DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Name: Electric Drives

Code: EET 06111
Number of Credits: 9
Sub-Enabling Outcomes:
 Use knowledge of electrical drives to explain various types of duty cycles for electric
drives
 Explain speed-torque characteristics of various types of mechanical loads
 Explain the fundamental torque equations
 Describe motor selection based on the motor and load (joint) speed-torque characteristics
 Use knowledge of electrical drives to select proper starting methods for induction and DC
motors
 Describe speed control methods for induction motors and DC motors
 Describe braking methods for induction motors and DC motors
Pre-requisite module:
 EET 05203 Industrial Electronics
 EET 05106 Transformers and Induction motors
 EET 05201 Control Engineering
Required References:
 Mohamed A. El-Sharkawi, (2000), “Fundamentals of Electric Drives”, CL-Engineering;
First edition
 Krishnan, R., “Electric Motor Drives: Modeling, Analysis, and Control”
Recommended References:
 Hughes, A., (2005) “Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types and
Applications”, Newnes; 3rd edition
 Hindmarsh, J., Renfrew, A., (1997), “Electrical Machines and Drives”, Third Edition
Butterworth-Heinemann
 Mohan, N. M. (2012). Electric machines and drives: a first course (No. 621.31042
M697e). Wiley.
Integrated Method of Assessment:
 Continuous Assessment: 40%
  End of semester examination: 60%
INTRODUCTION

Motor control is required in a large number of industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans, pumps,
robots, washing machines etc. The system employed for motion control are called drives and
may employ any of the prime movers such as, diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam turbines,
steam engines, hydraulic motors and electric motors for supplying mechanical energy for motion
control.
Drives employing electric motors are known as electrical drives
Electric drive systems involve controlling electric motors in a steady state and dynamic
operations, taking into account the characteristics of mechanical loads and the behaviors of
power electronics converters.
Nowadays, electric power stations generate large amounts of electric energy for agriculture,
industry, domestic needs, and electrified traction facilities and in driving all kinds of working
machines, the electric motor is essential, which is the predominant type of drive so the term
electric drive is applied to it.
Electric drive has become more popular because of its simplicity, reliability, cleanliness,
easiness, and smooth control. Both AC and DC motors are used as electric drives; however, the
AC system is preferred because:

i. It is cheaper.
ii. It can be easily transmitted with low-line losses.
iii. It can be easy to maintain the voltage at consumer premises within prescribed limits.
iv. It is possible to increase or decrease the voltage without appreciable loss of power.

In spite of the advantages of AC motor, sometimes DC motor is used because:

i. In some processes, such as electrochemical and battery charging, DC is the only type of
power that is suitable.
ii. The speed control of DC motors is easier than AC; thus, for variable speed applications
such as lift and Ward Leonard system, the DC motors are preferred.
 iii. The DC series motor is suited for traction work because it has a high starting torque

The block diagram of an electrical drive is shown in Fig. 1.1 .Load is usually machinery
designed to accomplish a given task eh fans, pumps, robots, etc. Usually, load requirements can
be specified in terms of speed and torque demands. A motor having speed-torque characteristics
and capabilities to the load requirements is chosen.

Fig1.1 Block diagram of an electric drives

Source

Most drives are powered from ac source either directly or through a converter link but some
other drives can be powered by a dc source.
1-φ and 3-φ, 50-Hz AC supplies are readily available in most locations. Very low-power drives
are generally fed from a 1-φ source; however, the high-power drives are powered from 3-
φsource; some of the drives are powered from a battery

Power Modulator

Power modulator performs one or more of the following functions

i. Modulates flow of power from the source to the motor in such a manner that the motor
imparted speed-torque characteristics required by the load.
 ii. During transient operations, such as starting, braking, and speed reversal, it restricts
source and motor currents within permissible values; excessive current drawn from the
source may overload it or may cause a voltage drop.
iii. Converts electrical energy of the source in the form suitable to the motor, e.g. if the
source is DC and an induction motor is to be employed, then the power modulator is
required to convert DC into a variable frequency AC.
iv. Select the mode of operation of the motor, i.e. motoring or braking

Controls for the power modulator are built in the control unit which is usually operating at much
lower voltage and power level. In addition to operating the power modulator as desired, it may
also generate commands for the protection of the power generator and motor. Input command
signal, which adjusts the operating point of the drive, forms an input to the control unit. Sensing
of certain drive parameters, such as motor current and speed, may be required either for
protection or for closed-loop operation.

