Electrical Eng.

fundamental
Lecture 1

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 Introduction

Electrical systems pervade our lives; they are found in home, school,
workplaces, factories, and transportation vehicles-everywhere.

A circuit model is used to connect our visualization to our analysis of a

physical system.

The challenge is to develop models that will predict the physical behaviour
of real components accurately and result in mathematical equations that can be
solved.
 Basic Electrical Quantities
Basic quantities: current, voltage and power.

Electric current:
Electric current in a wire is defined as the net amount of charge that passes
through the wire per unit time , and is measured in amperes (A).
dq
i
dt
where
i = current in amperes
q = charge in coulombs
t = time in sec.

1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb per second (C/s)

Current in circuits physically realized by movement of electrons.
Direction of current must be specified by an arrow.
By convention, current direction defined as flow of positive charge.
Note that positive charge is not flowing physically.
Electrons have negative charge.
They move in the opposite direction of current.

- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
electron motion

positive current direction

In general, current can be an arbitrary function of time.

Constant current is called direct current (DC).
Current that can be represented as a sinusoidal function of time (or in
some contexts a sum of sinusoids) is called alternating current (AC).
Voltage
Voltage is the energy absorbed or expended as a unit charge moves from one
point to the other.

Analogous to pressure in hydraulic system.

Sometimes called potential difference.
Can be created by a separation of charge.
Is a measure of the potential between two points.
Voltage pushes charge in one direction.
We use polarity (+ and – on batteries) to indicates which direction the
charge is being pushed
Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element,
measured in volts (V)
d
v
dq

where v = voltage in volts

ω = energy in Joules
q = charge in coulombs

i v -
+
Circuit Element
A B
Voltage ~ Pressure
Electric Current ~ Water Current
Sponge ~ Resistance
Electrical Power
Time rate of expending or absorbing energy and is measured by Watts.
d
p 
dt
 d   dq 
p       vi
 dq  dt 

where p = power in watts

ω = energy in Joules
t = time in seconds
q = charge in coulombs
i = current in apperes
v = voltage in volts
By convention
– Circuit elements that absorb power have a positive value of p.
– Circuit elements that produce power have a negative value of p.
 Elements of electrical circuits
Active elements
Active elements are the elements that can generate energy or power, such as
voltage and current sources.

Ideally, a voltage source produces Vs volts regardless of the current absorbed

or produced by the connected device.

Ideally, a current source produces Is amps regardless of the current in the

connected device.

In a particular circuit, there can be active elements that absorb power – for
example, a battery being charged.
Passive elements
passive elements are the elements that can not generate energy, such as
resistors, capacitors and inductors.

resistors
The ability of a material to resist (impede, obstruct) the flow charge is called
its resistivity. It is represented by the letter R.
A resistor is a circuit element that dissipates electrical energy (usually as heat)
Real-world devices that are modeled by resistors: incandescent light bulbs,
heating elements, long wires
Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω)
Resistor is indicated by the symbol
Resistance of a wire depends on some factors like as length (L), cross-
sectional area (A) and resistivity of material (ρ).
L
R
A

Where ρ resistivity in Ω.m

L length in m
A cross-section area in m2
The conductance (G) of a pure resistor is the reciprocal of its resistance. The
Ω
unit of conductance is the siemens (S) or mho ( ).

1
G
R
 Ohm’s Law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference or voltage across the two
points, and inversely proportional to the resistance between them.

The mathematical equation that describes this relationship is:

v
i
R

where v is the potential difference measured across the resistance in units of

volts; i is the current through the resistance in units of amperes and R is the
resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.
 Resistors in Series

Two elements are in series if the current that flows through one must also flow
through the other.

Series
R1 R2

If we wish to replace the two series resistors with a single equivalent resistor
whose voltage-current relationship is the same, the equivalent resistor has a
value given by

Req  R1  R2
For N resistors in series, the equivalent resistor has a value given by:

R1
R2 Req

R3

Req  R1  R2  R3    RN
Consider two resistors in series with a voltage v across them:

i
Voltage division:
+ +
R1
R1 v1 v1  v
R1  R2
v -
+
R2
R2 v2 v2  v
R1  R2
- -
 Resistors in Parallel

When the terminals of two or more circuit elements are connected to the same
two nodes, the circuit elements are said to be in parallel.

