is characterised by singing,
gods, not only in one God. dancing to drums and other musical instruments,
 The two main branches of Buddhism are possession of Holly Spirit and healing of
Theravada (the school of elders) and sicknesses.
Mahayana (the great vehicle)  Drums and other African musical
 The reigion is based on the teachings of instruments are used by choirs in different
Siddhartha Gautama who is also called Christian churches.
Buddha, meaning the awakened.

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TOPIC 2

CULTURAL PRESERVATION

Preserving culture Constraints (problems) faced by countries in

Cultural preservation is when deliberate steps are preserving culture
taken to keep aspects of people's culture alive.  Modernisation: Education, gender equality,
formal employment and urbanization have made
Strategies for preserving culture people's way of life to change so that it is in line
 Use of policy and legislation: the government with present needs.
enact and adopt policy and laws that help in  Changing views between generations: In the
limiting and preventing infiltration of harmful modern world, young people frequently
imported cultural products into the country, e.g. challenge their parents unlike in the past when
regulating cultural programmes on radio and TV. there was the 'generation gap.'
 Using books to document cultural heritage:  The effect of the media: The media portrays
Story-telling is common in Africa whereas i ideas which are alien to cultures of most
developed countries such stories are found in societies.
books.  The need for change: Culture changes all the
 Promoting cultural festivals to enhance cultural time but the difficult task is for the society to
belongingness. value the culture of the past and to incorporate
 Promoting cultural events: There are drama that into the values of modern society.
groups that perform traditional dances and plays  Lack of resources: Human resources which
showing cultures of various ethnic groups. refer to well-qualified people to preserve culture
 Building cultural infrastructures such as in places like museums are needed. On the other
museums: Objects and information about the past hand, financial resources are also needed to tour,
are put on displays in museums. broadcast and publish culture.
 Keeping languages alive: In Tanzania, the
second official language is Kiswahili. Ways in which culture can contribute to
 Using the curriculum i.e. through literature e.g. development
Onani Angoni, Kukula ndi Mwambo.  It enhances unity by fostering common cultural
 Sensitising people on the importance of culture identity for people.
 Creation of employment opportunities
Importance of preserving culture  It boosts tourism industry which contributes to
 It gives people their identity which generates economic development of a country.
cultural pride  Culture can be used as a means for
 It promotes understanding and respect for other communication for sustainable development,
people's aspects of culture. e.g. music and dance are vital for transmitting
 It helps in passing on of some cultural aspects to useful messages for behavioural change.
the future generation.
 It makes a nation to be successful since people Cultural practices which hinder development
have a sense of pride in their heritage.  Initiation ceremonies can present development
 It creates employment opportunities. E.g. many problems as children are withdrawn from
people are employed in museums. school.
 It ensures sustainability of culture that benefits  Children are made to think that initiation
present and future generations. ceremonies are more important than education.
 Early marriages bring girls' education to an end.
 The practice of kusasa fumbi which is directed
by initiators spreads sexually-transmitted
diseases but also exposes young girls to sex.

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TOPIC 3

RIGHTS OF SPECIAL GROUPS

Rights of special groups  Domestic violence: This often takes the

Special groups are defined as people whose form of beating and sexual abuse.
condition, biological or social status make them  Forced early marriages: This is common in
vulnerable to discrimination and other forms of rural areas where parents decide when and
human rights violation. Such people demand for to whom they should marry.
special treatment.  Inability to acquire and retain property:
They may be unable to inherit property
Examples of special groups either from their parents or deceased
 Women and girls husbands.
 Children  Sexual harassment in work places and
 Prisoners/detainees school: It mainly comes from bosses with
 People with disabilities threats of dismissal. At school, it can be in
 Refugees and the stateless form of rape from teachers or fellow
 Migrant workers students and sometimes community
 People living with HIV and AIDS members to and from school.

1. Women and girls 2. The rights of rights of children

These have for a long time been subjected to They have the right to:
several biases based on social construct of  Equal treatment before the law.
their roles or status.  Be given a family name and nationality.
 Know and be raised by parents.
International conventions on women and girls  Be protected from economic exploitation or
A. The Convention on the Political Rights of punishment which is likely to be hazardous
Women to their physical, mental or social
 It was originally agreed at the United development.
Nations in 1953 but Malawi signed it in Common violations of rights of children
1966.  Child labour.
 It focuses on the rights of women to vote, to  Child trafficking.
be eligible for education and to hold public  Forced prostitution.
offices.  Failure to meet their health needs
 Regarding them useless.
B. The Convention on the Elimination of all  Denying them education and employment
Forms of Discrimination Against Women opportunities.
(CEDAW)
It was originally agreed at the UN in New York 3. Rights of people with disabilities
in 1981 and Malawi endorsed it in 1987. Special  Right to live independently and be included in
clauses include the right to: the community
 Acquire and maintain property and retain  Right to personal mobility and rehabilitation
custody of children.  Right to participate in political and public life
 Fair disposition of property after marriage  Right to enjoy social protection
dissolution.  Right to education
 Be protected from sexual abuse, harassment
and violence. 4. Rights of people with mental disorders
 Be free from discrimination in work places.  Right to vote (unless considered
incompetent under certain circumstances)
Common violations of women's and girls'  Right to equality and non-discrimination
rights  Right to dignity and respect
 Lack of education: Cultures of most  Right to own property
societies see boys as being more important  Right to privacy
than girls.

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 Freedom of movement and choice of  Right not to be isolated or discriminated

residence because of their positive status

5. Rights of Minorities
These are people who belong to a group that is 9. Rights of Stateless People
smaller than the main group in the area or These are people who leave their homes,
country. They may be members of an ethnic property and families to find safety in a
group or religion. neighbouring country. Some people make
decisions to leave their homes for better life.
Their rights are
 Right to be protected from all forms of They have right:
discrimination  Not to be forcibly returned to their home
 Right to equal opportunities in education and country.
employment  To work.
 Right to adequate standards of living  To education.
 Right to maintain their own cultural practices  To public relief and assistance.
and be recognised.  To have free access to courts.
 Right to speak their language and preserve it.  To be issued with identity and travel
 Right to be protected from persecution documents.

Common violations of rights of minorities Common violations of rights of stateless

They may be forced to adapt other people's people
languages and cultures.  Failure by the host country to provide
resources.
6. Rights of Prisoners  Overcrowding in refugee camps.
 Right to adequate amount of food.  Widespread diseases.
 Right not to be physically abused.  They are often blamed for crime and
 Right to privacy. unemployment.
 Right to fair trial.
Importance of protecting the rights of special
Common violations of rights of prisoners groups
 Being kept in dirty and overcrowded  It ensures equal access to humanitarian
conditions. assistance during conflicts or natural disasters
 Drug abuse.  It helps in building more stable and inclusive
 Frequent beating, rape. societies politically and socially
 Promotes participation of disadvantaged groups
7. Rights of the elderly in decision making process.
 Right to live in dignity and have security  It helps special groups to have a share of
 Right to be protected from exploitation, development
physical and mental abuse.  It helps to protect vulnerable groups from
 Right to have access to adequate food, discrimination
water, shelter, clothing and health care.  It ensures universal enjoyment of human rights
by all regardless of their physical, biological and
8. Rights of people living with HIV and AIDS social differences.
 Right to make decisions on reproduction
 Right not to be subjected to medical without Cases of violations of the rights of special groups
informed consent a. Genocide or holocaust
 Right to be protected from discrimination on Genocide is the planned killing of a large
the basis of their HIV positive status. number of people at once for nothing wrong
 Right to medical care and treatment from they have done. For example, during the World
health care providers War II in 1939 – 1945 6 million Jews were
 Right to equal access to education killed by the Nazis Party which was led by
 Right to protection and equality before the Adolf Hitler.
law

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b. Torture of prisoners f. Mutilation of female genital organs (female

Prisoners are exposed to terrible and inhuman circumcision)
conditions without food, water and they were This is done in African, South America and
overcrowded. Asia.
c. Slave trade (slavery)
This is the buying, selling and owning of Ways of promoting social justice and fairness to
people. special groups
d. Discrimination  Using laws to protect the special groups
Discrimination was based on race, ethnicity  Encouraging people to report cases of human
religion and political affiliations. rights violations for special groups
e. Abuse of children (child labour)  Increasing public education campaigns on the
There was exploitation of children by being plight of special groups through radio
overworked in industries and mines. Some programmes
were recruited as soldiers.  Radio programmes to create awareness.
 Using dramma performances.
 Using nnewspaper articles for sensitization.
 Speaking against violations of rights of special
groups during the ppolitical rallies.

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TOPIC 4

TAXATION

Institutions responsible for taxes in Malawi  Collecting and analysing economic data
from the financial institutions and other
1. Malawi Revenue Authority sectors for research.
It was established in 1998 by the Act of
Parliament. 3. Ministry of Finance
It is mandated to formulate economic and
MRA is responsible for: fiscal policies and manage financial and
 Assessment, collection and receipt of material resources of Malawi Government in
specified revenue. order to realise balanced and sustainable
 Promotion of voluntary compliance to the economic growth and reduce poverty.
highest degree possible.
 Improvement of the standard of service given Organisational structure of Ministry of
to taxpayers with a view to improving Finance
efficiency and effectiveness and maximizing a. The Treasury and Accountant General’s
revenue. Department which work with the following
 Counteracting fraud and other forms of fiscal departments:
evasion.  Reserve Bank of Malawi
 Advising the Minister of Finance on matters  Malawi Revenue Authority
of revenue policy and administration and  Financial Intelligence Unit
collection of revenue.  Local Development Fund (LDF)
 Subject to the stated tax laws, performing any
other duties related to revenue as the Minister b. Secretary to the Treasury and The Principle
of Finance may direct. Secretary who head the whole Ministry’s
Headquarters. These are the Directors of
2. Reserve Bank of Malawi various departments within the Ministry
It was established in 1964 by the Act of which include the following.
Parliament.  Budget Division
 Economic Affairs Division
The following are the roles and  Debt and Aid Management Division
responsibilities of Reserve Bank of Malawi:  Revenue Policy Division
 Formulating monetary policies and  Pensions Division
maintaining price stability in the economy
 Administrative Division
to minimise inflation.
 Human Resource Management and
 To issue tender currency in Malawi.
Development Division
 Preserving the value of Kwacha both
externally and internally. Roles and responsibilities of Ministry of Financ
 Maintaining government’s accounts and To prepare revenue and expenditure estimates for
managing government’s debt. every financial year.
 Acting as a banker to other banks.  To monitor all revenues and expenditures in
 Acting as a leader in last resort for government drafting revenue policies
financial institutions by lending money to  Mobilising financial and other resources for
commercial banks. development
 Establishing money and capital markets by  Initialising debate on proposed changes to tax
regulating business involved in exchange laws
of foreign currency.  Presenting to cabinet 4for approval proposed
 Supervising commercial banks and other tax changes
financial institutions to ensure their
stability
1. National Assembly (Parliament)
 To promote development and economic Parliament makes laws and passes national
growth by influencing money supply and budget.
availability.

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Roles and responsibilities of National Roles of different institutions in formulating

Assembly (Parliament) and changing taxes
 To make and repeal laws 1. MRA
 To receive, amend, accept or reject Submits tax proposals to the Ministry of
government bills and private bills Finance for consideration
 Debate and vote on motions in relation to any 2. Malawi Confederation of Chambers of
matter including impeachment of the Commerce and Industry (MCCI)
president or vice president. Proposes changes to different taxes by
making written submissions to the ministry
2. Ministry of Justice and Constitutional of finance for consideration
Affairs 3. Ministry of Finance
It has the following departments: Drafts the proposed changes and presents the
1. The Minister’s Office same to cabinet for discussions and approval.
2. Attorney General Chambers which has these 4. Ministry of Justice
branches: Drafts bills to be presented to parliament for
 Drafting and Civil Litigation Section debate and adoption into law
 Directorate of Public Prosecutions 5. National Assembly
Debates and adopt or reject proposed laws
 Department of Legal Aid
 Department of Administrator General
The roles of citizens in formulating and
 Department of Registrar General changing taxes
 Administration and Support Services To attend consultative meetings that conducted to
get views from various stakeholders on tax
Roles and responsibilities of Ministry of Justice proposals
 Drafting legislation and vetting contracts,
agreements and other legal instruments on Methods of paying taxes in Malawi
behalf of government a. Income/corporate tax
 Ensuring proper prosecution of persons It is levy imposed on individuals or
accused of crime businesses on the basis of the profits they
 Providing sound legal advice to all make.
ministries and departments of the b. Property tax: it is paid by anyone who owns
government property like land.
 Conducting civil litigation on behalf of c. Pay As You Earn (PAYE)
government It is applicable to individuals who earn their
 Providing legal aid to deserving members of income from employment and it is deducted
the public who cannot afford the costs of and remitted to MRA by employers.
private legal representation
 Providing efficient administration of Advantages of PAYE
deceased estates 1. To tax payers
 It very convenient to pay
Stages followed in formulating and changing  Easy and cost effective way of paying
taxes taxes
1. Development of an idea by the stakeholders
2. Debate by the interest groups 2. To Authorities
3. Discussion by the cabinet  It provides constant flow of revenue
4. Drafting of a bill by the Minister of Justice in  Easy and cost effective way of collecting
readiness for presentation in Parliament taxes
5. Debate and adoption by parliament  It prevents and checks tax evasions
6. Presidential assent
7. Law gazetted Registration for PAYE
8. Implementation by MRA Any employee paid a certain amount of money is
liable to apply for registration which is
determined by the following types of income:

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 Gross income registering for VAT can apply to

It includes total salary plus other benefits Commissioner General although their
(commissions, house allowances, leave grant turnover is below the threshold.
without tax deductions. d. Provisional tax: it is an advance tax
 Assessable income estimated at the beginning of a year of
It includes from gross income any amounts assessment and payable by every business
that are exempted from tax, salaries and other person. A tax payer determines the
payments of president and his/her vice. provisional tax payable during the year of
 Taxable income assessment by estimating his/her tax
It is the income to which tax is applied after reliability. It is payable in four installments
deducting allowable deductions, if any, from and it is upon the tax payer to decide on how
the assessable income. Some of the allowable much to pay at each date.
deductions are: e. Assessment tax: it is tax paid by limited
a. Professional subscription companies, traders and business partners and
b. Individual donations it is determined by tax assessment on
d. Value added tax (VAT) or Surtax: it is persons in business to show the balance of
calculated on goods and services for their tax payable.
value addition. VAT is an indirect tax charged f. Withholding tax: it is an advance tax which
on consumption of goods and services in the is deducted from any payment on persons
country’s economy. It applies to both who cannot be traced after payment is done.
domestic and imported goods and services. It It applies to royalties, rents, payments to
is an indirect tax. traders and institutions for supplies under
e. Payroll tax: it is charged on salaries and tender or any contract, commissions,
wages of employees. It is taken out before payment for carriage and haulage, payment
income is distributed to the individuals in to contractors and sub – contractors in the
exchange for work was done. building and other products, payments by
f. Custom duty public entertainments, bank interests, fees
It is paid on the value of imported or exported and payment for casual labour or services.
goods at immigration point. g. Non – resident tax: it is charged on non –
a. Capital gains tax: it is charged on the profit citizens of Malawi on any cash generating or
realized on a sale of a non – inventory asset any income arising from source within the
purchased at a lower price suck as stocks, country.
bonds and real estate. h. Business profit tax: it collected from the
b. Estate duty: it is calculated on the deceased profits that businesses make in Malawi and
estates. It is calculated on the amount of when the business makes a loss, a tax is
wealth at the time of death. carried forward and then claimed later on.
c. Fringe benefits tax: it is charged on fringe i. Customs duty: it is charged on the value of
benefits of an employee such as soft loans. imports and exports, more especially at an
For example, when an employee gets a soft immigration point.
loan from their company at an interest lower j. Excise duty: it is charged on selected goods
than a commercial rate, the resulting interest in order to regulate or limit their entry into
difference is considered to be a saving and the country such as beer and cigarettes.
therefore a fringe benefit and is taxable at k. Turn - over tax: it is charged on the gross
the lowest rate ruling on the formal market income of small businesses.
for loans. Other fringe benefits are: l. Anti -dumping Duty: this is protectionist
 Utilities that the government imposes on foreign
 Household items imports that it believes are priced below fair
 Domestic services market value.

Types of VAT registration Non – tax revenue

a. Compulsory registration: any business that These are other sources of government’s revenue
makes taxable products and its turnover other than taxes. They include:
exceeds the VAT threshold per annum is  Foreign grants
required by law to register for VAT.  Loans obtained from lending institutions and
b. Voluntary registration: any business person other governments
who feels the business would suffer for not  Revenue from state owned enterprises

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 Interest or profit from funds invested by the Examples of levies

state  Road levy for construction and maintenance
 Revenue from sales of state assets of roads
 Rents , concessions and royalties collected  Malawi Bureau of Standards Levy that
from private corporations for resource supports the operations of MBTS.
extraction or utilisation contracts  Rural Electrification Levy for
 Receipts from court fines and penalties paid installation and extension of
for breaking regulations electricity into the rural areas.
 Fees for issuance of licences or permits, such  Malawi Energy Regulatory Authority
as passports, driving licences, vehicle Levy to support the operations of MRA.
registrations, mining licences, work  Safety Net Levy that goes to thencentral
permits and broadcasting licences. government.
 Revenue collected from payment for the  Price Stabilization Fund Levy used to lower
use of public services and facilities. the prices of important goods and services so
 Levies: they are charges imposed to raise that people can easily afford them.
money for specific activities. Levies are
imposed on fuel are:

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TOPIC 5

EMPLOYMENT

Meaning of the term pension It is also described as a method in which an

Pension means income for retirement. It is employee transfers part of his or her income
payment that one receives upon the retirement. streams towards retirement income.

Types of Pension Schemes Types of Pension Plan

1. State Pension a. Defined Contribution Plan (DC)
It refers to a regular payment by the state to It is where a retiree receives a retirement and it
people over a certain age to enable the is contributed by both an employer and
subsistence without having to work. employee.
2. Work Place Pension or Retirement Plan b. Defined Benefit Plan (DB)
It is regular payment made by an employer to a It is a plan in which an employer provides
former employee after retirement. employees a specific retirement based on
3. Personal Pension Scheme salary, age and years of service.
It refers to a regular payment to a retired person c. Hybrid Pension Scheme (HP)
as a result of his or her contribution to a In this plan, the scheme investment and other
personal pension scheme. risks are shared between the employer and
employees.

Differences between Defined Benefit and Defined Contribution Pension Schemes

Defined benefit scheme Defined contribution scheme

 Retirement benefits are based on a formula that  Retirement pension is unknown. Accumulated
takes a period of service and salary history into employees and employer contributions plus investment
account. income is used to purchase pension
 Employee contribution rate is fixed while  Both employer and employee contributions are fixed.
employer contribution rate is variable.  An employee carries investment risk
 An employer carries investment risk  The employee is responsible for investing the
 The employer is responsible for investing the contribution
contribution  Withdraw benefits are attractive
 Withdraw benefits are not attractive

Other differences between Defined Benefit and rewards workers for working additional years
Defined Contribution Pension Schemes beyond their normal their retirement age.
1. Employee attracted and most benefited 4. Plan termination benefits
In defined benefits, benefits are usually paid in In defined benefit, termination benefits are
the form of life annuities and include survivor usually small for employees with less
and disability benefits; while defined job tenure and are costly if plan is under-
contribution attracts and benefits shorter tenure funded; while in defined contribution, benefits
and/or younger employees. are equal to account balances and when vested
2. Job tenure patterns encouraged basing on both salary and years of plan
Defined benefits encourage long term career participation, defined contribution is never
and stable work force as employees receive under-funded.
greatest accruals at the n of service while in 5. Opportunities given to participants
defined contribution workers receive benefits In defined benefit, no pre-retirement access to
based on salary, not tenure; it encourages accounts is usually provided while in defined
employees to change jobs. contribution; pre-retirement access to accounts
3. Influence on retirement patterns is often provided.
Defined benefits encourages early retirement, 6. Benefit provided at retirement
penalises workers for working additional years In defined benefits, benefits are usually paid in
beyond their normal retirement age. Defined form of life annuities and include survivor and
contribution encourages early retirement but disability benefits while in defined
contribution, benefits are usually paid in form
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lump-sum distribution, with which the 2. When a member has retired on basis of years of
employee may spend as they please. service which is 20 years working for the same
employer
Necessary procedures in defined contribution 3. When a member is totally and permanently
schemes disabled or has a terminal illness.
 Either an individual or employee and the 4. When a member has left or is about to leave
employer make contribution based on the Malawi permanently
percentage of annual salary. 5. When a member has died
 Each participant has a separate or individual 6. Where a member has permanently left the
account to which the contributions are service of the employer
directed.
 While a member is working, the fund is Key provision in the Pension Act
invested in stocks and shares, along with other  An employee must be on a pension scheme
investments with the aim of growing it over  Contributory pension approach
the years before retirement.  Minimum contribution rates of 10% of
 When the employee retires, they can take some employer and employee.
of the pension as a cash lump sum and then  Employer and employee can agree to adjust
convert the rest into a retirement income contributions upward.
known as annuity.  Employer to provide life insurance cover

Importance of pension income Rights of Pension Beneficiaries

 It serves as a financial stability and security  Right to request information about the fund
after retirement.  Right to nominate beneficiaries for his or her
 It provides protection and lump sums to death benefits
dependents in event of death of a member of a  Right to receive a pension upon retirement
scheme.  Right to have a valid copy of rules of the fund
 It forms a source of government revenue since which sets out the right of the members
contributions to a pension plan are taxable.  Right to communicate on annual member
 It provides employee with opportunity to statement
participate in large investments
 It helps one to live a comfortable life and not Responsibilities of Pension Beneficiaries
worry about financial problems after  To pay contributions whether the minimum
retirement. pensions of 5% of that agreed with the
employer
Conditions for accessing/releasing of pension  To understand and monitor pension plan
benefits  To provide the scheme with accurate personal
1. Members reaches a retirement age of 50 details

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TOPIC 6

DEVELOPMENT

Development  It enhances the material well-being of people to

It refers to the process of enlarging people's choices generate greater individual and national self-
on things that concern their daily lives. esteem.
 It helps to end poverty.
Or development refers to the sustained elevation of  It helps to create jobs.
entire society and social system towards a better and  It provides necessary condition for the
more human life. improvement of quality of life

Importance of development Aspects or dimensions of development

 It increases the availability and widens the a. Political development
distribution of basic life - sustaining goods and b. Social development
services. c. Economic development
 It improves the living standards of people d. Technological development
through higher income, creation of employment
and better services.