Power modulators which can be employed in industrial drives are;

a) Converters
The converter is required when the nature of available power is different from the power
required by the motor. This includes
i. AC to DC converters
ii. AC voltage controller or AC regulators
iii. Choppers or dc-dc Converters
iv. Inverters
v. Cycloconverters
b) Variable Impedances
Variable resistors are commonly used for the control of low-cost DC and AC drives and
are also needed for the dynamic braking of drives. Variable resister may have two or
more steps and can be controlled manually or automatically with the help of contactors.
c) Switching Circuit
Switching operations are required to achieve any one of the following
i. For changing motor connections to change its quadrant of operation
 ii. For changing motor circuit parameters in discrete steps for automatic starting and
braking control
iii. Operating motors and drives according to predetermined sequence
iv. To provide interlocking to prevent maloperation
v. To disconnect the motor when abnormal operating conditions occur

Electrical Motors

Motors commonly used in electric drives are DC motors, induction motors, synchronous motors,
brushless DC motors, stepper motors, and switched reluctance motors, etc. In the olden days,
induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for constant speed drives but not for
variable speed drives, because of poor efficiency and are too expensive. But in nowadays, AC
motors employed in variable speed drives due to the development of semiconductors employing
SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs, and GTOs

Load

It is usually a machinery, such as fans, pumps, robots, and washing machines, designed to
perform a given task, usually load requirements, can be specified in terms of speed and torque
demands.

Control Unit

Control unit controls the function of power modulator. The nature of control unit for a particular
drive depends on the type of power modulator used. When semiconductor converters are used,
the control unit will consists of firing circuits, which employ linear and digital integrated circuits
and transistors, and a microprocessor when sophisticated control is required. Microprocessors
also used when sophisticated control is required.

Sensing Unit

Sensing unit consists of speed sensor or current sensor. The sensing of speed is required for the
implementation of closed loop speed control schemes. Speed is usually sensed using tachometers
coupled to the motor shaft. Current sensing is required for the implementation of current limit
control.

Advantages of Electrical Drives

i. They have flexible control characteristics

ii. They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power
iii. Electric motor have high efficiency, low no-load loss, and considerable short-time
overload capability.
iv. They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive
environments, submerged in liquid, vertical mounting, etc.
v. Do not pollute the environment
vi. Can operate in four quadrants of speed-torque plane
vii. Unlike other prime movers, there is no need to refuel or warm-up the motor
viii. They are powered by electrical energy which has a number of advantages over other
forms of energy

Disadvantages of Electric Drives

The two inherit disadvantages of the electric drive system are:

i. The non-availability of drive on the failure of electrical power supply.
ii. It cannot be employed in distant places where electric power supply is not available.

Classification of Electric Drives

In general, electric drives may be classified into three categories

i. Group Drives
ii. Individual Drives
iii. Multi-motor Drives

Group Drives
It consists of single motor which actuates several mechanisms or machines by means of one or
more line shafts supported on bearings. It’s also called a shaft line drive. This drive is
economical in the consideration of the cost of motor and control gear. A single motor of large
capacity cost is less than the total cost of a number of small motors of the same total capacity. In
switch over from non-electric drive to electric drive, the simplest way is to replace the engine by
means of motor and retaining the rest of power transmission system.