If we wish to replace the two parallel resistors with a single equivalent
resistor whose voltage-current relationship is the same, the equivalent resistor
has a value given by

R R2 Req
1

R1 R2
Req 
R1  R2
For N resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistor has a value given by

R R2 RN Req
1

1 1 1 1 1
   
Req R1 R2 R3 RN
Consider two resistors in parallel with a voltage v across them:

i Current division:

+
i1 i2 R2
i1  i
R1  R2
v R1 R2
R1
i2  i
R1  R2
-
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 2

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 KCL and KVL
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) are the
fundamental laws of circuit analysis.

Gustav Kirchoff
was an 18th century
German
mathematician
 i1 i5
KCL
The sum of all currents entering a i2 i4
node is zero,
or i3
The sum of currents entering a n
node is equal to sum of currents i
j 1
j 0
leaving a node.

i1  i2  i3  i4  i5  0 or i1  i2  i4  i3  i5
A node is a point where two or more circuit elements are connected
together.
 i1 node

i2 i3

i1 flows into the node

i2 flows out of the node
i3 flows out of the node

i1 = i2 + i3

This equation can also be written in the following form:

i1 - i2 - i3 =0
Example

How much are the currents i1 and i2 ?

10 mA
node
i1 3 mA i2
4 mA

+
_

4 mA + 3 mA + 7 mA = 14 mA

i2 = 10 mA – 3 mA = 7 mA
i1 = 10 mA + 4 mA = 14 mA
KVL
Kirchhoff’s voltage law tells us how to handle voltages in an electric
circuit.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law basically states that the algebraic sum of the
voltages around any closed path (electric circuit) equal zero.
n

v
j 1
j 0

Arrows are sometimes used to represent voltage differences; they point

from low to high voltage.
i i
+
v ≡ v
-
 + v2 –
i

+ + +
v1 +
_ v3 v4 v3= v4
– – –

–v1 + v2 + v3 = 0 –v1 + v2 + v4 = 0

or or

v1= v2 + v3 v1= v2 + v4
 Example

If v1 = 10 V and v5 = 2 V, what are v2, v3, and v4?

+ v3 –

+ + +
+
+ v2 v4 v5= 2 V
v1 = 10 V _
– – –
–

v2 = 10 V
v3 = 10 V – 2 V = 8 V
v4 = 2 V
Example:

The voltage v1 and v2 in the circuit shown are 512.41V and 330.05V
respectively.

Find the power supplied by each voltage source.

Show that the total power supplied equals the total power dissipated in the
resistors
Example:

Find v0 in the circuit shown.

Example:

The current in the 12Ω resistor in the circuit shown is 1 A, find vg.
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 3

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
Applying KCL at nodes b, c, and g Applying KVL
Node b
 i1  i2  i6  I  0 R1i1  R5 i2  i3 ( R2  R3 )  v1  0
Node c
 i3 ( R2  R3 )  i4 R6  i5 R4  v 2  0
i1  i3  i5  0
Node e  i2 R5  i6 R7  i4 R6  0
i3  i 4  i 2  0
Example

Find i1 , i2, and i3

Solution
Applying KCL at node a
i1  i2  i3 ------------------------ 1
Applying KVL in the red loop
3.6  10 3 i1  2.2  10 3 i3  10  20
3.6  10 3 i1  2.2  10 3 i3  30 ------------------------ 2
Applying KVL in the blue loop
10  3.3  10 3 i2  20  2.2  10 3 i3
3.3  10 3 i2  2.2  10 3 i3  30 ------------------------ 3
Substituting from equation 1 in equation 2
3.6  10 3 (i2  i3 )  2.2  10 3 i3  30
3.6  10 3 i2  5.8  10 3 i3  30 ------------------------ 4

Solving equation 3 and 4 simultaneously

i2  3.99 mA
i3  7.65mA
Substituting in equation 1

i1  3.66 mA
The Node voltage method

The Mesh current method

Source transformation

Superposition theorem
 The Node voltage method

1-Determine the number of nodes within the network

2-Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v 1, v 2, ,,, v n-1, to the
remaining n − 1 nodes. The voltages are referenced w.r.t. the reference
node.
3- Apply KCL at each node except the reference, assume that all unknown currents
leave the node for each application of KCL
4-Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltage.