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT

This is an improvement in the way a country is 5. Transparency and accountability:

governed. Elected leaders have to make decisions
Or it refers to the improvement in institutions, according to wishes of the people.
altitudes and values that form the political power 6. Control of abuse of power:
system of a country. It is about how power and This mostly takes the form of corruption and has
authority are acquired and exercised to benefit the to be controlled as much as possible
rest of the country. 7. Respect and protection of human rights
All freedoms have to be controlled and
Indicators of political development respected.
1. Effective political institutions. 8. The rule of law
Under this In politically developed countries, no one is
 Laws of the country have to be made by above the law.
relevant authorities i.e. Members of 9. Multiparty system
parliament. 10. This allows the opposition to check the activities
 When choosing leaders, the process has to of the ruling party and bring it to task if abuses
be open and fair, are noted.
 Parliament has to meet frequently and terms
of the constitution have to be kept. Effects of political development on citizens
2. Political awareness:  It increases people’s awareness in political
Everyone involved in the political process affairs that affect them.
should be aware of their rights and  It helps people to know their rights and respect
responsibilities. other people’s rights including the rights of the
3. Tolerance of other people's views: minorities.
Those in power have to show accept criticisms  It increases participation in development work.
and show flexibility to change policies if they  It increases participation in elections
are strongly opposed.  It increases people's involvement in elections
4. Availability to choose own leaders: hence giving legitimate (acceptable) power to
The elected officials should be chosen and those who win to become leaders.
peacefully removed in a free and fair manner.

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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

This refers to the general improvement in the which is calculated as a percentage out of 100
people’s well-being in the society. people.
f. Presence of infrastructure, e.g. Roads and
Indicators of social development bridges
a. Low infant mortality rate. Mortality rate refers g. Access to safe drinking water
to the number of children who die before h. Access to sanitation facilities such as sewage
reaching the age of one which is calculated as a system, toilets etc.
percentage out of 100 people.
b. High life expectancy. This is the number of The impact of social development initiatives on
years that a person expects to live. Most people the lives of people
in developing countries have low life expectancy  Raising the standards of living e.g. Under-five
due to poverty. clinics.
c. Increased adult literacy ratio. Adult literacy rate  If citizens participate in social services, it builds
is the number of adult persons who are able to confidence and a sense of empowerment.
read and write.  It relieves pressure on social services.
d. High school enrolments  It develops important skills and abilities e.g.
e. Low maternal mortality rate. Maternal mortality Leadership, negotiation and decision-making.
rate refers to the number of pregnant women
who die before, during and after giving birth

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

This refers to the expansion of the country's wealth NB: These have to be backed by maintenance,
noted by increased sums of money acquired by shipping companies, dockers (who load and unload
businesses and individuals. ships), haulage companies (which own ships).

Indicators of economic development Differences between economic growth and

 Increase in Gross National Product (GDP) economic development
and Gross Domestic Product (GDP). GDP Economic growth Economic
refers to the value of goods and services development
produced by the citizens of a country from the Bring quantitative Bring both qualitative
means of production located within the country changes in a country and quantitative
changes in a country
and abroad over a period of time.
On the other hand, GNP refers to value of goods It is concerned with It is concerned with
and services produced in the country by both increase in the income distribution,
nationals and foreigners over a period of time. economy’s output, i.e. reduced inequality,
High GDP and GNP show economic progress. high GDP improved quality of
 Increase in GDP/GNP per capita life, more social and
This refers to the average income of citizens economic choices etc.
from the national wealth calculated by dividing
the total GDP of a country by the total It does not take into It is concerned with
account the depletion sustainability, which
population.
of natural resources means meeting the
 Improvement in the living standards of all which might lead to needs of the present
people. pollution, congestion without compromising
 Availability of good infrastructure and diseases. the future needs.
 Good transport systems
 Good communication system Factors that contribute to economic growth
 High human development index (HDI). HDI a. Increase in natural resources, labour and capital.
is a statistical measure used to gauge the b. Increase in efficiency with which the resources
country’s level of human development. are used through advance in technology,
improved labour skills and improved
organization.
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Factors that contribute to economic development c. Competition: Other countries may make the
1. Availability of resources: same goods at higher quality but lower price.
 The country should have fertile soil and d. Payment of debts: Loans that are granted by
good rainfall. financial institutions have tough conditions
 It should be on the coast to benefit from e. Attached to them which may damage the
international trade. economy of the country. Climate: Export of
 It should have lakes and rivers which agricultural products can be adversely affected
provide transport, tourist attraction, fishing by drought or heavy rainfall.
and generation of hydro-electric power. f. Promotion of small, medium and large scale
 It should have forests to provide timber. businesses.
 It should have minerals. g. Good economic policies such as:
 Privatisation: This involves government
2. Good management of resources: This handing over control of the enterprises that
ensures that the resources are sustainable they own or partly own by selling shares to
(long lasting). private investors.
3. Presence of different economic sectors  Import substitution
Agriculture, forestry and fishing are important in  Market liberalization or free market which is
Africa while in developed countries, a removal of state control of the market
manufacturing is more important.  Free trade: the removal of barriers to trade,
4. Taxation such as taxes.
This can be direct e.g. Income tax or indirect
e.g. Value added tax (added to prices of Advantages of privatisation
services), surtax (added to manufactured a. They are run to make a profit so they do not
commodities when being sold). The government need government subsidy.
also charges taxes on imports (custom duty). b. There is more competition among privately-
5. Stability and cooperation: If there is no stability owned companies leading to reduction in prices.
(peace), money for development would be c. Sale of government enterprises brings revenue
spent on weapons and repairing of damaged which can be used for constructing social
infrastructure. service institutions.
6. Urbanisation and industrialization: Goods
produced in the manufacturing industries Disadvantages privatisation
generate employment and income. a. Some privately-owned enterprises are so
7. Entrepreneurship: inefficient that they force government to
Businesses may be useful since some people get subsidise them.
employed. b. It becomes difficult for government to control
many parastatals.
Outside factors
a. Prices of agricultural products: Most African NB: Liberalisation: This means opening up of
countries depend on the money that they receive economies to market forces of supply and demand.
from export of agricultural goods e.g. Tobacco.
b. Prices of essential imports such as petrol: If its Free-trade: This about removing barriers to free
price rises, goods and services become flow of goods e.g. reducing import or export
expensive thereby lowering the economy.

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

This is where people use scientific knowledge to 2. Industry: Manufacturing industries have heavy
make things that are useful in everyday life. machinery which produce goods on a large
scale,
Technology in the major economic sectors 3. Transport: The invention of cars for personal
1. Agriculture: In most parts of the world, use and businesses has made journeys easier
agriculture has been mechanized e.g. Use of and quicker. The invention of the aeroplane
tractors. There is also biotechnology where has also great impact on businesses as it is able
disease-resistant seeds have been developed, to carry bulky (heavy) goods,
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4. Communication: The most important are e. Use of domestic appliances in homes.

radios, televisions and computers.
Examples are Japan, Taiwan, countries in North
Factors that contribute to technological America, South Africa, India, Australia and Europe.
development
a. Technological needs of businesses i.e. Banks Positive impact of technological development on
may introduce a facility to attract more the lives of people
customers e.g. Auto teller machines (ATMs).  Improvement in transport has made travelling
b. Political will: Government must encourage easier and faster.
people to come up with new ideas which will  Improved communication through phones, e-
promote rapid diffusion, adoption and efficient mail, fax enable people to keep in touch.
use of new technologies.  Television and radio bring information and
c. Raising awareness: Leaders and the general entertainment to people.
public must be educated about and convinced of  Domestic appliances make it easier for people to
the importance of technological innovations. look after their homes.
d. Strengthening global linkages: Foreign travel  Electronic commerce (e-commerce) can help
and other contacts have to be enhanced so that businesses expand.
people have more access to technology.  Computer technology has great potential for
e. Developing physical and local technology improving education.
support infrastructure i.e. Networks and  Technology has brought great changes in health
institutions the can tap information about
care.
technology e.g. Access to computers.
f. Quality of vocational/technical training: If the
Negative impact
quality is high, it will enable students to acquire
 Television and internet expose people to
knowledge on how to use technological
different cultures; some of which have some bad
development.
effect;
g. Investing in human resource: Schools and work
 It is difficult for other companies to compete
places need to intensify training on the use of
against those that have huge technological
technological developments.
h. Matching solutions to local problems: power.
Technology has to be appropriate to local  New and more deadly weapons have been
conditions to which it is being applied. developed e.g. Nuclear weapons.
 Some technologies damage the environment e.g.
Countries that are technologically advanced burning fossils.
They have:  Technology can contribute to unemployment
a. Infrastructure based on technological e.g. Robots.
inventions.  Introduction of inappropriate technologies e.g.
b. Well- organised transport system. Machines that people fail to operate.
c. Good water and energy supplies.
d. A wide range of industries.

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TOPIC 7

POPULATION CHANGE

Population change means increase or decrease in the 6. Natural disasters: floods, earthquakes, volcanic
number of people over a given period of time. eruptions and storms kill many people.
7. Religious beliefs, traditions and cultural
Characteristics of population change norms tend to increase population.
1. Excess birth rate over death or natural 8. Educational and employment opportunities:
increase educated and industrially active women have
2. Positive population change: it is when both fewer children than those who drop out of
birth and immigration minus death increase school at a tender age and stay idle in their
population size. communities.
3. Zero population growth: this occurs when 9. Unemployment: availability of employment
death and birth rates are almost equal. There is opportunities attracts many people in the area.
no increase in population size. On the other hand, unemployment depopulates
the region.
Factors that contribute to population change
1. Migration Effects of population growth
This refers to the movement of people from one  Pressure on individual households.
area to another. Migration is categorized into  Pressure on land.
immigration and emigration. Emigration  Pressure on social services.
depopulates the area. Higher birth rate increases  Increasing rapid urbanization beyond health
the population of the area. development limit.
2. Death rate: it refers to number of deaths per  It leads to high crime rates
1000 who die in a particular area during a  Pressure on food supplies.
particular period of time. High death rate  Pressure on the environment.
depopulates the region.
 It leads to high levels of unemployment
 Infant mortality rate: The number of
children who do not live until the age of
Positive effects of population decline
one.
 Less pressure on resources
 Maternal mortality: Deaths of pregnant
 It lowers crime rate
women mostly during delivery. This may
 It ensures availability of employment
be due to the fact that:
 The woman is young. opportunities
 She already had several children.  It reduces pressure on social services
 She had complications in the previous  Lower crime rate
pregnancies.  It leads to improvement of standards of living.
3. Value of children: traditional socieites tend to
have many children to assist their parents with Negative effects of population decline
various tasks.  Decreased demand for housing
4. Age at marriage  Businesses lose customers
Women who get married at while young tend to  Low tax base which results in low revenue
have more children than those who get married collection by government
above the age of 25.  Difficult to care for large elderly population
5. Epidemic: it reduces population of the area  Absence of young and innovative population

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TOPIC 8

PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION

Prejudice Prejudice and discrimination may be caused by

It is a preconceived belief or opinion that is either people’s suspicious reaction to anyone whose
positive or negative about someone that leads to appearance, culture or behaviour is unfamiliar
discrimination.  Fear of competition
Prejudice and discrimination may also be caused
It is also defined as a negative prejudgment or when people decide to exclude others such as
assumption made about an individual or a group of foreigners from securing jobs, doing businesses
people without having adequate knowledge to do so. and other opportunities in order to reduce or
remove competition
Discrimination  Selfishness
It refers to selective treatment of people based on Dominant social groups may discriminate
their colour, religion, ethnicity or age. against other groups in order to enjoy concrete
gains or economic control
Relationship between prejudice and  Conformity to the norms of a group
discrimination Some people practice discrimination due to feat
1. Unprejudiced and non-discriminatory that, member of their group will punish them for
This is a situation in which a person is not the accepting the outside group of people
prejudice and is also not discriminatory  Influence of the media
2. Unprejudiced and discriminatory This can promote prejudice and discrimination
This is a situation in which one is not prejudice by disseminating negative or bad messages
but still discriminates against certain individuals about certain groups of people
and groups. For example, some white shop  Ethnocentrism
owners during apartheid in South Africa did not This is a tendency by individuals to view groups
like an idea of discriminating against the black outside their own as different.
customers but they did so to avoid losing their  Desire to perpetuate political control
white customers Some people particularly the ruling class, may
3. Prejudiced and non-discriminatory use discrimination in order to prolong their stay
This is a situation in which a person is clearly in power using divide and rule
prejudiced but not discriminated against anyone.
For example the owner of private school who The effects of prejudice and discrimination
does not like particular group of people, may
 Victims of prejudice and discrimination may
still allow their children to enrol into school so develop low self-esteem
as not to lose money.
 It causes conflicts because those who may be
4. Prejudiced and discriminatory
discriminated against will resort into violence,
This is situation in which an individual is
terrorism and war
prejudiced and also discriminates
 Skills and abilities that may be useful to society
are not used because certain people are not hired
The causes of prejudice and discrimination
for position due discrimination
 Ignorance or lack of knowledge about other
 It increases poverty to those who are
groups in society
discriminated against in areas such as
 Some cases of prejudice and discrimination are
employment, loans and education
caused due to negative stereotypes established
through lack of contact or interaction between  Prejudice and discrimination may lead into
groups developing stress and anxiety which can result
to ill health
 Irresponsible behaviour by political and
 It can also lead to poor academic performance
religious leaders
for students who are victims
 When political and religious leaders make hate
 It makes some people to engage in alcohol, drug
speeches against certain groups of people it
and substance abuse in order to suppress their
promotes prejudice and discrimination
emotional feelings
 Fear of seems strange or unknown about
 It may lead to increase of crime and security as
other groups of people
some of the victims result to theft, robbery due
to poverty and frustrations
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TOPIC 9
GENDER ISSUES IN MALAWI
Gender issues in Africa  Fair disposition of property after marriage
Gender refers to the physical and social conditions dissolution.
of being male or female. Gender roles and  Be protected from sexual abuse, harassment
responsibilities are therefore constructed by society and violence.
and learned.  Be free from discrimination in work places.

Laws in Malawi that are gender biased in Malawi Gender issues in Africa
Inheritance laws: In matrilineal system, when a  Gender and education: In many African
man dies, his uncles, brothers, sisters, nieces and countries, boys are likely to be favoured at the
nephews share of his estate while in the patrilineal; expense of girls.
emphasis is on brothers and uncles.  Gender and employment: Women are under-
represented in government and other senior
NB: In both cases, the widow is isolated. positions.
 Maternity leave: Women in the civil service are  Gender and violence: This is done in several
given 90 working days maternity leave while ways e.g.
employers in the private sector claim that the  Sexual abuse: This includes rape, unwelcome
period is long. sexual comments, forced sex by those in
 Religious laws: In most religions, it is not authority, traditional practices like 'fisi.
acceptable for women to take leading roles.  Physical abuse: This includes wife battering.
 Citizenship laws: A Malawian woman who  Economic abuse: This includes a husband
marries a non-Malawian man has to renounce refusing his wife to be employed, taking her
her citizenship. money away without her acceptance, snatching
away her property when the husband dies or
Laws that have been revised denying them access to credit.
 Will and inheritance act: There is an  Gender and culture: In many African countries,
improvement on a woman's access to her girls go through initiation ceremonies to prepare
husband's property. In patrilineal system the them for marriage hence many early marriages.
widow is entitled 2/5 of the property while in
matrilineal it is 14. Ways of achieving gender balance
 Dress act: Women are now able to put on  Enable more men and women to become MPs.
clothes that they feel appropriate.
 Give boys and girls equal opportunities in
 Equality in education: Organisations like education.
FAWEMA are trying to change community  Change community attitudes towards girls'
attitudes towards girls.
education.
 Rights: The Malawi government has agreed to  Hold civic education campaigns t inform people
international conventions. about girls' education.
 Ban initiation ceremonies.
International Conventions on Women and Girls
 Make women participate in decision-making just
a. The Convention On The Political
like men.
Rights of Women
 Encourage the media to incorporate gender-
 It was originally agreed at the United
positive messages.
Nations in 1953 but Malawi signed it in
1966.
Effects of gender bias on development
 It focuses on the rights of women to vote, to
 Failure of development projects due to
be eligible for education and to hold public
offices. sidelining of women.
b. The Convention on the Elimination of All  Malnutrition and diseases as women grow less
Forms of Discrimination Against Women food due to failure to access loans for farm
(CEDAW) inputs.
 It was originally agreed at the UN in New  Children leave school early to marry or seek
York in 1981 and Malawi endorsed it in employment due to poverty of the mother.
1987. Special clauses include the right to:  It results in shortage of skilled human resources
 Acquire and maintain property and retain as women and girls are restricted from going
custody of children. further with education.
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TOPIC 10

GOVERNMENT

Meaning of state  To perform other duties outside Malawi as

The state refers to an organised community normally required of them by the treaty entered into by
under one government and it is defined in terms of Malawi.
territorial boundaries.
SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT
Government refers to refers to the machinery for
running the welfare for the country, headed by one 1. Democracies
person or a group of people. These are based on the following principles:
Or it refers to a group of people governing the state  The rights of citizens are respected.
according to a given constitution.  Citizens have the right to choose their
representatives.
The role of the state  There are elections at regular intervals.
State refers to the system that makes and enforces  There are consultations with people on
decisions for society. things that affect them.
 The business of government is accountable
Duties of the state and transparent.
 Adopting and implementing policies for  The judicial system is impartial.
development of the people.  Opposing views are respected and
 To keep law and order by arresting offenders. tolerated.
 To army provides security to the state.  Conflicts are resolved peacefully.
 Judges make sure that laws passed by parliament  Government decisions accord with the
are enforced in court. constitution of the state.
 To promote gender equality between men and
women by ensuring full participation of women 2. Unitary
in all spheres of life. This is where central government has
 To promote economic development of its people more powers than the regional or local
 To provide adequate resources to the education governments. Examples are Malawi,
sector in order to eliminate illiteracy Kenya and South Africa.
 To make sure that environment is well managed.
Characteristics of unitary system of
Responsibilities of the head of state government
 To defend and uphold the constitution as  Central government has power and
supreme law. authority over entire territory
 To convene cabinet meetings.  Central government exercise control over
 To appoint cabinet ministers. other regions and unit of government
 To sign death warrants.  Other units of government may have the
 To pardon convicted offenders. power increased or decreased by the central
 To assent bills passed by parliament. government
 To appoint Malawi's ambassadors/high
commissioners and to receive those from other 3. Federation
countries. This is where activities of government are
 To negotiate and sign international agreements. divided between central government and
governments of different provinces. Examples
The role of the defence forces are USA, India, Nigeria and Canada.
 To uphold the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of the state. Characteristics of Federal system of
 To guard against threats of citizens. government
 To provide technical expertise and resources to  It has a written constitution stating which
assist civilian authorities in the maintenance of function belong to which government
essential services in emergency.  There is a national legislature which include
 To protect the country from outside threat the second chamber in which all the state
must represent (The Senate)
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 Each state has a governor, legislature and 5. Monarchies

judiciary This is where the king or queen has the right
 It is a good system for a large country. to rule. An example is Swaziland.
6. Republic
4. Confederation It is a form of government where supreme
This is a form of government in which the authority is with the people and their elected
central government is weak with more powers representatives. The head of state is the
belonging to governments of different states. An president e.g. Malawi.
example is Russia.