Advantages

i. The cost of installation is less. For example, if the power requirement of each machine is
10 HP and there are five machines in the group, then the cost of five motors will be more
than one 50-HP motor.
ii. If it is operated at rated load, the efficiency and power factor of large group drive motor
will be high.
iii. The maintenance cost of single large capacity motor is less than number of small capacity
motors.
iv. It is used for the processes where the stoppage of one operation necessitates the stoppages
of sequence of operations as incase of textile mills.
v. It has overload capacity.
Group drive is the most economical but it’s seldom used now days due to the following
disadvantages
i. Any fault that occurs in the driving motor renders all the driven equipment idle
ii. Considerable power loss take place in the energy transmitting mechanism
iii. Flexibility of the different machines is lost since they have to be located to suit the layout
of the line shaft
iv. The use of line shaft, pulley, and belts make the drive untidy in appearance and less safe
to operate
v. The level of noise produced at the workplace is quite high

Individual Drive
In individual drives, a single electric motor is used to drive one individual machine. Such a drive
is very common in most of the industries.
An electric motor is used for transmitting motion to various parts or mechanisms belonging to
sing equipment. For example, such a drive in the lathe rotates the spindle, moves the feed, and
also with the help of gears, imparts motion to the lubricating and cooling pumps of the lathe. In
many applications the individual, drive consists of s motor, which is specially designed to form
an integral part of the equipment.
In the case of individual drives too, the energy is transmitted to different parts of the same
mechanisms by means of mechanical parts like gears, pulleys etc. Hence, there is some power
loss.

Advantages

i. It is more clean and safe.

ii. Machines can be located at convenient places.
iii. If there is a fault in one motor, the output and operation of the other motors will not be
affected.
iv. The continuity in the production of the industry is ensured to a higher degree.
v. Individual drive is preferred for new factories, as it causes some savings in the cost.

Disadvantages

i. The initial cost will be high.

ii. Power loss is high.

Multi-motor Drives

In this drive, separate motors are provided to actuate different parts of the driven mechanism. For
example, in traveling cranes, there are three motors; one for hoisting, another for long travel
motion and the third for cross travel motion. Paper mills, rolling mills, rotary printing machines,
metal working machines etc. employ a large number of multi-motor drives.
The use of individual drives and multi-motor drives has enabled the introduction of automation
in the production process, which in turn has considerably increased the productivity of different
industrial undertakings.

Choice of Electrical Drives

The choice of electrical drives depends on a number of factors. Some of the important factors
are;

i. Steady state operation requirements

Nature of speed torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty
cycle, quadrant of operation, speed fluctuation if any, ratings etc.
ii. Transient operation requirements
Values of acceleration and deceleration, starting, breaking, and reverse performance.
iii. Requirements related to the source
Type of source and its capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor,
harmonics and their effect on the load, and ability to accept regenerated power.
iv. Capital and running costs, maintenance needs, life, etc.
v. Space and weight restrictions if any.
vi. Environment and location.
vii. Reliability

Duty Cycle
Duty cycles encompass the frequency and duration of typical operations. Duty of a motor will
indicate load on the motor including no load, rest, and de-energized period. Reviewing these
operations helps determine the effect on motor temperature.

This informs whether the selected motor suits the application, needs additional cooling like
forced ventilation, or requires replacement.

The classification of duties on the motor is done in IS standard IS: 325-1970 as follows;

i. Continuous Duty (S1)

Operation of the motor at constant load to reach steady state temperature

Continuous Duty (S1)

ii. Short Time Duty (S2)
Operation of the motor at constant load for a short period followed by rest to cool down
to the original starting temperature. Short-time duty timings are generally 10, 30, 60, and
90 minutes
 Short Time Duty (S2)

iii. Intermittent Periodic Duty (S3)

A sequence of identical duty cycles each of a constant load and rest period. The duration
of the duty cycle is 10 minutes. Recommended values of cyclic duration factors are 15,
25, 40, and 60%

Intermittent Periodic Duty (S3)

iv. Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting (S4)
It consist of starting period, constant load period and rest period. The operating and rest
periods are too short to attain thermal equilibrium of motor in one duty cycle

Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting (S4)

v. Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting and Braking (S5)

