ACC 211

Fundamentals of Electrical
Circuit

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 INTRODUCTION
Electrical Engineers use electric circuits to solve problems that are
important to modern society. In particular:
1. Electric circuits are used in the generation, transmission, and
consumption of electric power and energy.
2. Electric circuits are used in the encoding, decoding, storage,
retrieval, transmission, and processing of information.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 Objectives
• Represent the current and voltage of an electric
circuit element, paying particular attention to the
reference direction of current and to the reference
direction of polarity of the voltage.
• Calculate the power and energy supplied or
received by a circuit element.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 1.1 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
An electric circuit or electric network is an interconnection of
electrical elements linked together in a closed path so that an
electric current may flow continuously.
An electric circuit consist of various types of circuit elements
connected in closed paths by conductors. As illustrated in fig.
1.1, the circuit elements can be resistance, inductance,
capacitances and voltage sources, among others.

Figure 1.1

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT
Charge flows Easily through conductors, which are
represented by lines connecting circuit elements. Conductors
correspond to connecting wires in physical circuits. Voltage
sources create forces that cause charge to flow through the
conductors and other circuit elements. As a result, energy is
transferred between the circuit elements, resulting in a useful
function.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 1.2 CHARGE

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

CHARGE
Charge is an electrical property of atomic particles of which matter consist,
measured in coulombs (C). The following points should be noted about
electric charge:
a. The charge is bipolar, meaning that electrical effects are described in
terms of positive and negative charges.
b. The electric charge exists in discrete quantities, which are integral
multiples of the electronic charge, 𝑒 = −1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶.
c. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1 C of charge, there are
6.24𝑥1018 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠.
d. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be
created nor destroyed, only transferred.
e. Electrical effects are attributed to both the separation of charge and
charges in motion.

The separation of charge creates an electric force (voltage), and the

motion of charge creates an electric fluids (current).

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 1.3 ELECTRIC CURRENT

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

ELECTRIC CURRENT (𝐼)
Electrical current is the time rate of flow of electrical charge
through a conductor or circuit element. The units are amperes
(A), which are equivalent to coulombs per second (C/s).
In concept, we obtain a record of net charge in coulombs as a
function of time in seconds denoted as 𝑞(𝑡). The electrical
current flowing through the element in the reference
direction is given by
𝑑𝑞 𝑡
𝑖 𝑡 = E𝑞. 1.1
𝑑𝑡

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

ELECTRIC CURRENT (𝐼)
A constant current of one ampere means that one coulomb of
charges passes through the cross section each second.
To find charge given current, we must integrate.
𝑡
𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 E𝑞. 1.2
𝑡0
In which 𝑡0 is some initial time at which the charge is known.
(We assume that time 𝑡 is in seconds unless stated
otherwise).
Note: “𝐼” represents the electric current intensity.
Small letter 𝑖 denoted as instantaneous current.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

ELECTRIC CURRENT (𝐼)
The movement of electrons is always from negative to positive
while movement of current is always assumed as from positive
to negative. This is called direction of conventional current.
The direction of conventional current is opposite to the
direction of flow of electrons.

Figure 1.2 Conventional current direction vs electron flow direction

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

ELECTRIC CURRENT (𝐼)
Two types of current
1. Direct Current - If a current flowing through an
element is constant (constant with time), we
represent it by the constant I. A constant current
is called a direct current (dc).

Figure 1.3 A direct current of magnitude I

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

2. Alternating Current - An alternating current i(t) can
take many forms, such as a ramp, a sinusoid, or an
exponential as shown in figure 1.4. A current that
varies with time, reversing direction periodically, is
called an alternating current (ac).

Figure 1.4 (a) a ramp with slope M, (b) a sinusoid, (c) An exponential.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
Ex.1.1 Suppose that charge versus time for a given circuit
element is given by
𝑞 𝑡 =0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
And
𝑞 𝑡 = 2 − 2𝑒 −100𝑡 𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0
Find an expression for the current.
Solution: Using eq. 1.1 to find an expression for the current.
𝑑𝑞 𝑡
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0, 𝑖 𝑡 = =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞 𝑡 𝑑
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0, 𝑖 𝑡 = = 2 − 2𝑒 −100𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑖 𝑡 = 200𝑒 −100𝑡 A
LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables
 Example
Ex.1.2 The total charge entering a terminal is given by
𝑞 = 5𝑡 sin 4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐶. Calculate the current at t=0.5 s.
Solution:
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝑚𝐶
𝑖(𝑡) = = 5𝑡 sin 4𝜋𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝑖(𝑡) = 5 sin 4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡 cos 4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐴
At t=0.5 s
𝑖 𝑡 = 5 sin 4𝜋 0.5 + 20𝜋𝑡 cos 4𝜋 0.5 𝑚𝐴
𝑖 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟓𝟗𝟐𝟔𝟒 𝒎𝑨