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TOPIC 11

ELECTIONS

Elections refer to a procedure for choosing public order to win an election. It is also defined as
officers by vote of those formally qualified to 50% - plus-one-vote
participate. c. Proportional representation
It is an electoral system in which all political
Or it refers to a formal and organised decision parties gain seats in proportional to the number
making a process by which people who are legally of votes cast from them.
qualified choose their leader to make binding
decisions concerning policy through voting. Importance of elections
 It enables voters to select leaders of their choices
In Malawi the responsibility of organizing elections and held the accountable for their performance
lies with the electoral commission which has a judge in office.
as its chairperson.  It helps to legitimise the acts of those in power
 It helps to decide the contest
Functions of elections  It ensures formal procedure of choosing public
 They are a formal procedure by which public officers
offices are filled.  It reinforces the stability and legitimacy of the
 They make citizens derive a sense of satisfaction political community
for participating in elections.  It ensures responsiveness of democratic
 It gives the government a base of support. governments to the will of the people.

Types of elections ELECTORAL OPROCESSES IN MALAWI

1. General elections: Where people elect a Electoral process refers to a combination of
president and members of parliament. activities before, during and after the elections when
2. By-elections: These are held when the the results are announced
incumbent has died, resigned or has been
impeached. 1. Establishment of Electoral Commission
3. Primary elections: This is a method by which a An electoral body is established to take the
political party chooses its nominee for public responsibility of conducting elections in an
office. efficient, effective and fair manner.
4. Run-off elections: This is held when none of 2. Demarcation of boundaries of constituencies
the competitors has obtained clear majority. and wards
5. Referendum: This is where an issue is The commission is mandated to demarcate
submitted directly to people for a popular vote boundaries for constituencies and wards.
e.g. In Malawi, to choose one party or
multiparty in 1993. When it establishes constituencies, the
6. Direct elections: Where each member chooses a boundaries have to be reviewed every five years
candidate of his/her choice. based on the following:
7. Indirect elections: Where a special electoral  Population density
body is entrusted to decide the vote e.g. In USA.  Ease of communication within the
constituency.
Electoral systems  Geographical features
This refers to the method used to count or translate
votes by candidates or political parties in order to NB: Influential people like traditional
determine allocations of seats. The main electoral authorities might present this to the electoral
systems include: commission.
a. First-past-the post (FPP) or Plurality
In this system a candidate needs to get a number 3. Registration of voters
of votes than all other candidate to be declared A period of 30 days has to be allowed for
the winner registration and this is done by a registration
b. Majority system (50% - plus-one-vote) officer. For one to vote in Malawi, he/she should
This is an electoral system which requires be:
candidates to achieve the majority of votes in

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 A citizen of Malawi or has lived in Malawi The role of the voter

for more than 7 years.  To listen to various points put forward by
 Over 18 years of age. various candidates and decide which one to vote
 Mentally fit. for.
4. Nomination of candidates  To go to the polling station on the voting day to
It is the process of identifying the possible vote.
candidates who can stand in an election.  Not to incite violence during the election period.
5. Campaigning  To attend civic education activities taking place
It is an organised effort that seeks to influence in the area so that they understand the voting
the public to vote for a particular political party process.
or candidate in an election.  To verify with the commission that they have
6. Establishment of polling stations been registered
Polling station is where voting takes place. It is
managed by a returning officer who ensures that Duties and functions of the Electoral Commission
voters cast their votes freely.  Deciding the number of constituencies.
7. Voting  Drawing up boundaries of constituencies.
It is the casting of ballot papers in the ballot box  Organizing registration of voters.
by voters to choose their representatives or  Establishing the procedure for nomination of
leaders. candidates.
8. Vote counting  Producing and distributing voters' registers and
It is done by the presiding officers and other
ballot papers.
polling staff members witnessed by the political
 Ensuring that elections are free and fair.
party representatives.
 Organizing political debates.
9. Certifying and announcing results
The election results are certified and announced  Promotion civic education of voters.
by the Electoral Commission
Ballot papers
The role of the observers during the elections These have names of the candidates on them
 They help to verify and monitor the impartiality together with their symbols and the symbols of
political parties sponsoring them.
decisions made by the electoral body.
 They help to verify and monitor the impartiality
Electoral complaints and petitions
of functioning of the electoral body
 These have to be presented to the commission
 They help to verify and monitor the registration
for correction if possible.
of voters
 Should the complainant find the judgment
 They help to verify and monitor the impartiality
unsatisfactory, he/she can go to the high court.
of decisions made by the electoral commission
 They help to verify and monitor the registration
process of voters

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TOPIC 12

PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE

Peaceful co-existence refers to ability of people to  Emotional/psychological abuse (verbal insults

live together in one society in peace and harmony. or baseless accusations of defilement)
 Sexual abuse (unwanted sexual touching,
Principles of peaceful co-existence incest, rape and defilement)
a. Mutual respect for each other ‘s territorial  Economic violence (property grabbing and
integrity stopping a wife from getting employment or
 This principle requires countries to respect starting a business)
each other‘s territorial integrity and
sovereignty. Forms of violence in neighborhoods and
 This means that powerful countries should community
not impose its will and obligation on other  Incest: having sex with close relatives such as
state. sisters, brother, mother, daughter or son.
b. Mutual non - aggressive  Fighting between spouses
This principle states that strong countries should  Defilement: having sex with children aged less
have the power to attack upon another country than 18 years
expand its boundaries or impose its purpose on  Rape: having sex with someone by force with
the weak states. wilful consent of one partner.
c. Mutual non - interference in each other‘s  Murder
internal affairs.  Kidnapping
This states that no country should interfere in the
 Football hooliganism
internal affairs of other nations. This helps
 Fighting over religious and political differences
maintenance of peace.
d. Equality and cooperation for mutual benefits  Fighting over land ownership
This requires that each nation whether powerful  Post - election violence
or weak should threat each other nations equally.
This promotes peace based on equal and mutual Ways of preventing violence in homes, school and
benefit among nations. community
e. Peaceful co – existence  Inclusion: it involves involve everyone when
This condition encourages disarmament where doing things.
nations would develop for maintenance of peace  Mutual respect and tolerance: this builds long
at international level. lasting peace and permanent conflict resolution.
 Contact and dialogue: it ensures long lasting
Forms of violence in homes, school and peace as people are willing to discuss and
community achieve win-win situations.
Violence is a behaviour involving physical force  Early warning systems: it helps to identify
with an intention to hurt, injure, damage or kill early signs of conflict before they yield violence.
someone.  Respect for human rights: it achieves peace
and prevents violence.
Forms of violence at school  Reporting gender based violence to police and
 Corporal punishment by teachers other relevant authorities such as traditional and
 Vandalism of school property religious leaders.
 Teasing and bullying  Transparency and accountability: everyone
 Students assaulting teachers must know the consequences of their actions and
be held answerable for any wrong doing.
Forms of violence in home (domestic violence)
 Physical abuse (husband beating wife)

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TOPIC 13

INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS

An international conflict may be defined as a  Scarcity of essential services. Hospitals may run
disagreement over an ideology between or among out of medicine.
countries which eventually seek the intervention of  Destruction of the country’s infrastructure.
the international community.  Limitation of human rights e.g. rights of
assembly. It may also want the media to focus
Causes of international conflict on victories rather than defeats.
 Aggression: In 1991, Iraq  Creation of a violent society since the youth may
invaded Kuwait and this led to the Gulf war. have nothing to do.
 Religious differences  It leads to widowhood and orphanhood as many
An example is the war between Israel men are killed in the wars.
and Palestine though they claim that they are
fighting over land. Conflict resolution
 Ethnic differences It It refers to the efforts aimed at reconciling two
is when Yugoslavia broke up in 1991-92, its differing parties
people like the Serbs, Croats and Albanians
fought a series of wars against each other. Strategies for resolving international conflicts
 Clash of ideologies  Negotiation
From the end of the second world war until This is where people involved in conflicts talk to
1980s, the world was dominated by two sets of each other and agree on common solution of
ideas; democracy/capitalism on one hand and ending conflicts. It is also known as contact and
socialism/communism on the other. This period dialogue. It is the peaceful conflict resolution
of was referred to as 'cold war.' USA and strategy.
Soviet Union (Russia) could support different  Mediation
sides of smaller countries in conflict during this This is where the conflicting parties, groups or
period. persons discuss and find solutions to their
 Political differences: these are differences in conflicts which they agree but in the presence of
ideologies between or among political parties on a third person who helps in creating a peaceful
how to rule the country which in the end may and friendly environment. That third person is
result into conflicts. called a mediator. A mediator does not pass
 Individual lust for power In most judgment; he/she only facilitates peaceful
countries, especially those under military rule, discussions.
the leaders do not want to hand over power to  Arbitration
others and this has resulted into wars. It also called conciliation or adjudication.
 Territorial boarder disputes It could be This involves inviting a third person who helps
due to disagreement over boundaries or to resolve the conflicts by passing a judgment.
ownership of a territory. A person is called an arbitrator. Arbitration
follows legal procedures of resolving conflicts.
Effects of international conflicts on development
 Loss of life: Both soldiers and civilians are Strategies used by international organisations to
killed during conflicts. resolve international conflicts
 Wastage of resources: War is very expensive in a. Contact and dialogue
the sense that weapons have to be bought and The conflicting parties talk to each other about
soldiers have to be paid and fed. This means that their conflicts and agree on a common solution
there will be less money to spend on social to the problem. They are assisted by the third
services. party (either organisation or individual persons).
 Refugee problem: People flee to neighbouring Contact and dialogue is the most peaceful
countries for safety and sometimes they might conflict resolution method.
remain there as refugees or they may return b. Embargo or sanction
later. It is an economic ban imposed on some
 Disruption of social and economic life: People countries that violate the rights of people. Some
may be frightened to go to work or the fields. countries are prohibited to take part in

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international affairs until when they conform to  Refugees are concentrated in Uganda,
the international law. Tanzania, Malawi and Central African
Republic.
c. Peacekeeping 3. Somalia
It refers to the activities that tend to create  Since 1979, the country has been without a
conditions that favor lasting peace. Countries central government thus after the last
send peacekeeping troops who monitor and president, Muhammad Siad Barre was
observe peace process such as in DRC. removed by armed rebellion.
The assistance by the peacekeeping processes  As a result, many Somalis have fled to
includes the following: Kenya, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Tanzania.
 Confidence–building measure 4. Sudan
 Power sharing arrangements  The Sudan People’s Liberation Army
 Electoral support (SPLA) has been fighting for the
 Strengthening the rule of law independence of Southern Sudan for over
 Economic and social development thirty years.
 Refugees are therefore concentrated in
International organisations that assist in conflict Uganda, Chad and Central African
resolution Republic.
 African Union (AU) 5. Sierra Leone, Liberia and Guinea
 European Union (EU)  In Sierra Leone, the Revolutionary United
 South African Development Community Front has been fighting to replace the
(SADC) current government with assistance from
 The United Nations Organisation (UNO): It was Liberia.
founded after the end of the Second World War  Liberia is fighting rebels from Sierra Leone
and almost all countries are its members. and Guinea.
 The Security Council: This organ of the UNO  Guinea is fighting rebels operating from
focuses on conflict resolution. Liberia.
 The International Court of Justice: It makes  These conflicts have created refugee
legal decision s where there are disputes concentration in Nigeria, Ghana, Gambia
between countries. and Senegal.
6. Sri Lanka
The refugee crisis in the world  The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
Refugees are people who run away from their (Tamil Tigers) have been fighting for the
countries, leaving their families, sometimes their independence of minority Tamil state in Sri
property in fear of persecution, famine or disaster. Lanka's north and east since 1983.
 This has created refugees in India, Pakistan
THE MAJOR REFUGEE AREAS and Malaysia.
7. Yugoslavia
1. Angola The genocide in the country has created millions
 A rebel group known as UNITA has been of refugees in Czech Republic, Germany and
fighting since 1975 to remove the Russia.
government. 8. Afghanistan
 This war ended in 1992 after the rebel  The current war is between Taliban forces
leader, Jonas Savimbi was killed by and Northern Alliance Fighters leading to
government troops. refugee concentration in Pakistan.
 This war created refugees in Zambia, South  Worse still, the bombing by Western Allied
Africa and Tanzania. Forces (Britain and USA) in search of Al
2. Democratic Republic of Congo Queda leader, Osama bin Laden has
 This involves rebel factions who always increased the number of refugees to India
want to overthrow the government. and Pakistan.
 Countries like Uganda and Rwanda are 9. Middle East
allied to the rebels while Zimbabwe,  The conflict between Israel and Palestine
Namibia and Angola are allied to the has created millions of refugees mainly
government. Palestine-occupied territories of West Bank
and Gaza strip.

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 The refugees are concentrated in Lebanon,

Syria and Jordan. b. Positive impact of refugees
Refugees may bring with them new skills and
Impact of refugees in the world knowledge that can be utilized to benefit the
1. Negative impact of refugees local people.
 Disintegration of families: Many men leave
their families either to join government Challenges faced when implementing conventions
forces or rebels. for protecting refugees and stateless people
 Pressure on land resources: The land may be  Inadequate financial, material and technical
used for settlement of people, building resources makes it difficult for countries to host
social services. more refugees
 Pressure on social services: They need  Violation of principle of non-refoulement
medical attention, education which may not enshrined in a convention
have been adequate already.  It is difficult to provide protection and assistance
 Pressure on food resources. to refugees when armed conflict continue
 Loss of cultural identity: These may be because such humanitarian assistance may be
forced to learn and use the language of the delivered to fuel conflicts
host country to facilitate communication.  Global issues such as population growth,
 42Cross-border criminal activities: Those insecurity and climate change makes the tasks of
fleeing may have a lot of arms for protecting and assisting refugees and other
committing armed robberies in the host vulnerable people to be complicated.
country. Other activities may include drug-  Decline of financial and material resources for
trafficking and smuggling of essential refugee programs in Africa from developed
goods. countries to host refugees on their own.
 Spreading of infectious diseases: They
might carry with them diseases like
HIV/AIDS, TB, Ebola which may create
major health hazards in the host country.

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TOPIC 14

SOCIO - ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

Social and economic problems are the effects of  It leads to shortage of goods as consumers begin
economic declining of economy which are caused by hoarding out of concern that prices may increase
wide spread failures in financial regulations and in future.
supervision.
Devaluation
Examples of social and economic problems It is a deliberate downward adjustment of a
 Unemployment country’s currency relative to another currency or
 Stagnant growth standard.
 Inflation
 Devaluation Reasons or objectives for deflation
 Over - debtedness  To increase competitiveness in the foreign
 Balance of trade markets and encourage exports as well as
 Budget surplus (+) and deficit (-) reducing imports
 To raise national income and to achieve higher
Unemployment living standards.
It is a social and economic problem because less  To close the development gap
output is produced hence the economy is less able to  To relieve unfavourable balance of trade and
address the scarcity of jobs. In the end, it leads to a stabilise the economy.
decline of people’s living standards.  To attract more foreign tourists and to make it
more expensive for the country’s citizens to visit
Stagnant growth foreign countries
This is also described as lack of economic growth. It  Restrictions on commodities as well as capital
means that the total production does not match with flows as in government policies on high tariffs
the population demands. The population grows at a on imports
faster rate than the economic growth. This also
affects people’s living standards. Effects of inflation
Positive
Inflation  It can cause higher economic growth as it
This is the rate at which general prices for goods and increases exports than imports.
services are rising in an economy over a period of  It makes currency smuggling more expensive
time. and also discourages smuggling of other goods.
This leads to reduction of purchasing power per unit  It attract foreign investors to devaluating country
of money. as they find it cheaper hence increase in the
investment of foreign capital
Types of inflation  It protects local industries from competing with
a. Demand pull inflation: it is when prices rise as foreign investors.
a response to an excess aggregate demand over  It ensures economic stabilisation which helps to
existing supply of goods and services. improve the standards of living.
b. Cost pull inflation: it is caused by the rising  It leads to increase in local production output as
costs of production. it encourages exports more than imports.
 It leads to expansion of industries.
Effects of inflation
 It discourages investment and savings as Negative
businesses cannot estimate their costs hence  It makes imports of goods and services become
hesitate to invest. more expensive. This reduces demand for
 Extra resources are required to cope up with exports.
inflation.  It is likely to cause inflation because imports are
 It decreases exports and increase imports of more expensive causing cost push inflation
goods and services  It makes difficult for a country to pay off
 It increases opportunity cost of holding money outstanding debts owed in other countries
which prolongs inflation.

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d. Unfavourable balance of trade

Over - debtedness It is when imports are greater than exports. The
It is a situation in which borrowers (individuals, country imports more than exports which results
organisation or government) have borrowed more into economic problems. It leads to deficit in
money than they are able to pay back. balance of payment. The country always
depends on donor aid as in developing countries
Causes of indebtedness such as Malawi, Zambia, Mozambique,
 Deterioration of economic conditions in form of Tanzania and Kenya.
low economic growth or poverty which forces
individuals to borrow and forces them to have Budget surplus (+) deficit (-)
little for paying off their debts. This is the difference between national government
 Loss of income following job loss, divorce or revenues and expenditure, expressed as a percentage
illness increases expenses due expanding family. of GDP. A positive (+) number indicates that the
 It is also caused by the irresponsible borrowers revenues exceed expenditure (a budget surplus),
 Fierce competition among the credit providers while negative (-) indicates the reserve (a budget
 Capital inflow of banking and miccrofinance deficit)
sectors due to abundant debt funding available.
 Lender’s overcharging practices on already CREDIT REFERENCE BUREAU
distressed borrowers. It is an institution that collects, consolidates and
 It is caused by ignorance and lack of education processes information relating to credit history of
persons in order to facilitate exchange of such
by borrowers which lead to unproductive and
wasteful spending. information among user institutions on their clients
repayment history and current debt profiles.
 Lack of transparency on client indebtedness
These information blockers provide creditors with
such as multiple clients from multiple
reliable, relevant and comprehensive data on their
institutions.
repayment habits and credit applications
 Some of the debts may be inherited
 It is also caused by excessive finance and Benefits or importance of credit referencing or
collection charges credit information sharing to leaders, borrowers
and the economy as whole
Effects of indebtedness  It ensures fast loan processing as it would help
 It increases employee stress which result in commercial banks not to waste time in trying to
mental and physical absenteeism. Then, it leads establish history of customers.
to low productivity.  It helps individuals or borrowers to secure credit
 It increases number of evictions and (loan) without collateral.
homelessness as well as development of squatter
 It improves credit culture through reduced
settlement
incidences of multiple and excessive borrowing.
 It deteriorates household’s social and economic  It enhances risk management through effective
well-being and poverty. credit evaluation and administration. This
 Farmers lose their farm land to money lenders contributes to stability of financial sector.
when they fail to pay back their loans in time.  It stimulates economic developments by making
 It leads to low health standards of farmers as borrowing easier, faster and cheaper.
they are unable to look after their health  It expands access to credit by allowing creditors
 Loss of farmers’ income due to loan repayment. to differentiate n good and bad credit risks.
 It ensures that bad debts costs are minimized and
Balance of trade cash flows are maintained.
It refers to payment obligations which arise when a
country exports or imports goods.
Roles of Credit Reference Bureau (CRB)
Or it refers to the difference between the country’s
CRB plays three roles these include:
imports and exports.
 They enable leaders to lend money to more and
There are two main types of balance of trade
better risks clients.
namely:
 It forces creditors to be more competitive for
1. Favourable balance of trade
good borrowers.
Favourable or positive balance of trade
arises when exports surpass the imports.  It reduces moral hazards by developing credit
This mostly happens in developed countries culture where it operates.
such as UK, USA, Germany and Spain.
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TOPIC 15

INTER-DEPENDENCE IN THE ECO-SYSTEM

Environment refers to the surrounding of living Interdependence of organisms in environment

and non-living things.  Animals depend on plants for food and shelter.
 Plants depend on animals for pollination,
Ecosystem refers to the community of living improving soil fertility and seed/fruit dispersal.
organisms in conjunction with the non-living  Decomposer get their energy by breaking the
environment which interact as a system. dead plants and animals
 Plants depend on decomposers as they improve
Processes that help to link components of soil fertility by humus making.
environment
a. Energy flow Ways in which people, living and non-living
b. Nutrient cycling things depend on each other
a. Water
Energy flows It supports life on earth
Sun is the source of energy which facilitates b. Animals
photosynthesis in green plants. This energy is  Provide people with food
passed on through entire ecosystem as food passes  They provide raw materials
along a food chain.  They attract tourists
 Sun is a source of light energy for green plants
 They help in seed dispersal and pollination
to make food.
c. Soil
 Plants are called producers as they produce
 It sustains life by helping plants to grow
their own food energy from the sun through
 It is habitat for a variety of living
photosynthesis.
organisms
 Herbivores (e.g. elephants) feed on plants; they
 It stores and regulate quality and flow of
are primary consumers.
water
 Carnivores feed on plants, they are secondary
d. Plants
consumers.
 They provide food and shelter to animals
 Large carnivores are tertiary consumers.
 They purify air by producing oxygen
 Omnivores feed on both plants and animals,
through photosynthesis
e.g. humans.
 They help to regulate the water cycle
 There are decomposers which are responsible
e. Air
for nutrient cycle, e.g. fungi, bacteria and
 Oxygen is used for breathing in animals
protozoa.
 It helps to create weather
Nutrient cycling  It aids in transferring sound which is for
It is the circulation of chemical elements from communication.
environment to organisms and from organisms
back to the environment.