This duty cycle consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of period
of starting, a period of operation at constant load, a period of braking and rest period.
Thermal equilibrium is not reached in none duty cycle. Braking is done electrically and is
rapid.
 Intermittent Periodic Duty with Starting and Braking (S5)

vi. Continuous Duty with Intermittent Periodic Loading (S6)

This is a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of operation at
constant load and a period of operation at no load. Thermal equilibrium is not reached in
one duty cycle. Cycle duration factors are 15, 25, 40, and 60%.

vii. Continuous Duty with Starting and Braking (S7)

This consists of a period of operation at constant load and a period of electric braking. No
rest period
viii. Continuous Duty with Periodic Speed Change (S8)
This is a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a period of operation at a
constant load corresponding to a determined speed of rotation, followed immediately by a
period of operation at another load corresponding to a different speed of rotation. There is
no rest period.
Types of Loads

While selecting suitable motors for industrial application, a general understanding of the
mechanical and electrical elements and a knowledge of load and motor characteristics is
essential. There are two basic considerations in getting the motor drive load started - the speed-
torque characteristics of both load and motor and Wk2. Many loads need variable torque, while
others require constant torque or constant power. Some loads can be started unloaded while
others must be started on full load. Wk 2 or inertia problem will be lacking in some loads while
some loads will have high Wk2 characteristics.
To select the correct type of motor for a particular application, information on the following
points must be available
i. The inertia of the connected load referred to the motor shaft.
ii. Kw of the load and the length of time required for each period of running.
iii. Time-consuming in standing idle
iv. Number of starts, stops, reversals, etc. diagram of duty cycle
v. Type of braking used for stopping
vi. Relation between load torque and speed
vii. Other requirements such as high torque, space limitations, high ambient temperature, etc.

Classification of Loads with Respect to Time

The loads are classified with respect to time as follows.
i. Continuous and constant loads
The loads on the motor operate for a long time under the same conditions. Ex: fan,
compressors, conveyors, centrifugal pumps, etc.
ii. Continuous and variable loads
The load on the motor operates repetitively for a longer duration but varies continuously
over a period. Ex: metal cutting lathes, hoist winches, conveyors, etc.
iii. Pulsating loads
The load on the motor can be viewed as constant torque superimposed by pulsations. Ex:
tile looms, reciprocating pumps, certain types of loads with crankshafts, frame saws, etc.
iv. Impact loads
The load on the motor has regular and repetitive load peaks or pulses, i.e., the load
increases to a maximum level suddenly. Ex: rolling mills, shearing machines, etc.
v. Short-time intermittent loads
The load on the motor occurs periodically in an identical duty cycle, each duty cycle
having a period of application of load and rest. Ex: Roller trains, cranes, hoisting
mechanisms, etc.
vi. Short-time loads
The load on the motor occurs periodically remains constant for a short time and then
remains idle or off for a longer time. Ex: servomotors, motor–generator sets, used for
charging batteries, drilling machines, etc.

Classification of Loads with Respect to Duty Cycle

There are three basic classifications of duties of an electric motor. They are:
i. Continuous duty cycle.
ii. Short-time duty cycle.
iii. Intermittent duty cycle.

Continuous Duty Cycle

Continuous duty is the duty when the on-period is so long that the motor attains a steady-state
temperature rise. The motor so selected should be able to withstand momentary overload
capacity. This type of motor will have high efficiency because it will be operating almost at its
full load and also have a good power factor.
There are mainly two types of continuous duty cycle. They are:
i. Continuous duty at constant load cycle.
ii. Continuous duty at variable load cycle.
In continuous duty with a constant load cycle, the load torque remains constant for a sufficiently
longer period. The variation of torque against time for continuous duty is shown in a figure
below

Continuous duty load

Continuous Duty with Constant Load

Ex: Conveyors, compressors, fans, etc. in which continuous duty at constant load occurs.
In continuous duty with a variable load cycle, the load on the motor is not constant, but it has
several phases in one cycle. The variation of load against time for the variable load cycle is
shown in a figure below. The selection of a motor for this type of duty involves thermal
calculation, which is a difficult task. The motors operating for such type of duties will have poor
efficiency and also poor power factor.
 Continuous duty with variable load
The selection of motor for this type of duty may be based on average power or average current
method.