Note: If you’re dealing with trigonometric functions with respect to time,

your calculator should be in radian mode.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
Ex. 1.3 Determine the total charge entering a terminal between
t=1s and t=2s if the current passing the terminal is
𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝐴.
Solution: Using eq. 1.2

𝑡 2
𝑞= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0 1
2 2
2 2 𝑡2
1
𝑞 = (𝑡 − ) = 23 −
3
− (13 − )
2 1 2 2
𝑞 = 5.5 𝐶

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
Ex.1.4 The current flowing through an element is
2𝐴 0 <𝑡 <1
𝑖 𝑡 =
2𝑡 2 𝑡>1
Calculate the charge entering the element from t=0 to t=2 s.
Solution:
𝑡 2
𝑞= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑡0 0
1 2
𝑞= 2 𝑑𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
0 1

3
1 2𝑡 2
𝑞 = 2𝑡 +
0 3 1
𝒒 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝑪

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 1.4 VOLTAGE

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

VOLTAGE (V)
The voltage (Potential difference) across a two-terminal device is defined
as the work required to move a positive charge of one coulomb from one
terminal of the device to the other terminal.
Convention: We denote the voltage V by a plus (+) minus (-) pair. For
example, in figure 1.3-1 we say that the terminal A is 10V positive with
respect to terminal B or there is a potential difference of 10V between A
and B. We can also say that there is a voltage drop of 10 V in going from
point A to point B. Alternately, we can say that there is a voltage rise of
10V in going from B to A.

Figure 1.5 Illustration of voltage polarity of two-terminal device

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

VOLTAGE (V)
As before, we assume a voltage reference polarity by placing (+) and (-)
polarity signs at the terminals of the device, and if a negative value of the
voltage is obtained, we conclude that the actual polarity is opposite to
that of the assumed reference polarity. We must remember that reversing
the reference polarity reverses the algebraic sign of the voltage as shown
in figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 Alternate way of denoting voltage polarity in a two-terminal device

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

VOLTAGE (V)
The voltage is associated with a circuit element is the energy
transferred per unit of charge that flows through the element.
The units of voltage are volts (V), which are equivalent to
joules per coulomb (J/C).
𝑑𝑤
𝑣= 𝐸𝑞. 1.3
𝑑𝑞
Note: 𝑣 – denotes a time-varying voltage which change polarity from time
to time (instantaneous voltage).
V – denotes a constant voltage. Which may express as
𝑊
𝑉= 𝑖𝑛 𝑉
𝑄

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

 1.5 POWER AND
ENERGY

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

POWER AND ENERGY
Voltage and current are useful variables in the analysis and design
of electrically based systems, but the useful output of the system is
expressed in terms of power and energy. All practical devices have
limitations on the amount of power that they can handle.

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured

in watts (W) and can be expressed in
𝑑𝑤
𝑝= Eq. 1.4
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑝 is power in watts (W), w is the energy in Joules (J), and t is
time in seconds (s). From Eq’s. (1.1), (1.3), and (1.4) it follows that
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑞
𝑝= = ∙ = 𝑣𝑖 Eq. 1.5
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

POWER AND ENERGY
The power 𝑝 in Eq. 1.5 is a time-varying quantity and is called the
instantaneous power. The power absorbed or supplied(delivered)
by an element is the product of the voltage across the element and
the current through it.
Passive sign convention: Consider the two-terminal device
shown in figure 1.7