i  i
i o

0  i1  i2  i3
v1  E1 v1 v1  v2
  0
R1 R2 R3
 i  i
i o

0  i4  i5  I
v 2 v1 v2
 I 0
R3 R4

4- Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node

voltages.
Example:

Use the node-voltage method to find v o in the circuit shown

Example:

Use the node-voltage method to find v 1 and v 2 in the circuit shown

Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 4

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
Example:

Use the node-voltage method to find the branch currents ia through ie in the
circuit shown below.
Example:

Use the node-voltage method to find the branch currents i1 through i3 in the
circuit shown below.
 The super node
when a voltage source is connected between two non-reference nodes.

Problem: The current through the voltage source cannot be written as

function of its two terminal voltages!
Solution: Form a supernode which is formed by enclosing the voltage source
and any elements in parallel with it in a closed boundary.

Since there are two nodes (two terminals of the voltage source) are enclosed in
the supernode, two equations are needed for each supernode:
– KCL at supernode gives one equation( Write the standard node equations for
the supernode)
v1 v2
2  7  0
2 4
– The other equation is the relationship between the voltages of the two nodes enclosed
in the supernode

v2  v1  2
Example:

Use the node-voltage method to find v and i in the circuit shown below.
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 5

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 Mesh Analysis
1-Assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each independent
closed loop (mesh) of the circuit. It is not absolutely necessary to choose the
clockwise direction for each loop current. However, it eliminates the need to
have to choose a direction for each application. Any direction can be chosen
for each loop current with no loss in accuracy as long as the remaining steps
are followed properly.
Note:A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it.

2- Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistance as determined by
the assumed direction of loop current for that loop.
3- Apply KVL around each closed loop in the clockwise direction. Again,
clockwise direction was chosen to establish uniformity and prepare us for the
format approach to follow:

a- If an resistance has two or more assumed currents through it, the total
current through the resistance is the assumed current of the loop in which
KVL is being applied, plus the assumed currents of the other loops passing
through in the same direction, minus the assumed currents passing through in
the opposite direction

b-The polarity of a voltage source is unaffected by the direction of the

assigned loop currents.

4- Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop
currents
Mesh 1

 E1  i1 R1  R2 (i1  i2 )  0
Mesh 2

 R2 (i2  i1 )  i2 R3  E2  0
Example

Use the mesh-current method to find the branch currents ia, ib, ic in the circuit
shown in the figure below
Example

Use the mesh-current method to find how much power the 4-A current source
delivers to the circuit shown in the figure below
 Supermesh: when a current source exists between two meshes

Procedure:

1. Open the current source. That is form a single mesh for the two mesh
sharing the current source.
2. Write the constraint equation for the currents (Apply KCL).
i2  i1  6
3. Write the standard mesh equation for the supermesh (Apply KVL).
i1 6  i2 (10  4)  20
Example

Use the mesh-current method to find the current i1 in the circuit shown in the
figure below
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 6

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 Source Transformation

Circuit 1 Circuit 2

A source transformation allows us to replace a voltage source in

series with a resistance by a current source in parallel with the same
resistance, or vice versa
 Circuit 1 Circuit 2
Connect the same load resistor RL across terminal “a-b” in both circuits.
If circuits “1” and “2” are equivalent ⇒ i1= i2 & v1 = v2

Vs Vs Rp
i1   i2  I s (use the current divider role)
Req Rs  RL RP  RL
Vs IsRp
i1  i 2  
Rs  RL R p  RL

If we choose Rp =Rs ⇒ Vs =IsRp =IsRs

Therefore

Vs  I s Rs Rs  R p
Reduction of sources
Example:

Use concept of source transformation to find the voltage Vm in the circuit

shown in the figure below
Solution
 8
Vm  (2  )  3  2V
3
Example:

Use a series of source transformations to find the current io in the circuit

shown.
Example:

Use a series of source transformations to find the current io in the circuit

shown.
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 7

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 Superposition Theory

Whenever a linear system is excited, or driven, by more than one

independent source of energy, the total response is the sum of the individual
responses.