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TOPIC 16

PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT

Negative attitudes towards environment refer to  Cultivating in river banks

making little or no effort to improve the
environment and doing things that continue Destruction of living things outside Malawi
destroying the environment.  Destruction of rain forests: Most of the world's
rain forests e.g. Amazon, Congo are being cut at
Causes of negative attitude towards environment a rapid rate. This is either the case so that they
 Conflict with resource managers due to resource can obtain timber or clear the land for
extraction cultivation.
 Strict rules on resource use and access as fish or  Loss of biodiversity: Biodiversity means the
forests. existence of a wide variety of animal and plant
 Rude behaviour by forest or park rangers. species in their natural habitats. As human
 Fear of resettlement and lack of provision of beings take increasing amounts of land, the plant
jobs and animal habitats are destroyed.
 Lack of involvement of the local communities in  Desertification: This may be caused by drought
the local decision making processes and in forest and bad farming methods.
management groups
Consequences of destroying environment
Effects of negative attitudes towards the  Climate changes will cause unpredictable
environment weather with climatic extremes. We might have
 Destruction of trees: Because of high demand longer periods of hot weather or cold weather.
for fuel wood, more trees are being cut than are  Global warming which may cause warming of
planted. Due to land pressure, some trees are cut icy regions i.e. Arctic and Antarctic. This can
down to clear land for cultivation. cause natural disasters like floods.
 Soil erosion: This occurs in areas where all trees  The heavy use of energy is depleting non-
and bushes have been destroyed and where too renewable resources like coal and oil.
many livestock are grazed in one area. It can  As the population is increasing, water is
also be caused by bush fires. becoming scarce.
 Overfishing: This may be mainly due to  The loss of trees will contribute climate changes,
population increase. erosion and desertification.
 Pollution:  The loss of soil fertility will make it more
 Water pollution: This may be caused by difficult for people to feed themselves leading t
siltation, poor sanitary conditions in poverty.
settlement and industrial areas. The  Lack of employment opportunities.
pollution carries water-borne diseases like
cholera, typhoid. Positive attitudes towards environment
 Air pollution: Where there are many This means making conscientious attempt to
vehicles, exhaust fumes which are very improve the state of the environment
toxic are produced.
 Land pollution: Where unhealthy heaps of Effects of positive attitudes towards the
rubbish are put in streets. environment
 Destruction of wildlife: This might be caused a. Afforestation and reafforestation
by deforestation and poaching which is the b. Fish management by:
habitat for wildlife. Poaching is another form of  Prevention of water pollution and overfishing
destruction of wildlife.  Practicing fish farming
 Setting bushfires that destroy vegetation and  Enforcing and observing off-season
animals regulations
 Improper waste disposal and management which  Empowering the community leaders to
cause pollution promote enforcement of fishing regulations
 Inappropriate agricultural practices such as:  Promoting fishing and alternative business
 Setting fire for land clearing opportunities to people engaged in fishing
 Making ridges along the slopes
 Cultivating in marginal land
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 Planting trees along the liver banks to d. Land management by:

maintain high levels  Preventing bushfires
 Teaching people proper fishing practices  Planting vegetation to prevent soil erosion
 Practicing good land management practices
c. Forest management by:  Rehabilitation of vacated marginal lands.
 Preventing bushfires
 Practising afforestation and reafforestation e. Reducing air, water and land pollution
 Establishing public and private forests. through:
 Not practicing overstocking and overgrazing  Proper waste management
 Empowering local leaders to regulate the use  Using clean source of energy
of forest resources.  Recycling and reusing waste resources
 Setting, enforcing and observing laws  Planting more trees to keep air clean
regulating the use of forest resources  Enforcement of laws and international
 Promoting community involvement in the agreements on industrial wastes
management of forests management and to protect the environment
 Providing civic education on forest  Civic education
management and importance of forests.

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TOPIC 17

COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE

Courtship is a period when prospective marriage  Partnership: The couples develop intimacy (deep
partners get to know and understand each other friendships) hence they are able to confide in
before marriage. each other.
Or it is the process by which a boy and a girl who  To enjoy sexuality with one's legal partner.
have fallen in love get to know and understand each  It ensures new relationships
other with the intention of marriage.
Factors to consider when choosing a marriage
Basic stages towards courtship partners
 Common interests: choose someone whom you
share the likes or interests in order to sustain
your relationship.
 Compatibility of your character or
personality: choose someone who suits you in
order to along well.
 Education: look for someone with similar
educational levels in order to understand each
other well.
 Health status: it is important to know the health
status of your partner for marriage to succeed.
Types of courtship  Religious beliefs: look for someone of the same
 Direct: where a man/boy sees a woman/girl and belief or religious background; spiritual or belief
approaches her for a hand in marriage. mismatch can is likely to distract your
 Through a friend. relationship.
 Through the media.  Knowledge and skills: a good marriage partner
should some sort of knowledge and skills for the
Importance of courtship future survival in a marriage.
 Young people get to know each other's  Trustworthiness: choose someone whom you
personality, beliefs and goals in life. trust more.
 They know each other’s' families.  Respectfulness: choose someone who can
 It helps to make an informed decision on respect your dreams and personality.
whether to proceed into marriage or not  Ability to initiate a conversation: choose
 It helps partners to resolve any important someone whom you can chat with and talk to
differences between before marriage. each other with ease
 It helps partners to know each other’s values and
interests Ways which people should prepare for marriage
 It enables partners to lay a foundation for the  Abstinence from pre - marital sex: This is to
kind of marriage they want to have. avoid unwanted pregnancies which can force the
 It enables the couple to know each other’s two into marriage for which they are not
parents and relatives. prepared. It may also lead to contraction of STIs.
 Long courtship period: This allows them to
Marriage is a legal union between man and woman prepare adequately for the marriage.
living as husband and wife. Before people get  Going for HIV testing: This is important some
married, they normally undergo health problems are long term while others are
short term. A partner will therefore make
Importance of marriage decisions of coping with the other's situation.
 Procreation: It ensures that children are born  Ensuring a sound financial base: Modern life
legally, thereby ensuring continued human race. depends on money therefore they should verify
 Child development and protection: It is believed their sources of income.
that children who are raised in families develop  Taking pre-marriage mentorship lessons: it
better socially. helps to get answer to some difficult questions
about marriage.

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 Education background: This is important  Mutual care: This may involve looking after
because in most cases people with the same the household e.g. buying food, looking after
education level get along with each other children.
 Religious background: It is advisable to agree  Communication: The spouses should use the
in advance what they should do in case they language that is acceptable to both and they
have different religious backgrounds. should respond to dialogue.

Ways of entering into marriage Factors that promote good marriage relationship
1. Traditional/customary marriage  Mutual respect: it leads to a successful
 This is where a man identifies a potential marriage.
marriage partner, informs his aunt or uncle  Mutual trust: it involve believing that a spouse
who in turn inform a delegation to go and is reliable, good and honest which makes
officially propose the woman through marriage last long.
parents.  Communication: This enables the marriage
 In the past, marriages used to be arranged partners to express their needs and concerns to
by parents without the knowledge and each other. This in turn helps to strengthen the
consent of the boy or girl. This was called relationship.
bethrothed marriage.  Honesty: Do not hide useful information to one
2. Muslim ceremony another. Do not lie, always say the truth.
This is where a boy and girl get married in a  Empathy: Understand each other’s feelings by
mosque before the sheikh who reads from the putting oneself in his or her shoes.
Koran about the importance of marriage.  Commitment: Both marriage partners should be
3. Civil marriage: committed to their relationship. Commitment
This is conducted by the District means that the two are truly decided to their
Commissioner's office or council. marriage work, despite the challenges that they
4. Elopment face.
This is the arrangement where a man and a  Tolerance: We need to accept and
woman arrange secretly to get married. This accommodate other’s views.
may be because the marriage is objectionable  Spending time regularly: Doing things together
(not acceptable) by some member of the family like eating, working, walking and chatting helps
or community. to improve marriage relationships.
5. Co-habitation  Acceptance: Accept each other for who they
This is the arrangement where a man and a are. It helps one to be more secure and
woman live together in a house but are not confident.
officially married. This is because they find
marriage preparations too long or they have
Importance of marriage
been forced by unwanted pregnancy.
 Procreation or child bearing
 It provides secure environment for the
Factors which help to preserve marriage
upbringing of children
 Free choice of marriage partner: This
 It provides partnership to partners where they
promotes understanding of each other before
marriage arrangements. can work together to achieve their goals.
 Honesty: This involves truthfulness, frankness  It is source of social and emotional support as
and discussing issues and problems openly e.g. they share their fears and worries.
if one of them had a child before.  It helps in the creation of new relationships. It
 Faithful and fidelity: This refers to faithfulness brings together people of different backgrounds
to each other. into new relations.
 Forgiving and forgetting: In marriage,
Responsible parenthood
disagreements may involve financial expenses,
Parents need to socialize their children by teaching
use of family planning methods, suspicions over
them:
secret love affairs, parental opinions over
 The value of hard work.
marriage direction or extended family
dependents.  How to behave in different societies.
 Perseverance: Partners need to overcome trying  To differentiate between right and wrong.
moments in marriage e.g. long illnesses.  To respect elders and all those in authority.

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TOPIC 18

SECURITY

Security refers to the protection of a person,  Suppressing insurgency and acting in aid of
property, organization or a country against threats or civilian authorities to restore law and order
harm when called to do so.
 Carrying out miscellaneous civil contingency
The roles of the police in the provision of internal duties such as search, rescue, air ambulance,
security assisiting civilians during natural disasters.
 Establishment physical presence in all places to  Provide technical expertise and resources to
deter criminals from committing their evil acts assist civilians in times of emergency. For
 To protect the life and property of the public example, engineers from the military may be
 To promote and preserve public order request to rehabilitate roads and bridges
 Arresting criminals and suspects and  Performing other duties outside the country if
interrogating them requested. For example, they provide military
 To guard the suspects in cells support to other countries when it is
 Taking charge of all unclaimed property and overwhelmed by enemy forces
taking action for their safe custody
 To prevent crime activities by taking preventive Importance of security in the country
actions and measures  It helps to prevent illicit goods and illegal
 Preventing and controlling terrorist activities immigrants into the country.
 Aiding individuals who are in danger of  It leads to increase of economic activities as it
physical harm. enables citizens to invest their money in various
 Assisting victims of natural disasters businesses
 Provision of security promotes the country’s
The roles of the army in the provision of security good image as it attracts foreign tourists visiting
 Protecting the country from external military the country
threats or attacks by taking military action to  Provision of security by the state institutions
secure the boarders enables the survival of country as a sovereign
 Upholding and protecting the constitution order. state.
For example, the army may help to prevent the  It attracts foreign investment
political crisis  It helps to build the conditions needed for the
 Upholding and protecting the constitutional state to establish its authority and reduce crime
order and assisting the civilian authorities in the
proper exercise for their functions under the
constitution.

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TOPIC 19

CORRUPTION AND THE LAW

The establishment of the ACB Basic approaches in the fight against

The ACB was established in 1995 by the Act of corruption
Parliament in order to combat corruption. The 1. Interventionism
Corrupt Practices Act was Revised In 2004. This is where the relevant authorities wait for
corruption to occur and then intervene to
Reasons for establishing ACB capture and punish the offender.
 To combat corruption 2. Managerialism
 To lead Malawians in the reduction and Under the approach, those attempting to do
elimination of corruption. corrupt practices are prevented from doing it
by establishing appropriate systems.
The main functions of ACB 3. Organisational integrity
 Investigating cases of corruption This requires the integration of an
 Investigating any public officer whose actions organisation’s operational systems, corruption
are connected to corruption control strategies and ethical standards so that
 Receiving complaints about corrupt practices a norm of ethical behaviour is created.
 Prosecuting corrupt officers.
 Taking necessary measures in the fight The roles of the public in curbing corruption
against corruption  Reporting cases of corruption to the anti-
 Educating the public on the evil of corruption corruption bureau
 Resisting or rejecting corruption in order to
discourage malpractices
 Education others about corruption and its evil
effects on society
 Cooperating with ACB by testifying in a
court of law in order to secure convicting for
those involved in corruption

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TOPIC 20

SOCIAL INJUSTICE IN AFRICA

Social injustice is when people are not treated fairly,  Cultural and social practices: Outdated
equally and their rights are not respected. customs e.g. chokolo, kusasa fumbi have
negative effects on the individual.
Common forms of social injustice in Africa  Discrimination: This involves selective
 Bribery and corruption: It involves giving treatment of individuals based on certain
someone to an official in order to favour a giver. characteristics e.g. colour, race, ethnic
 Discrimination: it means selective treatment of background.
people based on certain backgrounds or  Oppression: This is where a person is
conditions. prevented from doing or saying something
 Oppression: This is when a person is prevented freely.
from doing something or speaking.  Lack of good governance: it is characterised
 Nepotism: This means offering better by lack transparency and accountability.
opportunities to relatives or friends form the  Cultural practices that harm and discriminate
same area at the expense others. against certain groups of people.
 Preference of one’s gender over the Other  Tribalism which limits opportunities from
 Xenophobia: it is the act of attacking those of other tribes.
foreigners who are in a particular country
 Underpaying workers. Effects of social injustice
a. On the individual and the community
The main dimensions of social injustice  One becomes bitter and resentful.
The three dimensions of social injustice are:  One may lose confidence and develop
 Injustice as misdistribution or inferiority complex.
maldistribution of benefits  One may not work hard.
 Social injustice as exclusion: It means that  It can lead to disobedience of society's rules
other are excluded as legitimate recipients of the and opting to crime.
benefits.
 Social injustice as disempowerment: Victims f. In Africa and the world
of social injustice are disempowered and  Lack of development.
excluded of the distribution of the benefits of  Poverty.
social cooperation.  Conflict.
 Oppression of minority groups.
Causes of social injustice in Africa and the world
 Poverty: Most people in developing countries Eradicating social injustice in the school and the
do not have enough food, clean water supply, community
are illiterate and do not have adequate health  Promoting and respect for human rights
facilities. It leads to a big gap between the rich  Promoting good governance
and the poor and that the rich control more  Leaders must set examples in respecting rights
resources than the poor. of all.
 Everyone must participate in decision-making
and opposing views must be respected.

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TOPIC 21

SOCIAL SERVICES

Community participation in the provision and Provision and care for social services in selected
care for social service African countries
This is the creation of opportunities to enable all Percentage of total population
members of a community to actively contribute with access to social services
towards the provision and care of social services for Country Water Sanitat Health
their own benefits. ion
Botswana 97 54 13.1
Importance of community participation in the Kenya 62 30 29.1
Malawi 35 10 42.1
provision and care for social service
Mozambique 49 21 33.1
 It empowers people through acquisition of
knowledge, skills and experience to take greater
How the provision and care for social service
responsibility for the social services. These
contributes to social economic development
skills and knowledge enables community
1. Education
members to repair or maintain in the facilities.
 It enriches people’s understanding of
 It leads to increased utilization of social
themselves and the world
services by members of the community due to
 It improves people’s quality of life by
awareness gained during the planning and
maximizing the social benefits
implementation stage.
 It raises people’s productivity, creativity and
 It also reduces the cost of social services
technological advances
provision because members of the community
bear certain expenses through the provision of  It helps building human capabilities and
certain materials and labour. accelerates economic growth through
knowledge and skills
 It also reduces dependency and also increases
self- reliance in the way that people would not 2. Housing
always look at the government to solve their  Fulfills physical needs by providing security
problems. and shelter from weather and climates
 It motivates community members  It provides a sense of personal space and
privacy
 It develops a sense of ownership of community
resources as it helps to prevent vandalism 3. Health
 Good health contributes to social economic
Community mobilisation development as health people participate in
This refers an attempt to bring together both human development projects
and non-human resources to undertake development  Good health also improve educational
projects in order achieve sustainability. attainment for children and their mental
development
Ways of mobilizing communities in the provision 4. Water and sanitation
and care for social services Safe drinking water and good sanitation helps to
 Conducting awareness campaigns about the reduce the spreading of diseases which could be
challenges affecting the provision and care of compromise the quality of labor force
social services 5. Transport and communication
 Organizing meetings to sell the idea about  Good transport system helps in facilitating
community participation efficient movement of goods and services
from one place to another
 Meeting community leaders to solicit their
support  It also ensures a timely flow of information.
 Creating partnership with existing organizations 6. Electricity
to disseminate information about community  It helps the production of goods and services
participation in the provision and care for social in industries
services.  It ensures the availability of ICT services by
providing energy to ICT equipment
 It prevents the depletion of forest resources
as people are encouraged to use electricity
for cooking instead of firewood.
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TOPIC 22

GENDER ISSUES IN AFRICA

Gender issues in Africa

Gender refers to the physical and social conditions Ways of achieving gender balance
of being male or female. Gender roles and  Through normative action: it involves deliberate
responsibilities are therefore constructed by society effort to consider women in important decision
and learned. making positions, e.g. through quota system.
 Legislation: making laws to address issues of
Gender issues in Africa gender based violence.
 Gender and education: In many African  Setting aside financial resources in order to
countries, boys are likely to be favoured at the achieve gender balance
expense of girls on education opportunities.  Enable more men and women to become MPs.
 Gender and employment: Women are under-  Give boys and girls equal opportunities in
represented in government and other senior education.
positions. Their jobs are also stereo-typed e.g.  Change community attitudes towards girls'
nursing, secretarial duties. education.
 Gender and religion: Religious teachings put  Hold civic education campaigns t inform people
women at a disadvantage. about girls' education.
 Gender and violence: This is done in several  Ban initiation ceremonies that put women and
ways e.g. sexual abuse: This includes rape, girls at a disadvantage
unwelcome sexual comments, and forced sex by  Make women participate in decision-making just
those in authority, traditional practices like 'fisi. like men.
 Gender, peace and security: This includes wife  Encourage the media to incorporate gender-
battering. positive messages.
 Gender, politics and government: few women
have high political presentations. Men dominate Conventions on gender in Africa
government leaderships. Convention is an agreement that countries sign in
 HIV/AIDS and reproductive health: early and order to achieve certain goals or address matters that
unwanted childbearing, HIV and other sexually affect matters. The conventions include the
transmitted infections (STIs) as well as pregnant following:
related illnesses and deaths are some of the
experiences of African women. 1. International conventions on gender
 Economic abuse: This includes a husband  Convention on the Elimination of all forms
refusing his wife to be employed, taking her of Discrimination against Women
money away without her acceptance, snatching (CEDAW): it is very instrument in fighting
away her property when the husband dies or against discrimination against women.
denying them access to credit.  Declaration on the Elimination of Violence
 Gender and marriage: child marriages are against Women: it ensures that all state
common among African girls. parties should prevent, investigate and
 Gender and poverty: there are many women punish all acts of violence against women.
headed families in Africa which is a cause for  The Beijing Declaration and Platform of
poverty. Africa: was adopted in order to empower
 Gender and access to financial services and women and promote their human rights.
markets: financial conditions in Africa favour  The United Nations Security Council
men. Resolutions 1325, 1820, 1880 and 1890:
 Gender and access to information and developed to promote and protect women in
technology: it is difficult for women to gain conflict and post-conflict situations.
useful information in Africa.
 Gender and culture: In many African 2. SADC Declaration on Gender and
countries, girls go through initiation ceremonies Development: it has six specific targets such as:
to prepare them for marriage hence many early  Enact and enforce legislation prohibiting all
marriages. forms of gender based violence
 Ensuring that laws on gender based on
violence provide to the comprehensive
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testing, treatment and care of survivors of in the social and political process equally with
sexual assault. men, to control their reproductive health and to
 Review and reform their criminal laws and end women genital mutilation
procedures applicable to cases of sexual 4. The African Union Solemn Declaration on
offences and gender based violence. Gender Equality: it looks at issues that affect
 Enact and adopt specific legislative women in Africa such as HIV/AIDS, conflict,
provision to prevent human trafficking and poverty, violence against women, women’s
provide holistic services to the victims with exclusion from politics, decision making,
the aim of re-integrating them into the illiteracy, property grabbing and inheritance
society. rights.
 Enact legislative provisions, and adopt and 5. The Dakar African Platform for African
implement policies, strategies and programs Advancement of Women (1994): focuses on
which define and prohibit sexual women, women’s rights, social change, human
harassment in all spheres, and provide rights advancement and women’s status.
deterrent sanctions for perpetrators of
sexual harassment. Effects of gender bias on development
 Adopt integrated approaches, including  Failure of development projects due to
institutional cross structures, with the aim sidelining of women.
of reducing current levels of gender based  Malnutrition and diseases as women grow less
violence by half by 2015. food due to failure to access loans for farm
inputs.
3. The African Union Protocol to the African  Children leave school early to marry or seek
Charter on Human and People’s Rights on employment due to poverty of the mother.
the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo  It results in shortage of skilled human resources
Protocol) of 2003:it guarantees comprehensive as women and girls are restricted from going
rights to women including the right to take part further with education.