Figure 1.7 Illustration of passive sign convention

If the numerical value of the product 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 is positive, we

can say that the device is absorbing power. When the
numerical value of the product 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 is negative, we can say
that the device delivers power to some other device.
+ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏 = − 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables
POWER AND ENERGY
Energy - Is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J). The
energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time 𝑡0 to
time t is
𝑡 𝑡
𝑤= 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡 𝐸𝑞. 1.6
𝑡0 𝑡0
The electric power utility companies measure energy
consumptions in watt-hours (Wh), where 1 𝑊ℎ = 3,600 J.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
Ex.1.5 Find the power delivered to an element at t= 3ms if the
current entering its positive terminal is
𝑖 = 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡 𝐴
and the voltage is: (a) 𝑣 = 3𝑖, (b) 𝑣 = 3 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡
Solution:
a) the voltage 𝑣 = 3𝑖 = 3(5 cos 60𝜋𝑡 ) = 15 cos 60𝜋𝑡 𝑉 ;
The power 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 15 cos 60𝜋𝑡 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡
𝑝 = 75 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 60𝜋 𝑡 𝑊
At t = 3ms
𝑝 = 75 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 60𝜋 𝑥 3𝑥10−3 )
𝒑 = 𝟓𝟑. 𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟕𝟐𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝑾

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
(b) the voltage
𝑣 = 3 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 3 𝑑 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 3 −60𝜋 5 sin 60𝜋𝑡
𝑣 = −900𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡 𝑉
The power 𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖
𝑝 = −900𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡
𝑝 = −4500𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡 cos 60𝜋𝑡
At t = 3ms
𝑝 = −4500 πsin(60𝜋 𝑥 3𝑥10−3 ) cos(60𝜋 𝑥 3𝑥10−3 )
𝒑 = −𝟔𝟑𝟗𝟓. 𝟖𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟕 𝑾

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
Ex.1.6 The voltage and current at the terminals of the circuit
element are
𝑣=0 𝑡<0 𝑖=0<0
𝑣 = 10𝑒 −5000𝑡 𝑘𝑉 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑖 = 20𝑒 −5000𝑡 𝐴 𝑡 ≥ 0
(a) Calculate the power supplied to the element at 1ms.
(b) Calculate the total energy (in Joules) delivered to the
circuit element.

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Example
a) Since, power supplied to the element (absorbing)
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 10𝑥103 𝑒 −5000𝑡 ∙ 20𝑒 −5000𝑡
𝑝 = 200𝑥103 𝑒 −10,000𝑡
At t = 1ms
−3
𝑝 = 200𝑥103 𝑒 −10,000 1𝑥10
𝒑 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟗𝟖𝟓𝟗𝟓𝟐 𝑾
b) from eq.1.6, the expression for energy is
𝑡
𝑤= 𝑝 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0
𝑡
𝑤= 200𝑥103 𝑒 −10,000𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0
To find the total energy delivered to the device, integrate the expression for
power from zero to infinity.
∞ 3 −10,000𝑡
3 −10,000𝑡
200𝑥10 𝑒 ∞
𝑤= 200𝑥10 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 =
0 −10,000 0
𝑤 = −20𝑒 −∞ − −20𝑒 −0
𝒘 = 𝟐𝟎𝐉
LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables
 Exercise

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Exercise
1. Find the charge that has entered an element by time t
when 𝑖 = 8𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 𝐴, 𝑡 ≥ 0. Assume 𝑞 𝑡 = 0, for 𝑡 < 0
8 3
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑡 − 2𝑡 2 𝐶
3
2. The total charge that has entered a circuit element is
𝑞 𝑡 = 4𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 𝐶 when 𝑡 ≥ 0, and 𝑞 𝑡 = 0 when 𝑡 < 0.
Determine the current in this circuit element for 𝑡 > 0.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑖 𝑡 = 12 cos 3𝑡 𝐴
3. Find the power 𝑝(𝑡), supplied by the element when
𝑣 𝑡 = 8 sin 3𝑡 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 𝑡 = 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛3𝑡 𝐴.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑝 𝑡 = (8 − 8 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6𝑡) 𝑊

LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables

Exercise
4. The current entering the positive terminal of a device is
𝑖 𝑡 = 6𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑚𝐴 and the voltage across the device is
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 𝑡 = 10 𝑑𝑡 𝑉.
(a) Calculate the power absorbed
(b) Determine the energy absorbed in 3 s.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑎 𝑝 = −720𝑒 −4𝑡 𝜇𝑊, 𝑏 𝑤 = −180𝜇𝐽
5. The charge entering the positive terminal of an element is
𝑞 = 5 sin 4𝜋𝑡 𝑚𝐶 while the voltage across the element is
𝑣 = 3 cos 4𝜋𝑡 𝑉
(a) Find the power delivered to the element at t=0.3 s.
(b) Calculate the energy delivered to the element between 0
and 0.6 s.
𝐴𝑛𝑠. 𝑎 123.37 𝑚𝑊, 𝑏 58.76 𝑚𝐽
LECTURE 1 – Electric Circuit Variables