An individual response is the result of an independent source acting alone.

Because we are dealing with circuits made up of interconnected linear-

circuit elements, we can apply the principle of superposition directly to the
analysis of such circuits when they are driven by more than one independent
energy source
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuits is the algebraic sum of the voltage across (or
current through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

Step to apply:
1- Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the required
(voltage or current) due to that active source.
Current Source  open circuit(0 A)
Voltage Source  short circuit (0 V)
2- Repeat step 1 for each other independent sources.
3- Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contribution due
to the independent source.
Consider only the voltage source E1
Consider only the current source I

i1  i11  i12
i 2  i 21  i 22
i3  i31  i32
i 4  i 41  i 42
Example:

Use the principle of superposition to find vo in the circuit shown.

Example:

Use the principle of superposition to find the current io in the circuit shown.
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 8

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 Magnetic fields

In the region surrounding a permanent magnet there exists a magnetic field,

which can be represented by magnetic flux lines. Magnetic lines exist in
continuous loops, as shown in fig. The symbol for magnetic flux is the Greek
letter Φ (phi).
If a nonmagnetic material, such as glass or copper, is placed in the flux paths
surrounding a permanent magnet, there will be an almost unnoticeable change
in the flux distribution. However if a magnetic material, such as soft iron, is
placed in the flux path, the flux lines will pass through the soft iron rather than
the surrounding air because flux line pass with greater ease through magnetic
materials than through air. as shown in fig.
A magnetic filed (represented by concentric magnetic flux line, as shown in
fig.) is present around every wire that carries an electric current. The
direction of magnetic flux line can be found simply by placing the thumb of
the right hand in the direction of the conventional current flow and noting the
direction of the fingers.(this method is commonly called the right-hand rule).
If the conductor is wound in a single-turn coil, the resulting flux will flow
in a common direction through the center of the coil. A coil of more than
one turn would produce a magnetic field that would exist in a continuous
path through and around the coil which is quite similar to that of the
permanent magnet.
The strength of the magnetic filed is determined by the density of the flux
line. The filed strength of the coil can be effectively increased by placing
certain materials, such as iron or steel, within the coil to increase the flux
density within the coil or by increase the current in the conductor.
There are many application of the electro magnetic effect such as generator,
transformer, Relay……..
Magnetic filed intensity, H

Assume N turns of an electric coil are wound around an iron core. If an electric
current I passes through the coil, then a magnetic field is established in the
core.
A streamline in a magnetic field is a line so drawn that its direction is
everywhere parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field or (The magnetic field intensity) H is given
by
N .I
H
l
The magnetic field strength H
is measured in ampere-
turns/meter of main streamline
length, At/m.
Flux density

In the SI system of units, magnetic flux is measured in webers and has the
symbol Φ. The number of flux lines per unit area is called the flux density, is
denoted by the capital letter B, and is measured in teslas. Its magnitude is
determined by the following equation.


B
A
where B=tesla (T)
Φ=webers(Wb)
A=square meters (m2)
Permeability

It is easier to establish or set up the magnetic flux lines in some materials (e.g.
iron) than it is in other materials (e.g. air). The magnetic lines of force, like
electric current, always try to follow the path of least resistance. Permeability
is the property of materials that measures its ability to permit the
establishment of magnetic lines of force. It is analogous to conductivity in
electric circuits.

Air (or vacuum) is taken as the reference material. Its permeability is called μo
. The permeability μ of any other material is:

μ =μr μo

where μr is called the relative permeability; it is a dimensionless quantity.

Non-magnetic materials (e.g. air, glass, copper, and aluminum) are
characterized by their μr , which is approximately unity.
The permeability is the ratio between the magnetic flux density, B, and the
field intensity, H.
B= H × μ =H × (μo × μr )
The permeability of a material is determined from its magnetization
characteristic or (B-H) curve.
The magnetization characteristic is obtained experimentally.
Material that have lower permeability than air (μr is a fraction) are called
diamagnetic materials.

Those material that have slightly higher permeability than air (i.e. μr 1 to 10)
are called paramagnetic materials.