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TOPIC 23

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate change refers to a long-term change in the  It lowers agricultural production which results
statistical distribution of weather patterns. into food insecurity.
 It leads to devastating heat waves
Or it refers to the significant time variations in
weather patterns due to global warming. Climate disasters in Malawi
Disaster is a sudden calamitous event that causes
Climate change refers to an increase in atmospheric damage, injury, death of people and hardships in
temperature due to largest accumulation of life.
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur Climate disasters are weather related disasters.
and methane.
Examples of climate disasters
Socio-economic impact of climate change  Flooding/flush floods due to heavy rains along
 Loss of biodiversity and damaged ecosystem the lake shore and major rivers in Malawi. The
 It is a threat to forest. Long droughts increase affected districts are Mangochi, Karonga,
the incidences of fire in the world‘s major Nsanje, Chikwawa, Phalombe, Zomba and
forests. Chikwawa
 It leads of shortage of water due to prolonged  Erratic rains and drought
drought conditions.  Tropical cyclones (violent storms). This affects
 Damage of buildings and other infrastructures the Southern region of Malawi such as the Shire
 Due to cyclones storms and heavy rains. Highlands.
 Rising temperatures lead to increase of disease  Pest infestation. Army worms cause a great deal
causing organisms such as mosquitoes and tsetse of damage in maize gardens in many districts in
flies. Malawi.

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TOPIC 24

DISASTER RISKY MANAGEMENT

Disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of quakes, volcanoes, tsunami’s, hurricanes and
a community involving widespread human, material, soil erosion.
economic or environmental losses which exceeds the  Biological disasters
ability of the affected community to cope using its These are disasters caused by the exposure of
own resources. living organisms to germs and toxic substance
produced by these germs. Examples of
Risk biological disasters include epidemics locust
It is the probability of harmful consequences from plague and army worms infestation.
interaction between natural or human induced  Man- made disasters (human made disasters)
(stimulate) hazards and vulnerable condition. These are disasters events caused directly by
negligent human actions. E.g. chemical spill,
Disaster risk management (DRM) plane crush and terrorism
It is the ongoing process by which stakeholders plan
for and reduce the impact of disasters and take steps Causes of vulnerability to the effects of disasters
to recover after a disaster has occurred. Venerability is a set of conditions resulting from
physical, social, economic and environmental factors
Coping capacity which the susceptibility of community to the impact
It is the ability of people, organisations and systems, of disasters.
using available skills and resources, to face and
manage adverse conditions and emergencies or The following are causes of vulnerability to the
disasters. effects of disasters
 Lack of access to the resources
Mitigation  Lack of information and knowledge
It refers to structural and non – structural measures  Limited access to the political power and
to reduce the adverse impact of disasters. representation
 Disintegration of social patterns
Preparedness  Migration
It means the activities and measures taken in
 Lack of insurance protection
advance to ensure effective response to the impact of
 Unhealthy living conditions
disasters, e.g. through the early warning systems.
 Lack of disaster preparedness
Preventive measures  Lack of information on preparedness
It is a set of activities that provide complete  Inadequate medical facilities
avoidance adverse impact of hazards and other  Increased population density
natural disasters, constructing dams to control water  Cultural practices
from flooding.  Deforestation
 Making settlement in disaster-prone areas
Recovery  Poor building materials
These are the decisions and actions taken after the
disasters which aim to restore or improve the pre- Common disasters affecting Malawi
disaster living conditions of the affected areas while  Earthquakes
encouraging and facilitating necessary adjustments This is the shaking and vibration at the surface
to reduce disaster recovery. of the earth. Lake shore areas are mostly
affected by earthquakes and earth tremors.
Types of disasters  Drought
There are different types of disasters as follows: This a condition of prolonged spell without rain
 Climatic disasters and making life tough
They are disasters caused by poor weather  Famine
conditions such as floods, drought and famine. This a widespread scarcity of food the results in
 Geomorphologic disasters starvation, malnutrition and increased mortality
These are disasters happening as a result of
naturally processes and conditions such as earth

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 Cyclones Preventive and mitigation measures for disasters

A cyclone is a violent storm characterized by  Encouraging farmers to use drought tolerant
high (heavy) winds crops and animals
 Disease epidemics  Practicing conservation farming to improve
An epidemic is the rapid spread of infectious water holding capacity in the soil.
diseases to a lager populations in a given within  Taking insurance cover against the effects of
short period of time. disasters
 Landslides  Practicing efficient water-use methods in the
A land slide is a downward movement of soil home to reduce wastage.
rocks, resulting from naturally occurring  Practicing rain water harvesting
vibrations  Practicing culture of afforestation in order to
 Floods deal with climate change.
Flood is a temporary covering of land by water
as a result of heavy rains Preventive and mitigation measures for
 Pest infestation earthquakes and earth tremors
This refers to the occurrence of one or more pest  Advertising people to hang heavy items and put
species in an area where their numbers and away grass ware such as picture and mirrors
impact are at intolerable levels. from beds, chairs any place where people sit or
sleep. These can easily fall off and cause
The effects disasters on individual injuries.
 It leads to injuries and loss of life  Advising people living in earthquakes prone
 Loss of home areas to build their houses using light materials
 Loss of food and income so that they do not get seriously injured when
 It leads to psychological trauma. Disasters can collapsing.
be traumatic for individuals following scene of  Enforcing the policy to ensure adherence to
destruction and death of friends and love ones building codes during construction so that
 Loss of personal property houses can withstand the shaking due to
earthquakes.
The effects disasters on community  Sensitizing children on earthquakes and
 Loss of means of subsistence for the affected providing them with psycho-social support to
community reduce trauma.
 It leads to spreading of infectious diseases due to  Advising people to store potentially hazardous
damage of sanitary facilities. materials such as chemical and petroleum
 It leads to displacement of people. products in appropriate containers because these
 It disrupts social services such as education and can catch fore and cause further damage to the
health house, life and property.
 It destroys social service infrastructures.
Preventive and mitigation measures for famine
The effects disasters on the nation  Advising households to reduce food wastage
 Insurance companies suffer big losses and their  Adopting and intensifying irrigation farming to
contribution to the economy is compromised due counter food shortage.
large sums of compensating insurance policy  Advising people to diversify food stuffs to
holders. ensure their survival in times of food shortage.
 Disruption of economic activities in the country  Developing famine early warning systems to
that lead to loss of production and reduced enhance disaster preparedness
revenue collection of the government.  Developing household and community
 It leads to destruction of social services which contingency
reduce capacity and overstretched resources.  Advising parents and guardians to sensitise
 Loss of investors’ confidence due to disruption their children on famine so that they can adjust
of economic activities. Investors seem disaster their eating habits in times of food shortage
prone areas which are not viable for investment.  Conducting civic education campaigns to
 High levels of damage of public infrastructure increase awareness of famine in order to reduce
leads to large disease cost and rehabilitation. vulnerability.
 It increases budgetary expenditure on relief
support in the affected areas.
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Preventive and mitigation measures for Preventive and mitigation pest infestation
landslides  Training and deploying more agricultural
 Planting trees on mountain slopes that help to extension workers in the rural areas
protect houses  Putting in place mechanisms for early detection
 Not cultivating on mountain slopes of pests
 Conducting civic education campaigns to  Making pesticides available and affordable.
increase public awareness and understanding of  Replant crops in all fields after being destroyed
landslides by pests
 Developing a pest infestation disaster
Preventive and mitigation measures for tropical communication plan.
cyclones  Conducting civic education campaigns to
 Having an insurance cover for cyclones increase awareness of different pests and what
 Developing community and household must be done when spotted
contingency plans.
 Encouraging people to develop culture of Advantages of managing disaster risks over
listening to the radio, watching TV for weather managing disasters
updates Disaster risk management Disaster management
 Building houses with strong materials to It prevents risks from Only carried out after a
withstand the cyclones turning into disasters and disaster has occurred and
 Establishing early warning system therefore saves property and therefore does not
human life from damage prevent the property and
 Advising those in disaster prone areas to identify human life from damage
safe places for evacuation in case of cyclones ….………..
 Mobilizing resources for relief operation in case It is very expensive to
cyclones occur. ….……….. bear the rebuilding and
Managing risks is less repairing damages
Preventive and mitigation measures for disease expensive than rebuilding caused by hazards that
epidemics and repairing damages have already occurred.
 Ensuring rapid detection of cases of epidemics - caused by hazards that have ….………..
already occurred. It only responds to the
prone diseases to avoid disasters. ….……….. effects of level of
 Developing effective risk communication It reduces the impact of vulnerability of
strategies for timely response to any disease disasters by enhancing communities and
outbreak. resilience capacity of households to various
 Encouraging people to develop a culture of communities and disasters.
seeking medical aid every time they are sick. households. ….………..
 Enacting support legislation to provide a legal ….……….. Recovery is difficult
It is easy for communities because of the extensive
framework to protect the population from
and individuals to recover damage caused due to
disease outbreak, e.g. forced treatment and from the effects of disasters lack of coping capacity
quarantine during the deadly epidemics. because of increased coping to withstand the impact
 Quarantining those suspected with highly capacity of communities to
contagious diseases. withstand the impact ….………..
 Making sure that everyone is following all ….……….. Communities and
health tips on prevention to contain the outbreak It allows communities and individuals do not know
from spreading individuals to know the the losses to which they
losses to which they are are exposed
 Making sure that those showing signs of the
exposed.
disease are being diagnosed and treated in good
time.
 Conducting civic education campaigns to
increase awareness on prevention and treatment

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TOPIC 25

GLOBAL ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Global issues are problems that affect anyone in the Implication of global issues on development
world whether in rich or poor countries.  Poverty
o It increases crime rate
Or it they are that may happen in one place or o The poor cannot adequately contribute to
worldwide but their impact affect everywhere in the economic development
world.  Epidemics
o Government spends huge sums of money
Examples of global issues in the 21st century buying drugs to deal with disease outbreak.
 Poverty o It kills a lot of people who could contribute
This has been defined as living on less than $1 to development.
per day. People who live mostly in South Asia, o Sick people cannot contribute to
South America and sub-Saharan Africa live development.
under high illiteracy, child-death cases and  Conflicts and refugee problem
malnutrition o Death of people who could contribute to
 Epidemics development.
In developing countries, infectious diseases like o Destruction of economic infrastructure
Covid–19, TB, HIV/AIDS and malaria are o Retards the country’s development
responsible for many illnesses and deaths o Pressure on social services and natural
 Conflicts resources
Conflicts in one country may involve other  Terrorism
countries as well e.g. the conflict in DRC has o It difficult to provide essential social
involved Uganda while in the Balkans, it has services
involved Yugoslavia o It increases pressure on natural resources.
 Terrorism  Refugee and economic migrants: Many people
Acts of terrorism are sometime directed against flee due to conflicts but some simply want better
civilians. A Shockiti example was the attack on standards of living. USA receives a lot of
USA on 11th September 2001 which was economic migrants.
allegedly carried out by an Anti-American  Weapons of mass destruction: They are
Islamist group led by Osama bin Laden, Arms' weapons which kill many people at once, e.g.
trade: These weapons are made in developed nuclear weapons.
countries and sold to developing countries  Economic globalisation
 Refugee and economic migrants: Many people The global economic policies benefit those
flee due to conflicts but some simply want better already developed countries.
standards of living. USA receives a lot of  Environmental problems
economic migrants. They damage the quality and purity of nature
 Weapons of mass destruction which in turn affect human life.
Such weapons kill a lot of people at once such as  World’s rapid population growth
nuclear weapons.
 Economic globalisation Examples of global issues
It refers to the integration of economies around  Climate changes: The emission of greenhouse
the world through trade, ideas and financial gases like carbon dioxide is causing
flows. It is a problem as it benefits more only temperatures on earth to rise in a process called
already the rich countries. global warming.
 Environmental problems  Pollution: The main cause of pollution is
Climate change, global warming and depletion burning fossils more especially in heavily
of ozone layer affect human life on Earth. industrialized areas. Pollution also occurs in
 World rapid population growth rivers through siltation or waste chemicals
It exerts pressure on social services and natural which are dumped in water. Soil can also be
resources. polluted by chemicals.

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 Desertification: This is caused by human activity 2. International organisations have made efforts
e.g. overgrazing, deforestation and excessive towards conflict prevention, peaceful conflict
land use. resolution and peace building in the world.
 Loss of biodiversity: This is mainly due to 3. International community came up with the 1951
destruction of habitats of fauna (animals) and Convention on the Status of Refugees on
flora (plants). improving the welfare of the refugees
4. Efforts are being made by international
Efforts being made to deal with global issues and organisations to control harmful diseases.
challenges 5. Countries formulate environmental policies to
1. There is an international campaign to combat deal with environmental challenges
trading of fire arms.

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FORM 4
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. MULTI – CULTURALISM -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
2. UNIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------4
3. NATIONAL SERVICE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
4. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS THAT FOSTE DEVELOPMENT--------------------------7
5. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON HUMA RIGHTS---------------------------------------------9
6. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT---------------------------------------------------------------------------11
7. DEVELOPING NATIONS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
8. ECONOMIC POLICIES----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
9. PERSONAL FINANCES----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18
10. FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS---------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
11. FINANCIAL SERVICE CONSUMERS---------------------------------------------------------------------23
12. POPULATION POLICY----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
13. POPULATION GROWTH-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------29
14. DISCRIMINATION---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30
15. GOVERNMENT OF MALAWI-------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
16. GOOD GOVERNANCE-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
17. TAXATION--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
18. GENDER AND ENVIRONMENT----------------------------------------------------------------------------42
19. POPULATION AND SOCIAL BEVAVIOUR--------------------------------------------------------------47
20. RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD-----------------------------------------------------------------------------49
21. UNIVERSAL MORALS AND VALUES--------------------------------------------------------------------50
22. INTERNATIONAL PEACE INITIATIVES----------------------------------------------------------------51
23. SOCIAL JUSTICE-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52
24. SOCIAL SERVICES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------54
25. WORLD COOPERATION-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------56

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TOPIC 1

MULTI – CULTURALISM

 This refers to a situation where different cultures in many countries. It also provides the potential
are able to co-exist, appreciating each other’s for introducing new products and services into
cultural diversity and ensuring that there is unity domestic markets.
 In fact, members share fundamental values
which enable them to co-exist without Negative impact of multiculturalism on
necessarily seeking uniformity. development
 Ethnic or racial rivalry
Factors that enhance multiculturalism These are groups which may not accept a set of
 Migration rules aimed at peaceful co-existence. They may
Migration and multinational media have not want to show supremacy over others without
enhanced multiculturalism in most societies. their consent. They may even want to destroy
Members are exposed to new ways of life and the weaker ones.
thought, e.g. languages, dressing pattern and  Dilution of other cultures
consumption. Some cultures may be required to operate within
 Politics the laws of the country thereby diluting other
It unites people of different backgrounds by cultures. Some cultural influences can also be so
holding common political ideologies. great that other cultures may be diluted.
 Religion  Economic exploitation
Religions teach people about peace and unity. Less influential groups may be exploited by
 Race and ethnicity major ones e.g. immigrants face the problem of
People are grouped into races because of their discrimination in work places and learning
physical characteristic; institutions.
On the other hand, ethnicity refers to people  It promotes discrimination
with common cultural traditions. When these Some groups may be discriminated based on
groups stay together, they can share their race, ethnicity, political and religious
ideologies hence enhancing multiculturalism. backgrounds.
 Trade  Expensive to promote
Due to globalization of markets, people move Recently arrived immigrants may need
from one area to another where they come into government assistance e.g. language acquisition,
contact with others from different cultural medical care and accommodation.
backgrounds.
 Citizenship Factors that help to manage multiculturalism
People can become citizens of other countries by  The nation should show equal respect and give
several means e.g. in Malawi, there are people of all cultures equal opportunity to
Malawians of Indian, British and Greek origin. flourish.
 There should be equal treatment in education,
Positive impact of multiculturalism employment opportunities, promotion and
 Unity and tolerance: It promotes peaceful co- appointment to public offices.
existence i.e. respecting the rights of others; we  There should be social justice and equal access
expect them to respect us as well. to political power even to minority communities.
 It promotes cooperation by bringing together  The institutions of the state i.e. the army, the
of different backgrounds police should be impartial and insulated against
 Improves the country's image: If people are ethnic, racial and religious pressures.
able to tolerate each other, they gain a lot of  Members should be encouraged to take an open-
respect. minded view of their cultural identity.
 Exchange of cultures: It leads to familiarity  Cultural communities should transmit their
with different customs, languages and traditions. cultural heritage e.g. languages, religion and
 Exchange of skills: Countries can easily get histories.
skilled employees from other countries.  All people should accept the basic structures and
 Taking advantage of the global market: It principles of societies e.g. the constitution.
allows countries to access influential networks
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TOPIC 2

UNIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

UNION  Go-slow: This is where employees put pressure

It is a membership-based civil society organization on their employers by reducing the amount of
formed by a group of workers to promote and their daily productivity.
protect their rights; union is characterized by action
and participation. ASSOCIATION
This is a membership-based civil society institution
Examples of unions are that comprises people who an involved in activities
a. Civil Servants Trade Union (CSTU) that reflect the same objectives.
b. Teachers' Union of Malawi (TUM)
c. Malawi Congress of Trade Union (MCTU) Examples of associations
d. The Journalists Union of Malawi (JUMA) a. Tea Growers' Association
e. Nurses Union of Malawi (NUM) b. National Association of Smallholder Farmers in
Malawi (NASFAM).
Roles of Unions c. Tobacco Growers Association of Malawi
 To sensitize workers on their rights related to d. Herbalist Association of Malawi
their occupation e. Independent Schools Association of Malawi
 To negotiate with employers for revision of f. Football Association of Malawi
workers’ salaries. g. Minibus Owners Association of Malawi
 Promoting, protecting and defending the rights
of their members. Roles of associations
 To bargain for fair minimum wages for workers  To mobilize, educate and organize members
in consistent with prevailing economic towards the improvement of their activities
conditions  Promoting, protecting and defending the rights
 To lead in industrial actions if bargaining with of their members.
employers proves a failure.  Influencing government decisions and policies
on matters affecting the lives of members.
Examples of industrial actions  Uniting their members and creating a friendly
 Stay-away: This is where union members do society.
not get involved in normal duties to pressurize
employers to accept their demands. Benefits of joining unions and associations
 Procession: This is where workers mobilize  It ensures protection against unfair dismissal
each other into a group and parade through the  It ensures better wages and salaries
streets demonstrating their grievances to their  It ensures better working conditions
employers through placards  It ensures access to credit and pension schemes
 Sit-in: This is where workers report for duty at  It ensures maternity protection
work places but they collect themselves at an  It ensures fair prices of commodities
open place, staying away from work-related
activities.

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TOPIC 3

NATIONAL SERVICE

National service  It makes people develop a hard-working spirit since

This is an arrangement where people render their they aim at achieving a common aim within a
voluntary services to aspects of development for their specified time-frame.
own lives. The main principle here is 'self-help.' In  It promotes the spirit of volunteerism and patriotism
Malawi, examples are MASAF and Youth Week.  It encourages honesty and integrity
 It fosters a hard-working spirit
Examples of national service  It encourages discipline and respect for others.
 Youth week of Malawi  It encourages wise management of economic
 Teaching adult literacy classes environmental and human resources in the
 Sweeting in the street and market community.
 Helping in the hospital  It promotes leadership skills

The importance of national service Ways in which citizens can participate in national
 It encourages a spirit of self-reliance as communities service
make full use of locally-available resources to  By cleaning in hospitals and other public places.
implement their projects.  By working on community projects such as
 It fosters cooperation in the sense that by working construction of classroom blocks for free.
together, there is demonstration of unity.  By offering to help in providing relief assistance for
 It encourages development of individual initiative free during national disasters
since the local community is involved in initiating,  By assisting the orphans and the needy in the
planning, designing and implementing a project. community for free.
 By offering t serve in the military or police for free
in the interest of national security.

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TOPIC 4

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS THAT FOSTER DEVELOPMENT

International organisations are organisations that 3. Non – Governmental Organisations (NGOs)

have international membership scope and they  World Vision International
present worldwide.  Plan International
 Action Aid.
Examples of international organisations  Cheshire Homes
 World Bank  National Red Cross Society
 European Union (EU)  Various orphan care organisations found in
 Japanese International Cooperation Agency the country etc.
(JICA)
 Canadian International Development Agency Role and importance of international
(CIDA) organisations
 African Development Bank  Promoting infrastructural development by
 International Development Bank building schools, roads and airports.
 International Monetary Fund (IMF)  Transfer of technical expertise: International
organisations come into a country with people
Types of organisations who have professional expertise in areas like
These organisations are categorized health, education, modern technology and
politics.
1. Multilateral Organisations  Capacity building
These are organisations formed by multiple They provide capacity building to coordinate
countries working together on a given issue. institutions and beneficiaries by empowering the
people concerned.
Examples of multilateral organisations  Provision of economic opportunities
 World Bank International organisations support local
 European Union communities with financial assistance for
 OPEC Fund for International Develop initiating small enterprise projects.
 Saudi Funds for International Development  Providing advocacy and civic education
They help in providing awareness among the
2. Bilateral organisations members of the public on issues that affect their
They are organisations that receive funding from lives.
the government in their home countries and use  Initiating and strengthening bilateral
the funding to help developing countries. relations:
In most cases, the donor country and the
Examples of bilateral organisations recipient end up forging ties for the smooth
 Japanese International Cooperation Agency implementation of a particular project.
(JICA)  Bridging the gap between the rich and the
 Canadian International Development poor
Agency (CIDA) By providing basic necessities like potable
 Norwegian Agency for Development water, the organisations try to ensure that
Cooperation everyone enjoys quality life.
 Swedish International Development Agency  Globalization
 Germany International Cooperation The interaction between the originating country
 Danish International Development Agency and the recipient may involve exchange of
(DANIDA) information, culture, technology and others.

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TOPIC 5

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ON HUMAN RIGHTS

Conventions for protecting human rights for

special groups 2. Malawi Human Rights Commission
C. International conventions on women and  It promotes the rights of women and
girls children
 It promotes academic freedom
1. The Convention on the Political Rights of  It protects the rights of prisoners and
Women refugees
 It was originally agreed at the United
Nations in 1953 but Malawi signed it in 3. Malawi Human Rights and Resource Centre
1966. (MHRRC)
 It focuses on the rights of women to vote,  It provides training on issues of human
to be eligible for education and to hold rights
public offices.  It provides information and document on
human rights
2. The Convention on the Elimination of all  It provides projects grant for human rights
Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW) 4. Foundation for Human Rights (NGO)
It was originally agreed at the UN in New It provides fundraising services for promoting
York in 1981 and Malawi endorsed it in 1987. human rights.

D. International conventions on the protection International institutions that deal with the
of refugees and the stateless people rights of special groups
1. The 1951 UN Convention Relating to the 1. Amnesty International
Status of Refugees  It focuses in human rights
2. The 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status  Functions
of Refugees  It campaigns to free prisoners of
3. The 1954 Convention Relating to the conscience
Stateless People  To end political killings and
4. The 1961 Convention on the Reduction of disappearances
Stateless Persons  To lobby for the abolition of death penalty
5. The 1969 AU Convention Governing the  To ensure prompt and fair trial that for all
Specific Aspects of Refugees Problems in political prisoners
Africa
 To ensure free education to all children
6. The 1984 Cartegan Declartion
worldwide.
 It opposes human rights abuses by
Special clauses include the right to:
opposition groups
 Acquire and maintain property and retain
custody of children.
2. The Human Rights Watch
 Fair disposition of property after marriage
 It promotes the rights of women and
dissolution.
children
 Be protected from sexual abuse, harassment
 Promotes human academic freedom
and violence.
 It protects rights of prisoners and refugees
 Be free from discrimination in work places.
3. International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Local institutions that deal with the rights of
Movement
special groups
It is an international humanitarian movement
1. The Ombudsman
which helps the victims of wars and natural
To investigate cases of alleged human rights
disasters.
violations or cases of injustice.

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Functions  Providing medical treatment to wounded

 Visiting prisoners of war soldiers in the battle field.
 Tracing and reuniting family members
separated by war. 4. United Nations High Commissioner for
 Providing assistance to those affected by Refugees (UNHCR)
war. It safeguards the rights and wellbeing of
 Providing relief aid to people affected by refugees.
conflicts or natural disasters.

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TOPIC 6

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Meaning of sustainable development  Community participation

 Sustainable development refers to the careful Individuals, the community non-governmental
use of resources and the environment without organisations and the private sector need to play
compromising the ability of the future a role in the management of resources.
generation.  Interdependence
 The major focus of attention is that humanity It is necessary to acknowledge our common
must not take more than the nature can interests so that each decision or action taken
replenish. has full knowledge and consequences that can
arise.
Importance of sustainable development  Responsibility and accountability
 It helps to improve the people’s living standards People must learn to achieve development
and quality of life without harming the environment for the sake of
 It helps to control environmental issues such as the future generation.
climate change.  Diversification
 It ensures continuous supply of resources for There should a variety of ways of generating
people which leads to decent lives income for the developments to succeed in the
 It promotes socio – economic development of a country. The development projects should
country. support each other when one fails.
 It ensures efficient and effective use of  Availability of resources
resources. Financial and non-financial resources e.g.
trained personnel help in implementing
Conditions favourable for sustainable environmental protection.
development
 Policy and legislative measures Environmental management and consequences of
Countries should formulate development misuse of resources
policies and put laws that will promote  Participation
sustainable use of resources. The Malawi Individuals, the community non-governmental
Parliament passed the Environmental Education organisations and the private sector need to play
Act in 1996. a role in the management of resources.
 Peace and security  Interdependence
This helps development initiatives to succeed if It is necessary to acknowledge our common
there is peace. interests so that each decision or action taken
 Use of appropriate technology has full knowledge and consequences that can
Appropriate technology makes use of readily arise.
available resources and spares.  Responsibility and accountability
 Gender equality People must learn to achieve development
Men and women, boys and girls should be without harming the environment for the sake of
involved in development plans and projects. the future generation.
 Education and awareness  Resources
There is need to make people change their ideas, Financial and non-financial resources e.g.
attitudes and behaviours. If people are educated, trained personnel help in implementing
they can know the benefits of good sustainable environmental protection.
environmental management and consequences
of misuse of resources,

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TOPIC 7

DEVELOPING NATIONS

Developing nations are those that lag behind the 

Pass rates at certificate level are very low.
developed nations in terms of indicators of 
The teacher-pupil ratio especially at primary
development school is very high.
 Lack of qualified teachers.
Common characteristics  High school drop out
 Poverty  Lack of teaching facilities
They lack of economic resources and a large  Lack of teaching and learning materials.
proportion of the population depends on  Low adult literacy rate
inadequate incomes. This results in high infant b. Health
and maternal mortality rates, malnutrition and
 Infant mortality rates are higher as
diseases.
compared to other countries.
 Dependence on agriculture  The nutritional status of children has not
Most people are either subsistent or semi- improved at recognizable levels.
subsistent farmers. As a result, food insecurity is
 Diseases related to drinking of dirty water
very common.
are very common.
 Rapid growth of towns
 There is an increase in the number of AIDS
Many people migrate to towns with a belief that
cases.
they can easily earn a living there. This results in
 There is an acute shortage of qualified staff.
squatter settlements on the outskirts of the cities
and towns, street trading, begging, crime and c. Agriculture
prostitution.  Use of primitive farming technologies
 High population growth  Lack of agricultural inputs
Due to reduced health care, most families fail to  Food insecurity
control the number of children in their families.  Shortage of agricultural land
 Economic weaknesses  There is continuous cultivation on marginal
Due to high dependence on agricultural exports, lands like hilly areas and river banks due to
their economies are often affected by risks and shortage of land.
uncertainties.  There is soil erosion and land degradation
 Dependence on foreign aid due to pressure on land. There is food
The developing nations find this as the only way insecurity.
of funding their development programmes. d. Trade and commerce
 High debt levels  It is difficult to promote micro and medium
Many developing nations owe a lot of money to businesses.
external countries.  High unemployment levels.
 Instability  There is a limited export base as the country
Many of them are plagued by conflicts which mainly depends on tobacco.
often arise due to competition for resources
which are often insufficient. The role of donors in economic development
 Lack of capital Malawi depends on aid from other countries in order
 Inadequate social services to bridge the gap between government's revenue and
 Rapid growth of towns which leads to the the money that the country needs for development.
growth of squatter settlement in towns.
Types of donors
Specific development challenges in Malawi 1. Bilateral donors (Foreign Governments)
This is the kind of assistance from one country
a. Education to another. Malawi's bilateral partners include
 Boys are more likely than girls to reach the Libya, Kuwait, China and America.
later stages of primary school let alone 2. Multilateral donors (International Agencies)
These draw funding from their member
secondary school.
countries and give funding to developing
 The number of pupils who continue up to
countries either directly or by supporting
secondary school is very low.
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specific projects. Examples are World Bank and Negative role of donors
International Monetary Fund.  Perpetuating dependence: People's ability to
3. Charities (Non-governmental organisations) provide for themselves is undermined by
These offer aid to help in development. They massive aid as people take aid as a solution to
normally give small amounts of aid either their problems.
directly to groups or individuals working on  They promote neo-colonialism: This is the
projects at grassroots level in local communities. influence of wealthier countries on poor
countries e.g. the policy of privatization, free
Positive role of donors market economy. These policies have caused
 They provide funding for development hardships in many countries.
initiatives e.g. supplementing the national  They direct countries on how to spend the
budgets. money hence making them channel their money
 They provide technical assistance in form of on non-priority areas.
high level manpower.  Many donors overlap in their works and this
 They help in human resource development e.g. makes beneficiaries fail to manage and
providing scholarships for individuals to study coordinate the aid they receive.
in developed countries.
 They help in promotion of good governance by Donor countries to Malawi
demanding conditions like transparency and  UK
accountability for developing countries to get  USA
aid.  China
 Germany
 Denmark
 Italy etc.

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TOPIC 9

ECONOMIC POLICIES

Economic policies refer to actions taken by  It helps to keep inflation under control to
government in order to influence or control the ensure price stability of goods at a market.
behaviour of the economy.  It helps to reduce government’s interference on
the market
Types of economic policies  It stimulates trade for meaningful economic
1. Macro-economic policies development
They are set of actions that government takes
designed to affect the whole economy. Economic stability
2. Micro-economic policies It is about identifying various strategies that make
They are set of actions that government takes it possible to use available resources to their best
designed to affect the specific sectors of advantages in order to provide long term benefits.
economy such as specific industries or
products. Or it is the use of various strategies for employing
existing resources optimally so that a responsible
Goal of economic policy and beneficial balance can be achieved over a long
1. Economic growth term.
This is a general desire that the incomes of all
citizens and companies should be increasing Roles of citizens in economic development
over time.  Reducing economic wastes by using economic
2. Full employment resources efficiently
The purpose of this goal is that every person  Having preference of quality rather than
who is working age and wants to work should quantity
be able to find a job.  Leading sustainable lifestyles by reducing the
3. Price stability use of resources, e.g. walking instead of
It helps to prevent increases in the general driving.
price levels known as inflation.
4. Poverty alleviation Indicators of economic sustainability
It aims at reducing poverty in a country.  Reduced levels of waste production from
households and industries
Importance of economic policies for developing
 Reduced reliance on those resources whose use
countries
produces environmentally unfriendly by-
 It helps the create an environment for
products.
investment of enterprises which leads to
 Increased efforts to replace used resources by
economic growth
individuals, households, businesses and other
stakeholders.

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TOPIC 10

PERSONAL FINANCES

Personal finances are all financial decision  Over consumption of money

activities of an individual such as budgeting,  Negligible personal and household development
insurance, savings, investing and others.  Dependency on payday loans (katapila)

Ways of managing finances Savings

a. Budgeting Savings refer to amount of money that people keep
b. Savings for future sue.
c. Investment Or it refers to the amount of income that one keeps
for future use. It is advisable hat one must save at
Budgeting least 10% of his/her income.
It is a process of creating a plan on how to spend
the money. Importance of saving
 It helps to save money for future uncertainties,
Or it is an estimate of what and how one wants to e.g. sicknesses
spend money in a given period of time.  It is the life cycle motive – anticipated future
expenses during old age
Importance of budgeting  The improvement motive – it is a key to
 It helps to make a spending plan for one’s personal development and asset building
money  Saving for investment – multiplier effect
 It helps one to have enough money for the which means wealth building
things he/she needs an that are important  Saving for good education
 It helps to control debts
 It helps to achieve one’s financial plans Different ways through which people can save
 It directs one on how to spend money and invest
 It determines one’s success  Saving through property
 It helps to control over-expenditure  Having savings account in the commercial
banks
Factors which must be considered when  Opening fixed deposit account in the
budgeting commercial banks
 Listing down all the previous expenditures.  The stock market – shares, treasury bonds and
This forms the starting point for current others
budgeting.  Collective savings – village banks
 Keeping receipts of our budgeting  Individuals borrow working capital for their
 Creating an expenditure plan for the microenterprises. There are banks that target
forthcoming month helping poor people, e.g. FINCA.
 Prioritising your expenditure and a budget.
 Sticking to your budget Investment
 When spending, think before you do This means putting money into an asset or bank
saving account with an aim of gaining a profit for
Some of the priorities that one must consider future use. It includes buying and selling of
include: financial and physical assets.
 Basic necessities like food and utilities
 Reducing your debts as low as possible Importance of investment
 Settle your debts  It gives peace of mind as one is assured that
 Budget for savings and have a clear vision of he/she has something in times of need.
the goals you want to achieve  It may serve as security for a loan.
 It can be sued for a long term savings
Results of lack of budgeting  It helps to serve money for major purposes
 Financial distress or Lack of financial freedom  It earns return on idle resources because
 Over indebtedness money invested gets interest.

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 It can be used as emergency fund.  Individuals borrow working capital for their
microenterprises. There are banks that target
Different ways through which people can save helping poor people, e.g. FINCA.
and invest
 Saving through property Financial institutions where people can invest or
 Having savings account in the commercial save their money
banks  Commercial Banks, e.g. National Bank of
 Opening fixed deposit account in the Malawi and Standard Bank
commercial banks  Deposit Taking Microfinance Institutions
 The stock market – shares, treasury bonds and  Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCO)
others  Treasury bonds with the Reserve Bank of
 Collective savings – village banks Malawi

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TOPIC 11

FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Finance refers to the money needed to support an Central or Reserve Bank of Malawi (RBM)
activity or a project. It is the financial wing of the government being at
the centre of the money market.
Financial institutions are institutions that provide Functions
financial services for their clients or members.  It issues legal tender currency in Malawi
 It acts as a banker to commercial banks in
Examples of financial institutions in Malawi Malawi
1. Banks  It acts as a banker and advisor to the Malawi
 Central or Reserve Bank Government.
 Commercial Banks  It promotes sound economic structures in
2. Credit reference bureaus Malawi
3. Insurance companies  It promotes existence of money and capital
4. Microfinance institutions market
5. Credit unions  It looks after government’s money. As such:
 It raises money for government.
Bank  It pays back the money which government
Bank is an institution which collects funds from the borrows from other institutions.
general public and organisations, safeguards them  It looks after money received from taxation
and makes them available to owners when needed. and other sources.
There are two main groups of banks such as:  It stores the nation's foreign currency and
 Commercial banks establishes rules for foreign exchange (forex).
 Central banks  It supervises banking systems in the country to
ensure financial stability.
Commercial banks  It predicts financial implications of some
They are banks that accept deposits, make loans and government policies.
provide security of money to their customers. The
commercial banks in Malawi include: Credit Reference Bureaus
a. National Bank of Malawi They are information solutions agencies that
b. Standard Bank determine the credit worthiness of a person or an
c. First Capital Bank entity.
d. FDH
Functions of Credit Reference Bureaus
Their duties  They provide details about an individual’s past
 They provide cash to customers when needed. track record with credit
 They make loans and accept deposits from their  They help money lenders to quantify the risk of
customers lending to a given applicant.
 They collect payments on behalf of their
customers Stock exchange
 They arrange foreign for exporters and importers This involves the buying and selling of shares in
 They pay credits on behalf of their customers businesses. The shares can generate profit or loss
 Lending money to customers and charging them depending on how business is progressing.
interest.
 They allow customers to transfer money from Functions of Stock exchange
their account to someone else.  Bringing together buyers and sellers of stocks or
 They offer cheques which is a useful way of shares for investments to change hands.
paying bills.
 They give advice to customers. Building societies
 They change foreign currency. These are mainly involved in lending money to
people to buy property. The loans are called
mortgages.

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Insurance companies  High interest rates which discourage

These protect people against risks e.g. Accidents. prospective customers.
 High bank charges: Interest rates in many
Functions of insurance companies developing countries are very high.
 They provide cover for events that may happen.
They are risk bearers. Challenges that people face when dealing with
financial institutions in Malawi
Microfinance institutions  They do not disclose information on charges
These are owned by members with the aim of  Poor customer care by some staff that do not
providing financial services e.g. SACCO treat their clients with respect.
 Financial fraud (illegal withdrawing of money
Functions of microfinance institutions by bank workers from depositors’ accounts.
 Keeping money for low income groups
Contributions of financial institutions
Services offered by financial institutions  They help in regulating (controlling) the
 Providing current account economy e.g. Increasing and decreasing of
 Providing loan account interest rates.
 They set insurance policies  They provide loans hence promoting economic
 They run pension schemes growth of countries.
 They offer investment plans  They encourage the spread of self-reliance and
 They facilitate monetary payments and transfers responsibility.
 They offer currency exchange  They encourage a sense of empowerment to the
 They offer e-banking or m-banking services disadvantaged groups e.g. Women, people with
disabilities.
Factors that hinder prospective customers from  Other financial institutions e.g. credit unions
accessing financial Services provide benefits to people who cannot be served
 Unavailability of financial service by the main banking institutions.
institutions: There are few financial institution  They provide jobs to many people
to cater for all Malawians  They promote saving culture among the rural
 Most of them are in urban areas. people
 It is very difficult for business people to get the  They provide insurance to enable investment in
loan that they need to start up business. high risks business ventures by removing
 The banks follow a set of modalities some of uncertainties.
which are very difficult e.g. Experience,  They provide liquidity to cater for the
business plan, education level. unexpected needs for cash by businesses and
 `Lack of training for first time business people. households
 Collateral: They demand security (collateral)  They purchase government securities to enable it
from the applicant. raise more money for its activities
 They demand a guarantor (someone who will
pay if the applicant defaults).

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TOPIC 12

FINANCIAL SERVICE CONSUMERS

Financial service consumers are economic

activities or products provided to consumers by The demand for money
financial institutions such as banks, insurance There are three main variables that determine the
companies and other financial service providers. demand for money Interest rates:
 The higher the interest rates, the lower the
Right of financial service consumers demand for money. Average prices of goods
a. Right to clear and easy to understand and services
information about financial products.  The higher the average prices of goods and
b. Right to be protected (right to safety). To be services, the more the money required to
protected from hazardous products at the purchase them hence more demand.
market.  Real incomes: The higher the real income, the
c. Right to disclosure of the cost and other related less the demand for money, e.g. a Kl 0 in 2007
charges of financial products. To know the ha: less buying power than a K10 in 1997.
costs of the products that one incurs.
d. Right to complain or right to be heard and right Supply
to voice This refers to the quantity of goods that sellers are
e. Right to redress or remedy. It is about seeking able to sell at any given price.
monetary compensation for the fault products.
f. Right to service or right to receive courtesy The supply of money
and respectful treatment. They should get This is the money currently in circulation outside
appropriate response form the service the banking system plus deposits in the banks.
providers.
The supply can be affected by the following
Right of financial service consumers factors:
a. Choosing a registered and licensed financial  Discount rate: This is the interest rate that the
institution. Central bank charges when commercial banks
b. Being alert to customer information, such as want to borrow money from it. By lowering
SMS financial report. the discount rate, member banks can make
c. Making prompt repayments of loans increased loan from the central bank.
d. Giving correct information including own  Using reserve requirement or reserve ratio:
identity. This is the minimum ratio of cash reserves to
e. Keeping financial documents safe, e.g. ATM the deposits that the central bank requires
card commercial banks to hold. The lower the
reserve ratio, the more the money will be in
The procedure in lodging a complaint against a supply.
financial institution  Open market operations: This is when the
central bank sells securities to people or
MARKET FORCES: Demand and supply organisations on an open market. This makes
Demand refers to the quantity of goods based on the money in supply to be less.
the buyers' wish. The higher the price, the lower
the quantity demanded.