On the other hand, magnetic material such as iron, steel, nickel, and alloys of
such materials are called ferromagnetic materials, being characterized by their
high value of μr (from 100, to 100000) .

Note μo =4π x 10-7 Wb/A.m

Reluctance

The resistance of a material to the flow of charge (current) is determined by

the following equation:
L
R (ohms,Ω)
A
The reluctance of a material to the setting up of magnetic flux lines in the
material is determined by the following equation.

l
 (At/Wb)
A
Where  is the reluctance, l is the length of the magnetic path, and A is its
cross- section area. The t in the unit At/Wb is the number of turns of the
applied winding.
Ohm’s Law for magnetic circuits

cause
Effect 
opposition

For magnetic circuits, the effect desired is the flux Φ. The cause is the
magnetomotive (mmf), which is the external force required to set up the
magnetic flux lines within the magnetic material. The opposition to the setting
up of the flux Φ is the reluctance  .

mmf


The magnetomotive force mmf is proportional to the product of the number of
turns around the core ( in which the flux is to be established) and the current
through the turns of wire.

mmf  NI (ampere-turns, At)

This equation clearly indicates that an increase in the number of turns or the
current through the wire will result in an increased on the system to establish
flux line through the core.
 lc

Ac

mmf

c
Ampere's law for magnetic circuits

Ampere's law states that the mmf in a magnetic circuit is equal to the electric
current enclosed by the magnetic circuit.

The mmf creates a magnetic field in core having an intensity of H ampere-

turns / meter along the length of the magnetic path. Upon integrating the
magnetic field intensity along the magnetic path, we get,

∫ H dl = N.i

If the path of integration is the mean path length of the core lc, Ampere’s law
becomes;

H.lc = N.i
Ampere's lawfor magnetic circuits

Ampere's law states that the mmf in a magnetic circuit is equal to the electric
current enclosed by the magnetic circuit.

The mmf creates a magnetic field in core having an intensity of H ampere-

turns / meter along the length of the magnetic path. Upon integrating the
magnetic field intensity along the magnetic path, we get,

∫ H dl = N.i

If the path of integration is the mean path length of the core lc, Ampere’s law
becomes;

H.lc = N.i
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 9

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
 Analysis of magnetic circuits

mmf      H  L  NI


B
A

B   H  or H
 Electric circuit Magnetic circuit
Driving force (cause) emf mmf
Response (effect) current flux
opposition resistance reluctance
Equivalent circuit I

emf R
Example 1: Find the current necessary to establish a flux φ=3×10-4 Wb in the
series magnetic circuit shown in figure
L steel core =0.3 m
L iron core = 0.3m
Area (throughout)= 5 ×10-4 m2
N= 100 turns
 Solution

Φ =3×10-4 Wb , L steel core =0.3 m, L iron core = 0.3m, A = 5 ×10-4 m2 , N = 100

turns, I = ?.

NI=H1 L1 + H2 L2
100 × I = H1 L1 + H2 L2
B= Φ/A = 3×10-4 / 5 ×10-4 = 0.6 tesla

From chart
Hsteel = 340 AT/m
Hiron = 2500 AT/m

I= 8.52 A
Example 2: For the series – parallel magnetic circuit shown in the figure, find
the value of current I to establish a flux in the air gap φ=2×10-4 Wb.

L ab = L bc = L fe = L ed =0.2 m
L af = L be = L ed =0.1m
N= 200 turns
 Solution

Φg =2×10-4 Wb , I = ?.
Bg = B2 = Φg / A = 2×10-4 / 5 ×10-4 = 0.4 tesla
H 3 L3 = H g Lg + H 2 L2
From chart H2=245 AT/m
Hg= Bg/μ = Bg/(μo × μr ) = 0.4/ (4π ×10 -7 ×1)= 318309.88 AT/m
H 3 L3 = H g Lg + H 2 L2
H3 × 0.1 = 318309.88 × 0.002 + 245 × (0.2 + 0.2 + (0.1-0.002))
H3=758.62 AT/m
B2= H2 ×(μo × μr )
0.4 = 245 × 4π ×10 -7 × μr
μr = 1300
B3= H3 × (μo × μr ) = 758.62 × 4π ×10 -7 × 1300 =1.239 Tesla
Φ3 = B3 × A = 1.239 × 2×10-4 = 0.0002478 wb
Φ1 = Φ2 + Φ3 = 0.0002478 + 2×10-4 = 0.0004478 wb
B1 = Φ1 / A = 0.0004478/ 5 ×10-4 = 0.8956 tesla
From chart H1=620 AT/m
N I = H 1 L1 + H 3 L3
200 × I = 620 × (0.2+0.2+0.1) + 758.62 × 0.1
I= 0.518 A
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 10