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TOPIC 13

POPULATION POLICY

Policy is a statement issued by government to overcrowding in schools, hospital and public

control the actions of people. transport.
Therefore, population policy refers to an attempt of
government to reduce growth of population by 5. The growing pressure on natural resources
reducing fertility rate. Due to population growth, there is a serious
environmental degradation by careless cutting
The population policy of Malawi was formulated down of trees and continuous land use.
in 1994. This coordinates national policy and 6. High dependence burden
development planning. Dependence burden is the number of children
below the age of 18 whose depend on the few
Key elements or priority areas of population economically productive people. This results
policy into socio – economic problems as there are
more neglected and poor children.
There are four priority areas of population policy
such as: Practices which affect the implementation of the
1. Advocacy, information, education and population policy
communication a. Religious beliefs
The main goal is to promote advocacy, IEC Some religions prohibit their members from
and behaviour change relating to development accessing family planning and contraceptive
issues. services.
2. Coordination of population programmes b. Polygamy
and capacity building Polygamy results into having many children
It enhances coordination of population and born per couple.
development programmes. c. Initiation ceremonies
3. Data collection, analysis and dissemination Some initiation ceremonies encourage early
It aims at enhancing generation, dissemination sex and teenage pregnancies.
and use of sicio – economic data. d. Widow inheritance
4. Mainstreaming of population and issues in A brother of a deceased person marries a
development planning widow to continue bearing children.
The goal is to promote the integration of e. Widow cleansing
population issues such as family planning, This is where a brother to a dead man has sex
empowerment of youths and women in with a widow to allow the spirit of a deceased
development programmes person rest in peace. This spreads HIV and
AIDS and unplanned pregnancies.
The factors that influenced the development of f. Moral decay
population policies in Malawi Moral decay such as prostitution, rape, incest
The main factors affecting the policy are as and defilement lead to unplanned pregnancies
follows: and the spreading of HIV and AIDS.
1. High fertility rate
.fertility rate is the number of children that a Ways of eradicating practices that affect the
woman at the child bearing age expects to implementation of the population policy
have. In Malawi, fertility rate is so high. 1. Women empowerment
2. Rapid population growth Women and girls should be sent to schools and
The Malawi’s population is growing rapidly colleges so as to stand on their won for their
which bring other social and environmental daily livelihood. They should also be given
problems. chance to control economic resources such as
3. Unemployment running businesses for their own self –
There are high unemployment levels in reliance.
Malawi due to rapid population growth. 2. Public awareness campaign
4. Increasing pressure on social services People should sensitized on the effects of some
There is high demand for social services due to cultural practices that affect the population
rapid population growth. For example, there is growth.
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3. By changing or eliminating some cultural Strategies use in the successful implementation

practices of a population policy
It is important that faith – based, community 1. Information, education and communication
and other stakeholders to eliminate bad It is about increasing awareness at national and
cultural practices. household levels about the relationships
4. Use of legislation or laws between population, available and family
This is about using law enforcement to wellbeing.
eliminate some bad cultural practices. 2. Research and environmental strategies
5. Changing people’s attitudes It is about gathering information on cultural,
This will help women and children to be social economic and demographic related
involved in decision making. issues that help in the implementation of a
population policy.
Goals of a population policy 3. Family planning service delivery
1. Demographic and family planning. It is about accessing family planning
 To achieve lower population growth. programmes delivered in the communities. It is
 To lower fertility, infant and maternal also about messages about limiting the family
mortality. size.
 To reduce adolescent marriages and 4. Gender and development strategies
unwanted teenage pregnancies. It involves supporting all initiatives women
 To slow down high rate of urbanization. that increase women participation in
2. Information, education and communication development programmes, e.g. employment.
 To enhance programmes which increase 5. Advocacy strategies
awareness of the population problem and It involves actively supporting the policies that
facilitate information about contraceptives bring about change.
 To improve access, quality, efficiency and
vocational relevance of primary schools. Programmes for implementing the Malawi
 Systematically integrate population population policy
education in formal school system. 1. Safe motherhood programmes
They aim at reducing illness and death among
3. Gender and development
pregnant mothers and infants.
 To improve the status of women and
2. Reproductive health programmes
youths in all spheres of life
The programmes provide services such as
 To ensure food security and adequate
family planning, counseling and safe delivery.
nutrition to mothers and children.
They also provide services like post – natal
4. Research and environment and pre – natal care.
 To improve collection, analysis and 3. Information, education and communication
dissemination of population data. programmes
 To promote environmental education They aim at enhancing the ability of couples to
among various population groups. exercise their basic right to decide on the
5. Employment number and spacing of children.
 To improve entrepreneurial, managerial 4. Gender programmes
and other relevant skills for the country's They help in addressing gender issues.
labour force for the self-employment. 5. Advocacy programmes
 To increase productive employment and They are programmes that support a particular
more equitable distribution of resources cause or issues.

Importance of involving all stakeholders in the

implementation of the population policy
It ensures effective implementation of the
population policy.

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TOPIC 14

POPULATION GROWTH

Population control means regulation of the  Floods and mudflows: This is most serious
country's population size by either natural or man- in Asian countries. In 1991, there were
made ways. flash floods in Mulanje Mountain.

Ways of controlling population growth Man-made ways

There are two main ways of controlling population  Wars: These affect civilians including the
growth such as: elderly, women and children. More serious
a. Natural ways deaths occur when one side in a war would like
b. Human or man-made ways to wipe out the entire tribe/race (genocide).
 Family planning: In countries like China where
Natural ways the population is very high, people are only
 Epidemics: Many diseases like TB, cancer, allowed to have one child.
HIV/AIDS, heart disease, cause premature  Controlled migration: provision of jobs to
deaths, in addition, some outbreaks like people in their local areas limit the
cholera kill many people. unnecessary migration to far and different
 Infant mortality: Many premature deaths are regions in search for jobs.
those of infants before they reach their first
birthday. These may be caused by diphtheria, The importance of controlling population
measles and whooping cough. growth
 Natural disasters: Some parts of the world  It helps to reduce overcrowding in public
suffer from places such as schools, markets, hospitals,
 Earthquakes, public transport etc.
 Volcanic eruptions  Helps to preserve both plant and animal
 Mudflows. species.
 Drought: This is common where rainfall I  It helps to reduce unemployment levels
unreliable. This is common in Africa, South  It helps to reduce pressure on social services.
of the Sahara desert and in the horn of  It helps to reduce pressure on environmental
Africa. It causes starvation since the food resources
from the previous harvest may have been  It helps to reduce cases of food insecurity due
eaten. to shortage of agricultural land and insufficient
food supply.

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TOPIC 15

DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination refers to any exclusion, restriction j. Politics

or preference which has the purpose of nullifying Some people may be discriminated because of
or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise holding different political ideologies.
on equal footing of human rights. Case studies of discrimination
1. Apartheid in South Africa
Or it refers to giving less favorable treatment to This was due to racial discrimination which
certain groups of people due to their characteristics resulted in great inequalities in income
and other factors. between the blacks and the whites. It also led
to inequalities in training, promotion and
Factors that contribute to discrimination entrenchment.Therewasalsounequaldistribution
a. Racism ofassetslikepreventingtheblack Africans from
This involves treating one group of people less owning land.
favourably than the other because of their
physical characteristics 2. Caste system in India
b. Ethnocentrism Caste refers to specify a group of people
This is mainly based on the ancestry and having a specific social rank. This system is
cultural heritage where one group judges the closely connected with Hinduism in India and
other as being inferior e.g. the Hutus and the classifies the Hindus into four groups in
Tutsis in Rwanda, hierarchical order. The members of each group
c. Nationalism believe they are descendants of one ancestor.
This refers to the patriotic feelings and The four basic groups include:
principles that go with being a citizen of the  Brahmans who are the priests and the
country. Foreign migrants are often as people learned class.
who have come to exploit the best of the  Kshatriyas who are rulers, warriors and
country e.g. the Germans against the Jews. property owners.
d. Gender preferences  Vaishyas who are traders or deal with
This occurs mainly in political, economic, commercial livelihoods.
social and cultural fields where in most cases  Shudras who are labourers.
women are sidelined due to their biological  The untouchables who do not belong to
make-up any of the caste groups and were
e. Religion historically not allowed in temples and
It divides people of different religious values other public places. Their jobs include
and beliefs. toilet cleaning toilets and garbage
f. Disability (rubbish) removal hence the
People with physical or mental disability are ‘untouchable’.
viewed as non-productive in the society. As
such, they may have problems in accessing 3. Racism in America
education or employment The Ku Klux Klan is a white most influential
g. Ill health supremacist organization in the USA which
Chronic diseases and epidemics such as believes that blacks are inferior to the whites
HIV/AIDS have caused people to be and aims at keeping America white. They also
discriminated. In most societies, most service believe that people of different races should be
providers are reluctant to offer services to such separated hence discourage inter racial
people marriages. The Ku Klux Klan is involved in
h. Economic status racial crimes. For example, in March, 1997, a
Poor people are treated badly by those who are 13 year old black boy who rode his bicycle in a
rich. white neighbourhood was attacked and left
i. Education brain damaged. In addition, in1981, a black
Well educated people disregard those who are man was chained and dragged to his death by a
below them in education levels. pick-up truck in Texas.

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Organisations and legal instruments addressing  It leads to absenteeism and low morale at a
discrimination work place which lowers productivity.
 The UN's Universal Declaration on Human  It leads to disunity and lack of cooperation in
Rights: This was adopted and proclaimed by the society.
the UN's General Assembly on 10th December  On the individual, it can affect one's career,
1948. The Malawi Human Rights academic performance or potential.
Commission: It offers advice on human rights  It can lead to physical or emotional withdraw
and provides civic education and promotion of from friends, family and co-workers.
human rights.  In the society, there can be instability, retarded
 Malawi Council for the Handicapped development and poverty.
(MACOHA): It offers education and training
in disability awareness and campaigns for Efforts to curb discrimination
people with disabilities to enjoy all human  Ratification of human rights declarations by
rights without any form of discrimination. nations: The UN charter recognizes that
everyone is entitled to all human rights without
Effects of discrimination in the community discrimination of any kind.
 It retards development as it prevents the  Entrenchment of a bill of rights in the
marginalized people from engaging in constitution: Being the most supreme law of
productive occupations for the betterment of the land, everyone must conform to the
entire society. constitution.
 It brings about instability and violence as the  Establishment of institutions that promote
victims want their views to be heard. human rights.
 It may cause terrorism as those discriminated
against want to revenge through terror attacks.
 It increases poverty because discrimination
leads to unfair distribution of resources and
opportunities.

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TOPIC 16

GOVERNMENT OF MALAWI

Composition of the Central Government  Privatization programmes (sale of state

1. The legislature: the body which comprises the enterprises).
president and members of parliament.
The Local Government in Malawi
Functions of legislature Local government is where power, authority and
 Representing interests of the people of responsibilities of central government are
Malawi. transferred to lower and more local levels of
 Debating legislation proposed by decision-making. This is called decentralization.
parliament.
 Amending, accepting or rejecting new Why decentralisation is necessary
laws and existing ones.  Development programmes are tailored
 Approving budgets before they are passed. according to the needs of the local community.
 It provides an opportunity for many citizens to
2. The executive take an active part in government hence
This is the organ of government which strengthening democracy.
comprises the president, vice president(s),  It encourages mobilization of local resources
ministers and deputy ministers in a body called i.e. Human, natural and financial.
cabinet.
The history of Local Government in Malawi
Functions of the executive  The system was initially set up by the colonial
 To decide objectives and how to achieve regime in form of chiefs' council in the
them. The strategies for achieving these traditional authorities.
objectives are known as policies.  Those councils were responsible for local
 It drafts laws for consideration by development then later education.
parliament.  During the one-party rule, it was dominated by
single-party politics.
3. Judiciary  After the return of multiparty in 1994,
This organ comprises law officers and law institutions of local government were revived.
courts.  In 1998, cabinet approved the Malawi
decentralization policy and parliament passed
Functions of judiciary the local government act.
 To ensure that laws passed by parliament
are kept. Objectives of the new Local Government system
 To ensure that everybody respects the  To create a democratic environment and
constitution. institutions for governance and development at
 To settle disputes among individuals local level.
 To make public services more efficient and
Sources of revenue for Central Government cost-effective.
 Income taxes  To promote accountability and good
 Customs and Excise duty Custom duties (taxes governance at local level so that it is able to
imposed on imports) reduce poverty.
 Miscellaneous departmental receipts  To mobilize the masses for socio-economic
 Loans development
 Government’s commercial activities from
statutory corporations, e.g. water boards. NB: to coordinate service delivery, the office of
 Donor aid the district commissioner has been merged with
 Rent payments from civil servants who occupy that of the local/district council to form a structure
in government’s houses. called assembly.
 Road taxes and fines imposed by law courts

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Dimensions of decentralization  Income generating activities e.g. running a rest

1. Administrative: this involves transfer of house.
authority and responsibility for managing  Revenue transfers form Central Government
resources to local government authorities.  From non-governmental organisations.
2. Political: this involves transferring of policy  Loans
and legislative powers from central  Produce Cessi: These are taxes paid by people
government to elected sub-national and local who sell the produce at the local markets.
councils.
3. Fiscal: this refers to transfer of authority and Statutory corporations
responsibility of raising and spending revenues These are state enterprises or parastatals by an Act
from central to local communities. of Parliament
Functions performed by the Local Government Examples of statutory corporations in Malawi
 Promoting and consolidating local democratic 1. Agricultural Development And Marketing
institutions and democratic participation. Corporation (ADMARC)
 Promoting infrastructural and democratic 2. Blantyre Water Board
development plans at various levels. 3. Malawi Institute of Education
 Maintaining peace and security in the district 4. Malawi Development Corporation.
in conjunction with the national police service. 5. ESCOM
 Mobilizing resources within and outside the 6. Malawi Broadcasting Corporation (MBC)
government. 7. University of Malawi
 Making by-laws to facilitate its functions. 8. Mzuzu University
 Performing other functions e.g. Birth, death 9. Malawi Housing Corporation
and marriage registrations. 10. Tobacco Control Commission (TCC)
11. Malawi National Examinations Board
Composition of Local Government institutions (MANEB)
1. Elected members 12. Malawi Institute of Education (MIE)
 The local government is divided into 13. Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS)
wards each under a councilor 14. Air Malawi
 The councilors then elect a chairperson 15. Central Region Water Board
and a vice chairperson. 16. Malawi National Library
 In a city or municipal council, these are 17. Export Council of Malawi, etc
known as mayor or deputy mayor.
 These hold their positions for a five year Functions of some statutory corporations
term. 1. Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi
2. Non-voting members  Building and maintaining power plants.
 Traditional authorities form the local area.  Distributing and supplying electricity.
 Members of parliament who represent the  Investigating new or additional facilities
local government area in the national for supplying electricity.
assembly. 2. Malawi Development Corporation
 Five people appointed by the elected  To develop agricultural, commercial,
members to represent special groups. industrial and mineral resources.
3. The chief executive  To formulate projects for the promotion or
This person serves as secretary to the assembly expansion of new or existing enterprises.
and is responsible for implementing the  To train citizens of Malawi how to manage
assembly's decisions. and expand a project
 To provide loans
Sources of revenue for Local Government  To invest money in various enterprises.
 From within the local government e.g. 3. Export Promotion Council
Property rates i.e. Land, buildings  To promote the export of agricultural
 Fees and licences e.g. Maize mills and bottle products.
stores.  Tomakeavailableexportersinformationands
 Service charges e.g. refuse collection and tatisticsontheexportersmarket.
burial services.  Organize and operate trade fairs organized
abroad.
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 Arrange for representation by exhibitors at 5. Malawi National Library Service

trade fairs organized abroad.  To promote, establish, equip, manage and
4. Small Holder Sugar Authority maintain libraries in Malawi
 .Promote sugar, coffee and tea schemes.
 .To control and supervise the growing of Sources of revenue for statutory corporations
tea coffee and sugar. 1. .Loans from institutions and organizations
 To provide training for the growers. within and outside Malawi.
 .To organizes transport for collection of 2. Bills and subscriptions paid by customers and
crops for marketing. clients.
 To give credit and recover money by 3. Government grants and donations from
deducting from goods sales. international institutions
4. Rents and royalties from the sale of their
properties
5. Interests from bank account

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TOPIC 17

GOOD GOVERNANCE

Good governance  Separation of powers

This refers to the exercise of political, economic It involves the three branches of government
and administrative authority in the management of that work independently from each other to
the country's affairs in a proper manner. prevent the abuse of power.
 Responsiveness
Types of governance The institutions should serve all stakeholders.
1. Economic: This involves decision-making  Effectiveness and efficiency
processes that affect the country's economic This requires the procedure of meeting the
activities and its relationship with other demands of the people while making best use
economies. of resources. It looks at the ability to look at
2. Political: This involves making decisions that goals and how to achieve them.
may lead to policy formulation.
3. Administrative: This is the system of policy Institutions that promote good governance
implementation.  The Legislature (parliament)
This body enacts laws of the country.
Institutions that exercise good governance  The judiciary
1. The state It has the responsibility of interpreting,
This is exercised by political and public protecting and enforcing all laws of the
institutions by establishing an enabling country in an independent and impartial
environment for development at all levels. manner.
2. The Private sector  The Electoral Commission
This covers governance in private enterprises It ensures free, independent and transparent
active in the market place such as traders, elections of people to public offices.
banks and manufacturers. These are sources of
 The Audit offices
employment, income generation, enterprise
They ensure that they enhance credibility of
development and economic growth.
financial statements by considering fraud
3. The civil society (misappropriation of assets). In this way,
These include community development accountability and transparency and
organisations, media outlets, trade unions and accountability are ensured.
charity organisations.
 Human rights organisations
They protect and investigate violations of
Principles of good governance
human rights.
 Participation
 The office of the Ombudsman
This is to ensure that economic priorities are
It investigates cases where it is alleged that a
based on needs of the people concerned.
person has suffered injustice.
Members of the community should be given
equal opportunity to place questions and  The Anti-corruption Bureau
express preferences on final outcomes during This checks the abuses of office, authority or
decision-making. power for private gains.
 Transparency  Civil society organisations
This is about sharing information and acting in They help in social mobilization of the public
to check abuses. It also raises awareness about
an open manner.
corruption.
 Accountability
This involves officials answering to  Office of the Director of Public
stakeholders on how they discharge their Procurement
responsibilities and how they respond to It provides professional, efficient monitoring
criticisms. and oversight function on all public
procurement matters.
 Rule of law
This entails equal protection and punishment  The media
Independent media help in promoting
under the law.
transparency and accountability.

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TOPIC 18

TAXATION

The process of registration of tax 3. It offers opportunity for newly established

 The registration of tax involves completing an business to receive advice on payment of
appropriate application form for the specific amounts due to records that are maintained.
tax that one will be paying such as VAT 4. It enables Malawi Revenue Authority to
registration form and withholding tax maximize tax collected from businesses
registration form. operating in the country.

Importance registering for tax Tax exemption and incentives

 It enables the tax collecting body to improve  Tax exemption refers to monetary exemption
its efficiency in tax collection due to which reduces taxable income while.
availability of business records  Tax incentives are all measures that provide
 It enables the business to access bank loans for a more favorable tax treatment of certain
and enjoy other benefits which nonregistered activities or sectors in order to encourage
business cannot enjoy economic activities.
 It also helps to avoid breaking tax laws
 It helps one to be able to pay their tax and Forms tax exemption and incentives
make as contribution to national development. 1. Tax holidays
These are temporary exemptions of new firms
Importance of keeping business records for or investments from certain specified taxes
taxing purposes 2. Special zones
1. Good financial records make it easy and faster It concerns geographically limited area in
to complete one’s business activity statement which qualified firms can be collected.
and other tax obligations when they are due. 3. Investment tax credit
2. It makes it easy for MRA officers to access It’s about deduction of a certain fractions of
one’s business records for purposes of investments from tax liability.
verifying tax obligations. 4. Investments allowance
3. It helps one to his or tax liability. It involves deduction of a certain fraction of an
4. It helps one’s business to avoid penalties for investment from profits.
non-compliance 5. Tax exemption on salaries
It’s when some officers and individuals are
Importance of declaring and paying correct privileged to enjoy tax exemption on either the
amount of tax salary or allowance. For example in Malawi
1. It helps revenue collecting agencies as MRA to the president, members of parliament ministers
collect the right amount of tax for nation and diplomats do enjoy such privileges as
development. provided in their conditions of services
2. It helps one to make their fair contribution to 6. Duty exemption on selected inputs
nation development. Some NGOs religious organisations and
3. It helps one’s not to suffer due to payment of charities are among the institutions entitled to
interest, penalties and other punishment. import vehicles and other items duty free.
4. It gives the one the moral right to demand
better social services from government Tax agreement
It is an arrangement between jurisdictions or
A tax audit countries meant to address duplication regarding
A tax audit is an examination of an organisations the issues of taxation.
or individuals tax return to verify that the financial
information is being reported correctly. The impact of tax agreement on national
development
Importance of tax audit  They provide equal taxation treatment to
1. It is strategy to fight against tax payers. investors in the concerned countries
2. It is a quick check on business to establish that  They an environment that stimulate foreign
they are registered direct investment and encourages ventures.

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 They contribute new common projects that Challenges of revenue collection that affect
benefit the nation economic outcomes of the sustainable development
countries.
 They encourage tourism and bilateral trade These include:
between countries. 1. Smuggling of goods through undesignated
 They create more opportunity for growth of entry points resulting in massive loss revenue.
existing businesses and formation of new ones. 2. Under-invoicing: some importers declare
 They facilitate movement of capital and force invoice to pay less duty ion imported
technology as well as encouraging joint goods, this result in massive loss of revenue
investment of countries. for the government.
3. Under-declaration of goods: some importers
The role of taxation in national development fail to declare all goods brought into a country
 It means mobilizing revenue from the private to avoid paying duty on some of their imports.
to public sector. 4. Lack of appropriate technology: such as
 It helps government to provide various social detecting machines to curb smuggling.
services to citizens. This compromises capacity of revenue officers
 Tax revenue helps in provision infrastructure to maximize on duty collection on imports
development such as roads. 5. A growing of informal sector in the
economy: it is very difficult to tax due to lack
 Taxation can also be used to stimulate
of documentation and proper registration. E.g.
economic activities through various tax
street vending.
incentives
6. Under valuation by officers
 Taxation can also be used to control to
Some revenue officers connive with importers
inflation and spending in economy through
to facilitate payment of less duty on imports
appropriate tax incensement or reduction. through under valuation

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TOPIC 19

GENDER AND ENVIRONMENT

This refers to the achievement of equality and Gender Platform of Action has two main aims:
equity (fairness) between men and women in terms  To accelerate the implementation of the
of status in the society, opportunities, access to strategies for the implementation of women's
resources and benefits as well as all human rights. rights
 To remove all obstacles to women's active
Indicators of gender balance participation in all spheres of life.
 Equity and equality in education
Both males and females should have access to Some of the gender platforms of action
education irrespective of gender. Both should 1. The Beijing Platform of Action: This was
enjoy high education, enrolment and retention adopted at the Fourth World Conference on
rates. The curricular should also be gender women that was held in China in September
sensitive. 1995.
 Equality and equity in health care and 2. The Malawi National Platform of Action:
related services Adopted by the Malawi Government in 1997.
There should be accessible, affordable and
available primary health care services to both Roles of the gender platforms of action
sexes. Men and women should be able to make  To ensure full enjoyment by women and girls
decisions about their own health as well as of all human rights and fundamental freedoms.
reproductive behaviour.  To take effective actions against violations of
 Equality and equity in environmental their rights.
management  To recommend measures to eliminate all forms
Both men and women should be involved in of discrimination against women and the girl-
accessing and owning land. They should also child.
be present at all levels of policy-making and  To encourage women to participate fully in
project -formulation on natural resources and actions towards gender equality.
environmental issues.  To help promote women's economic
 Equality and equity in economic independence by ensuring their access to
opportunities economic resources.
Both men and women should have access to  It results in respect for other people's ideas as
employment as well as promotion. no one in the society will be held
 Equality and equity in power and decision- insubordination for being male or female.
making
Both should have equal power in Central Importance of gender balance in development
Executives of political parties as well as 1. It promotes economic development as it
private and government organisations. maximizes skilled human resources.
 Equality and equity before the law and 2. It promotes equal participation in development
human rights work as both men and women are taking part.
There should be no laws that discriminate 3. It leads to equal access to economic resources
individual because of sex. People should enjoy like credit.
their rights in terms of culture, religion or 4. It results in respect for other people’s idea as
socio economic status. no one in society will be held insubordination
because of being male or female.
Gender Platform of Action 5. It ensures that women have equal access to
This is a powerful agenda for women health care and other health related issues.
empowerment which seeks to promote and protect 6. It ensures equal participation in decision
full enjoyment of all human rights and making
fundamental freedoms of all women throughout
their life cycles.

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TOPIC 20

POPULATION AND SOCIAL BEVAVIOUR

Guidance and counseling on HIV/AIDS  Those who are HIV negative are
This refers to the face to face communication counseled on how they can avoid
between the one with the problem (client) and the becoming infected.
one trying to solve the problem (counselor).  For those who are HIV positive, the
counselor needs to be empathetic,
Institutions that offer guidance and counseling tactful and understanding when
a. Public and private hospitals breaking the news. Such clients need
They provide information on HIV/AIDS blood to be counseled on their sexual
screening and treatment of AIDS-related lifestyles and types of food. They are
illnesses. also advised not to bear children.
b. Non-governmental organisations like Banja
la Mtsogolo. 3. Continuous counseling
c. Drop-in centres This is long term support and advice given to
These are mostly community-based and aim at the client at the clinic or at home. This should
raising public awareness towards HIV/AIDS. be done from time to time to enable them
d. Religious organisations cope with the situation.
They mainly encourage home-based care.
Examples are ADRA and CADECOM. Importance of guidance and counseling on
e. Youth organizations HIV/AIDS patients
 It helps individuals to reflect on their fears,
Types of guidance and counseling feelings and worries.
7. Preventive counseling  It helps individuals to examine behaviour that
This is offered to two groups of people i.e. put them at risk of HIV/AIDS infection.
 Those who have not yet gone for  Encourages HIV/AIDS patients to become
HIV/AIDS test but whose behaviour puts more independent and confident.
them at risk.  Enables individuals to look at realistic
 Those that have tested HIV positive to solutions to problems concerned with
help them to look after their health and HIV/AIDS infection.
avoid spreading the disease.  Helps people to come to terms with AIDS and
lead a positive and useful life.
8. Supportive counseling  Offers hope and affirmation.
This is offered to patients, guardians and  Plays a significant role in the fight against
family members to solve the many problems HIV/AIDS in the country.
the disease creates and make decisions about
 Helps people to understand the relationship
the future. Supportive counseling can be
between sexually transmitted diseases and
offered at the following times:
acquisition of HIV/AIDS.
a. Pre-test counselling
First of all, the client needs to be:
Consequences of lack of guidance and
 Given facts about AIDS-
counseling
 Told why the test should be taken.
 The patient may not cope with the shock of
 Informed about his/her right to being told that he/she is HIV positive
refuse.  He/she will continue to have feelings of
 Assured of complete confidentiality. anxiety, fear, depression, anger and grief
Allowed to think and make decisions.  The patient will not be able to change his/her
attitudes and behaviours thus putting his/her
NB: All this is done to prepare the client life as well as that of others at risk
psychologically to accept the results easily.
 The patient may withdraw into a solitary place,
unable to cope with the reality of the disease
b. Post-test counselling
the loneliness may make him/her to think of
 The counselor releases the results
committing suicide or develop mental
whether positive or negative. disorders.
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 The patient may lose hope and look at his/her Importance of hospital-based care
future as doomed.  The patient may be provided with medication
and full nursing care.
Caring for HIV/AIDS patients  Some related diseases such as skin rashes,
 Physical care fever, diarrhea are instantly treated.
 They need to eat nutritious food and drink  In hospitals, patients are prevented from
plenty of fluids. catching further infection.
 They should neither take alcohol nor  They can be counseled and guided on how to
tobacco. live longer.
 They should avoid catching further  Relatives are given advice on how to care for
infection. the patient.
 Family members should help them with
chores as the patient needs a lot of rest. Home – based care
 They should do physical exercise to keep It is a support and treatment that patients get while
fit. in their homes by their guardians. This is done
 Personal hygiene should be observed. under the prescriptions of the medical doctors.

4. Emotional and material support Importance of home-based care

 Family members need to spend a lot of  Congestion is avoided unlike in hospitals.
time with them to chat, listen and share  Other relatives and members of the community
their feelings and concerns. also take responsibility to support the patient.
 Family members need to put the patient's  It is easy for the patient to practice hygiene.
financial and business affairs in order.  They can eat nutritious food of their choice.
 Financial resources need to be provided to  Relatives are given advice on how to care for
them. the patient.

5. Spiritual and moral support Ways of avoiding infection when caring for
People should come and pray with them, sing HIV/AIDS patients
religious songs and preach to them. This gives
them hope of life after death. Guardians are advised to:
 Wash their hands after attending the patient.
Methods of caring and guiding for STIs and  Clean any cuts or wounds the patient might
HIV and AIDS patients have with a bandage or clean cloth.
 Hospital – based care  Wash any blood-stained items with
 Home – based care disinfectants with plenty of soap or in hot
water.
Hospital – based care  Wear gloves or plastic papers to cover their
It a support and treatments offered to patients by hands when washing the patient especially
medical experts while at the hospital. when either of them has wounds.

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TOPIC 21

POPULATION AND SOCIAL BEVAVIOUR

 Drug and substance abuse refers to the use of  It leads to poor performance in school.
drugs and substances that are not legalized for  It leads to divorce in a family
any purpose.  It leads to illness and death.
 Alcohol, tobacco and other illicit drugs such as  It leads to addiction
marijuana (chamba) are some of the commonly
abused drugs. 6. Impact of drug and substance abuse on
 Drug and substance abuse can lead to development
substance dependence (addiction).  Loss of skilled or well-trained people due
to death or injuries.
Causes of drug and substance abuse  It can create pressure on social services
 Lack of mental or emotional resources against since a lot of money will be needed to buy
stress. medicine for such patients.
 Low tolerance for frustration.  It leads to distortion of the age-structure
 The need for immediate relief of stress. since it is common among teenagers.
 Peer pressure.  There is an increase in juvenile
 Lack of adequate family support. delinquency since most young people are
 Excessive unsupervised free time. prone to committing offences.
 Growing up in an environment of drug and  There are increased orphanages in the
substance abuse. sense that drug and alcohol cut short lives
of many people.
Effects of drug and substance abuse the  There is low participation in development
individual and family work as drug users miss more work days.
 It impairs judgment so that one is likely to hurt  Increased expenditure on health care as the
themselves, have trouble with the law or do government spends more money to care
poorly at school or work. for victims of drug and substance abuse.
 It puts one at risk of getting sexually  Wastage of resources as many youths
transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies. become very lazy
 It damages major organs such as liver, lungs,  High crime rates which scares investors
increasing the risk of cancer, high blood
pressure, respiratory failure as well as Ways of avoiding effects of drug and substance
madness. abuse
 It can lead to infertility and weakened immune  Taking medicines according to prescriptions
system.  Resisting peer pressure.
 It can lead to loss of relation through death.  Seeking information on the appropriate use of
 It costs a lot of money since the family will be drugs
spending on medication.  Parents should not be using drugs themselves
 It leads to loss of jobs but instead guide and counsel their children.
 It causes violence and insecurity which scares  Conduct civic education campaigns and
investors. literacy programmes.
 It leads to serious financial problems as  Engaging oneself in productive occupations.
abusers squander a lot of money.
 It leads to loss of morals as the abusers engage
in irresponsible behaviours

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TOPIC 22

RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD

Responsible parenthood refers to the fulfillment of  Provision of basic needs

one’s obligations as a parent. Responsible parents should provide the basic
needs for the general wellbeing of their
Qualities of responsible parenthood children.
 Sense of responsibility for pregnancy  Willingness to engage in positive
You should take good care of pregnancy by communication with children
eating balanced diet for the wellbeing of the Good parents talk to their children in a friendly
unborn baby. manner in whatever the circumstances.
 Sense of humour  Ability to identify good qualities of children
This encourages a healthy dialogue between This helps parents to take advantage of those
children and their parents. qualities to make the family more productive
 Flexibility and self – reliant.
Responsible parents are open – minded and  Empowerment
able to listen to the views of their children. Good parents should nurture independence,
 Good modeling personal responsibility and encourage self –
They should be role models in conduct and reliance in their children.
ambitions. They set good example in actions,
speech and general behaviour.

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TOPIC 23

UNIVERSAL MORALS AND VALUES

Social value  Respect for the rule of law

This is a practice, idea or belief that people It is important to be conversant with the existing
belonging to a particular group or society hold in laws of a particular community and to observe
respect or high esteem e.g. unity. and respect them accordingly
 Respect for international health
Ethical value There are certain infectious diseases that a
This is the general idea, practice or belief which person traveling outside a country not have at
influences the way a particular group of people or the time of travel to avoid spreading to that
society consider good or bad. particular country
 Respect for international immigration
International social and ethical values requirements
 Appreciation of other people's culture Every traveler must possess valid travel
It is a right that everyone has to freely documents e.g. passport, visa. Immigration
participate in the cultural life of their community requirements also specify what to carry and
it is also necessary to appreciate other people's what not to.
practices. This includes language, food, dressing  Sympathy and empathy
and cultural beliefs and practices. Sympathy means understanding someone else'
 Respect for other people's rights bad situation and showing that one is sorry.
The legal provision in the UN charter states that Empathy means the ability to understand other
people are free to enjoy and practice their rights. people's feelings and problems.
They should however ensure that they do not
infringe on other people's rights, Importance of social and ethical values to
 Racial/ethnic equality international cooperation
There is need to respect other people's identity  It promotes cultural exchange through
i.e. whether black or white encouragement for respect and appreciation of
 Respect for a rule of law each other’s culture.
It is important to respect a rule of law of  It promotes international security
whatever a country where one is staying.  It assists in fighting against discrimination
 Freedom of worship  It motivates people to provide humanitarian
Everyone has the right to change religions or assistance to the poor and the war victims.
practice it publicly or privately.  It promotes multiculturalism as people live
together harmoniously.

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TOPIC 24

INTERNATIONAL PEACE INITIATIVES

International organisations that assist in conflict report called 'agenda for peace' which set out
resolution the organisation's objectives.
1. The League of Nations
It was formed soon after the First World War to Peace initiatives in the Middle East
promote world peace.  One was in 1978 called 'camp David' where
2. The United Nations Organisation USA took the lead in assisting leaders of Israel
It was founded after the end of the Second and Egypt to sign a treaty.
World War and almost all countries are its  In 1993, leaders of Israel and Palestine signed
members. the 'declaration of Principles.'
3. The Security Council
This organ of the UNO focuses on conflict Peace initiatives in the democratic republic of
resolution. Congo
4. The International Court of Justice  Since 1988, DRC has been fighting against
It makes legal decision s where there are rebels.
disputes between countries.  In 1999, the warring groups agreed on a cease
fire and signed the 'Lusaka peace accord.' this
International peace initiatives has however been broken several times.
1. The Versailles Peace Treaty and the League
of Nations Why the peace initiatives have not been
In 1919, a year after the end of the First World successful
War, Britain, France and USA met in Paris to  The causes of conflicts have been complicated
agree on terms which Germany was forced to to resolve.
sign.  The UN has limited diplomatic resources to
2. The United Nations Organisation achieve peace.
It was set up in 1944 towards the end of the
Second World War. In 1952, the UN prepared a

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TOPIC 25

SOCIAL JUSTICE

Social justice is when everyone in the society is  Observing principles of natural justice e.g. Use
treated fairly and their rights are respected. of the same principles all over the world.

Importance of social justice Some common forms of social injustice

 Ensures equal opportunities for all.  Bribery and corruption.
 Citizens can easily participate in decision-  Favouritism and nepotism.
making.  Underpaying workers.
 It creates peace and security.  Discrimination against various groups.
 Resources are allocated fairly.
Effects of social injustice
Causes of social injustice in Africa and the world
 Poverty: Most people in developing countries A. On the individual and the community
do not have enough food, clean water supply,  One becomes bitter and resentful.
are illiterate and do not have adequate health  One may lose confidence and develop
facilities. These conditions can promote social inferiority complex.
injustice.  One may not work hard.
 Cultural and social practices: Outdated  It can lead to disobedience of society's rules
customs e.g. Chokolo, kusasa fumbi have and opting to crime.
negative effects on the individual. B. In Africa and the world
 Discrimination: This involves selective  Lack of development.
treatment of individuals based on certain  Poverty.
characteristics e.g. Colour, race, ethnic  Conflict.
background. O oppression: This is where a  Oppression of minority groups.
person is prevented from doing or saying
something freely. Eradicating social injustice in the school and the
community
Principles of social justice  Leaders must set examples in respecting rights
 Like cases to be treated alike e.g. Rewarding of all.
people according to their achievements.  Everyone must participate in decision-making
 Different cases to be treated differently. and opposing views must be respected.

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TOPIC 26

SOCIAL SERVICES

The need for safeguarding the environment in the f. Care for social services: this is the
provision of social services responsibility of the local community. Lack of
Environmental conservation contributes to smooth care for social services leads to deterioration of
provision of social services in the following ways: social services and compromises their quality in
 It ensures availability of resources which are the community.
needed in the provision of social services, e.g.
timber needed for the construction of classroom Effects of the critical issues in the provision of
blocks. social services on development
 It ensures that social services are protected from  If more and more services are increasingly made
damage. available only to people in certain areas and not
 It ensures a clean social service environment others, people in the deprived areas may start
which is attractive and user-friendly. feeling bad about those bringing the social
services.
Critical issues related to the provision of social  If only influential people in the society and all
services those who are well to do are able to access social
a. Type of social services: every community needs services, the rest of the people feel helpless.
different social services for the achievement of  When social services are inadequate,
socio-economic development. productivity can go down as more people will be
b. Availability of social services: in most cases, unable to contribute.
the social services are available in urban areas,
c. Quality of social services: in most cases, people Importance of caring for social services
in rural areas are not provided with good quality  It ensures sustainable use of social services in
services, E.g. In most rural schools, the the community.
infrastructure are of bad quality, the personnel is  It reduces further damage of services which
not well qualified and health facilities are of reduces maintenance costs.
poor quality as well. Iii.  It ensures readily accessibility of social services
d. Accessibility of social services: though the when needed.
services are available, the easiness with which to  It helps to improve people’s living standards and
get them matters most. In rural areas, they are quality of life.
far apart.
e. Affordability of social services: not most
people can manage to pay for the social services,

Renowned people in the provision of social services

Hastings Kamuzu Banda  He worked towards the provision of quality education and health care in
Malawi, e.g. he founded Kamuzu Academy, University of Malawi and
Central Hopsitals..
Winnie Madikizela Mandela  She fought against apartheid.
 She chose to assist the needy
Jimmy Carter  He formed the Foundation of Habitat for Humanity which provides
affordable housing to needy populations.
 He was a president of USA
Henry Dunant  He was a Swiss whose ideas led to the formation of the Red Cross in 1963.
 This was after he had witnessed the bloody battle of Solferino Italy,
between Austria and the Franco-Sardinian alliances.
Mother Theresa  She was a nun who was born in Albania.
 She devoted her life to caring for the poor.
 From 1948, she worked in Calcutta, India. 4. Jimmy carter
 He was the US president from 1977 to 1981.
 His deep commitment is on social justice and human rights.
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 He also formed the habitat for humanity which is dedicated to the

elimination of sub-standard housing by making a decent shelter.
Jairos Jiri  He was a Zimbabwean who worked hard to relieve the suffering of the
disabled in his country by founding the Jairos Jiri association for the
rehabilitation of the blind and the disabled.

Florence Nightngale  She is remembered as a pioneer of modern nursing and reformer of hospital
sanitation methods.

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TOPIC 27

WORLD COOPERATION

World cooperation means the interaction of persons Community for West African states
or groups of people who represent various nations in (ECOWAS).
pursuit of a common goal. b. Ratification of international protocol
Or it refers to the mutual understanding and Countries that ratify (accept) international
willingness of countries of the world to be united protocols work closely together in making sure
and assist each other in any matter they are capable that they comply with the treaty they have
of doing that. signed. Examples are rights of the Child,
CEDAW.
Areas of world cooperation c. Establishment of international organisations
Countries cooperate when dealing with challenges such as UN and AU which work to solve
which cannot be dealt with by one country only. challenges which affect many countries.
International effort is required to combat some d. Common political ideologies
global issues such as: Similarity in economic and political beliefs:
 Epidemics With the end to the cold war, most countries in
 Terrorism: terrorism is the act of causing death the world are now capitalists.
and terror or intimidation among the large e. Organized common sporting activities
populations by means of high level violence and It fosters the spirit of international friendship
criminal activities such as mass bombing and and cooperation as people of different
plane hijacking. backgrounds all over the world gather and
 Refugee crisis celebrate together.
 International conflict/wars
 Weapons of mass destruction International interventions to promote world
 Climate change cooperation
 World population growth  Establishment of international protocols e.g.
 Loss of bio-diversity Geneva Convention for the Treatment of
Prisoners of War.
 Global poverty
 Establishment of the United Nations
Organisation.
Factors that contribute to world cooperation
a. Economic interdependence of nations  Establishment of the African Union.
This is enhanced by formation of organisations  Establishment of regional organisations e.g.
such as Common Market for Eastern and Association of South East Asian Nations.
Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic

Some prominent personalities that have helped in world cooperation

Personalities Their achievements

Dr Hastings Kamuzu Banda  He did not only lead Malawi to independence but broke the Federation
of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

Mahatma Gandhi  He led in peaceful protests in India that eventually led to the granting of
independence to Indians in 1947.
 He also tried to unite the two rival groups in India thus the Hindus and
the Muslims which lee to his assassination in 1948.
Kwame Nkrumah  He made Ghana to be the first British colony to be independent.
 He also fought for the independence of the rest of African countries.
Dr. Nelson Mandela and  Nelson Mandela spent 27 years in prison in order to ensure that the
Desmond Tutu apartheid regime in South Africa is brought to an end.
 Desmond Tutu worked with Mandela to fight against apartheid in South
Africa. Apartheid is a form of racial segregation in South Africa.

Henry Kissinger  The American Secretary of State (1971-1973).

 During his time, America reestablished relations with China
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 He negotiated for a ceasefire to the Arab-Israel war of 1973.

 He also brought to an end the Vietnam war.

Martin Luther  He was a black American who fought for an end to racial discrimination
in USA from the 1950s.
 He believed in racial harmony against racial segregation

Importance of world cooperation

 For countries to work together to ensure peace in the world.
 To increase people's understanding of each other's culture.
 It promotes socio-economic development among the countries.
 It makes it easier for countries to solve problems that affect them

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REFERENCES

Fabiano, M.. and Maganga, J.L. (2002). Malawi Senior Secondary School Social and

Development Studies, Book 3. Blantyre: Macmillan

Fabiano, M.. and Maganga, J.L. (2002). Malawi Senior Secondary School Social and

Development Studies, Book 4. Blantyre: Macmillan

Malunda, H. and Mpinganjira, M. (2001). Social and Development Studies, Book 3.

Blantyre: Jhango Hiennemann.

Malunda, H. and Mpinganjira, M. (2001). Social and Development Studies, Book 4.

Blantyre: Jhango Hiennemann.

Mkomba, A.D. and Majamanda, C.M. (2014). Arise with Social Studies Students’ Book 3.

Blantyre: CLAIM Mabukhu.

Compiled by Holly JH, 0994798236