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
Direct Current (DC)

Direct Current (DC) always flows Steady DC

in the same direction, but it may
increase and decrease.
A DC voltage is always positive (or
always negative), but it may increase
and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require
Smooth DC
a steady DC supply which is
constant at one value or a smooth
DC supply which has a small
variation called ripple.

Varying DC
Alternating Current (AC)
All the industrial power-distribution networks operate with alternating
currents.
The magnitude of the emf and current varies with time:

– Maximum when coil is perpendicular to the field

– Zero when the coil is parallel to the field
Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually
reversing direction.

An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-).

The rate of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is

measured in hertz (Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards cycles per
second.
General format for the Sinusoidal voltage or current

The basic mathematical format for the sinusoidal waveform is:

Am sin 
Am The peak value of the waveform
θ is the unit of the horizontal axis

Where
θ =ωt
ω The angular velocity of the rotating vector
t Time
ω=2 π f
 V (t )  Vm sin t

Thus, we have consider only sine waves that have maxima value at π/2 and
3 π/2 . With a zero value at 0, π , and 2 π as shown in the previous fig. if the
waveform is shifted to the right or left of θ o, the expression becomes

V (t )  Vm sin(t   )
Where θ is the angel in degrees that the waveform has been shifted
V (t )  Vm sin(t   )

V (t )  Vm sin(t   )
If the wave form crosses the horizontal axis with positive going slope
90o, it is called a cosine wave.

sin(t  90)  cos t

The average (mean) value of a wave
The average value of an alternating current is equal to the steady (DC) value
which transfers same charge to the circuit within a specific period.
1 T
I av 
T 
0
i ( t ) dt

1 2
I av 
2 0
I m sin  d 

 m  cos  0  0
I 2
I av
2

In the case of a symmetrical alternating current (i.e. One whose two-half
cycle are exactly similar, whether sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal), the average
value over a complete cycle is zero.
average value over one (or more) cycles of a sine wave is clearly zero.
however, it is often useful to know the average magnitude of the waveform
independent of its polarity:

We can think of this as the average value over half a cycle……
or as the average value of the rectified signal

1 
I av 
 0
I m sin  d 

I av 
Im
 cos  0 
 2Im
 
I av  0 . 637 I m
Example 1:

Determine the average value of the voltage waveform shown below.

Example 2:

Determine the average value of the voltage waveform shown below.

Example 3:

Determine the average value of the current waveform shown below.

Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 11

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
Root Mean Square (RMS) value

Most AC instruments are calibrated to show the RMS value of the voltage
or current and not the peak value

When the value of an AC voltage or current is given it is understood that it

is the RMS value.

The RMS value is sometimes called the effective value of the AC voltage.

The root mean square value of an alternating current is given by that

steady (d.c.) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a given
time produces the same heat as produced by the alternating current when
flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
 1 T
V rms  
2
v ( t ) dt
T 0

Square

Mean

Root
The Root Square value of a sine wave

v(t )  Vm sin t  Vm sin 

1 2
Vrms 
2 
0
(Vm sin  ) 2 d

Vm2 2 1
Vrms 
2 
o 2
(1  cos 2 )d

2
V 2
sin 2 
Vrms  m
  
4  2 0
Vm2  sin 4  Vm
Vrms   ( 2  )  ( 0  sin 0)   0.707Vm
4  2  2

r.m.s value of current or voltage= 0.707 x max. value of current or voltage

Form factor

for any waveform the form factor is defined as

Form factor  r.m.s. value

average value

for a sine wave this gives

0.707 Vm
Form factor  1.11
0.637 Vm
Peak factor

for any waveform the peak factor is defined as

Peak factor  peak value

r.m.s. value
for a sine wave this gives

Vm
Peak factor  1.414
0.707 Vm
Example 1:

Determine the form factor and the peak factor of the voltage waveform
shown below.
Example 2:

Determine the form factor and the peak factor of the voltage waveform
shown below.
Example 3:

Determine the form factor and the peak factor of the voltage waveform
shown below.
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 12

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
The response of the basic elements R,L, and C to a sinusoidal voltage
or current

Resistance
The resistance is unaffected by the frequency of the applied
sinusoidal voltage or current
For purely resistive circuit V and I were in phase
Vm
Im  or Vm  I m R
R
Inductance

For the inductor the voltage across an inductor is directly related to

the rate of change of current through the coil. Consequently, the
higher the frequency, the greater will be the rate of change of current
through the coil, and the greater the magnitude of the voltage
 di L
vL  L
dt
di L d
 ( I m sin  t )   I m cos  t
dt dt
di L
vL  L  L ( I m cos  t )   LI m cos  t
dt
or
v L  Vm sin(t  90) Where V m   LI m

Therefore, for the inductor, vL leads iL by 90o, or iL lags vL by 90o

The quantity ωL, called the reactance of an inductor, is symbolically

represented by XL and is measured in ohms
 X L   L  2  fL (ohms)

In an ohm’s law format, its magnitude can be determined from:

Vm
XL 
Im
Inductive reactance is opposition to the flow of current, which results
in the continual interchange of energy between the source and the
magnetic field of the inductor
Capacitance

The voltage across the capacitor is limited by the rate at which

charge can be deposited on, or released by, the plates of the
capacitor during the charging and discharging phases,
respectively. In other words, an instantaneous change in voltage
across a capacitor is opposed by the fact that there is an element
of time required to deposit charge on the plates of a capacitor
The fundamental equation relating the voltage across a capacitor to
the current of a capacitor is:
dv c
ic  c
dt
applying differentiation
dv c d
 ( v m sin  t )   V m cos  t
dt dt
Therefore
dv c
ic  c  c ( Vm cos  t )   cV m cos  t
dt
or

ic  I m sin(t  90) where I m   CV m

For a capacitor ic leads vc by 90o or vc lags ic by 90o
The quantity 1/ωc called the reactance of a capacitor, is symbolically
by Xc and is measured in ohm
1
X 
c
c

Capacitor reactance is the opposition to the flow of charge, which

results in the continual interchange of energy between the source and
the electric field of a capacitor.
Series RL circuit

V  Vm v I  I m i

Where Vm
I m
R 2  (L) 2

L
1
i  v  tan
R
Series RC circuit

V  Vm v I  I m i

Vm
Where I m
1 2
R (
2
)
C

1 1
i  v  tan
R C
Series RLC circuit

V  Vm v I  I m i

Vm
Where I m
1 2
R  (L 
2
)
C

 L  1
i  v  tan 1 c
R
Example 1

A coil is connected to supply voltage as shown in the figure below calculate the
following
1.the inductive reactance(XL)
2.the total impedance (Z)
3.the current(I)
4.the phase angle Ө between the current and the supply voltage
Example 2

Two coils are connected in series across a voltage supply (V) as shown in the
figure below. Calculate the value of the voltage V1,V2 across each coil. each
coil has its own resistance
Electrical Eng. Fundamental
Lecture 13

<Dr Hadi El-Helw>

Contact details: h-elhelw@staffs.ac.uk
Series RC circuit

V  Vm v I  I m i

Vm
Where I m
1 2
R (
2
)
C

1 1
i  v  tan
R C
Example 1

Capacitor (C)of 100µf and resistor(R) of 10 Ω are connected in series

across a supply voltage (V) as shown in the figure below.
calculate the current (I) flowing in the circuit
calculated the phase angle (Ө) between the current and voltage
Series RLC circuit

V  Vm v I  I m i

Vm
Where I m
1 2
R  (L 
2
)
C

 L  1
i  v  tan 1 c
R
Example 2

A circuit consists of R.L.C connected in series as shown in the figure below,

calculated the value of the current (I) showing if it is leading or lagging in the
following two cases
frequency F=50HZ
frequency F=150HZ