Short-time Duty

In this type of duty, the load occurs on the motor during a small interval and remains idle for a
long time to re-establish the equality of temperature with the cooling medium. The variation of
the load against time for short-time duty is shown in a figure below.

Load cycle for short-time duty

Usually, such type of short-time duty occurs in bridges, lock gates, and some other household
appliances such as mixes.
Intermittent Duty

The duty in which load on the motor varies periodically in a sequence of identical cycles shown
in a figure below, in which the motor is loaded for sometimes ‘ton’ and shut off for a period of
‘toff’

Load cycle for intermittent duty

Motor heats during ‘on’ period ‘ton’ and cools down during ‘off’ period ‘toff’. The ratio of ‘ton’
to (ton + toff) is known as duty ratio

The maximum temperature attained with intermittent loading can be obtained by using the
temperature rise and cooling equations of the motor and is given as follows.
Let θh, θn 1, θh 2, …θh n–1 be the temperature rise and be the fall in temperature for ‘n’ times
intermittency.
Let t1 be the duration of heating in seconds, t2 be the duration of cooling in seconds, τn be the
heating time constant in seconds, τC be the cooling time constant in seconds, and θf be the
maximum permissible temperature raise of motor.

Classification of Loads with Respect to Torque

Torque can be either active or passive

The active torques are due to gravitational force or deformation in elastic bodies. The active
torques continue to act in the same direction even after the direction of the drive or motion is
reversed. The examples of active torques are due to gravitation pull in the case of lifts and
traction locomotives running up the gradient.

These passive torques are due to friction or due to shear and deformation in inelastic bodies.
Passive torques always oppose motion even if the direction of the drive changes. When the
direction of motion changes, the sense of this type of torque also changes. The example of
passive torques is due to friction while lifting up and lowering the weight

Load Torques Varying with Time

i. Constant continuous load; Loads operating continuously for the same loading conditions
for a long time
ii. Continuous, variable loads; The loads vary and have a duty cycle
iii. Pulsating loads; Loads of machines with crankshafts
iv. Impact loads; Regular repetitive load peaks such as in rolling mills, forging hammers, etc.
v. Short-time intermittent loads, e.g. cranes
vi. Short time loads; Loads occurring for a short time

Load Torques Varying with Speed

i. Load torques that are independent of speed; e.g. cranes

ii. Load torques that are proportional to the speed2
iii. Load torques which are proportional to speed or inversely proportional to speed
iv. Load torques that are proportional to speed
Speed torque characteristics of the load must be known to calculate acceleration time accurately
and to select the proper type of motor to suit the load
Basic Equation of Motion for Drive System

If a motor driving its load is represented by a rotational system, the basic equation of motion of
the system is given by
dw
Tₘ=Tₗ+J
dt
Where;
Tm = Motor torque as a function of speed N_M
Tl= Load torque as a function of speed in N-M
J = Total moment of inertia of the system including motor rotor and load parts in kg-m2
W = the angular velocity in mechanical radians/sec.
T = Time in second
 Typical Illustration of Equation
Both the motor speed torque characteristics and the load speed torque characteristics are plotted
in the figure.

Describe torque equations and speed-torque characteristic curves of the load

Relate torque and power required by mechanical load

Explain the fundamental torque equations

Interpret torque equation

Calculate the refereed torque

Describe the use of gears in drive systems

Describe motor selection based on the motor and load (joint) speed-torque characteristics

The selection of the driving motor for a given service depends upon the conditions under which
it has to operate. Due to the universal adoption of electric drive, it has become necessary for the
manufacturer to manufacture motors of various designs according to the suitability and the use in
various designs according to the suitability and use in various classes of industry. This has
resulted in numerous types of motors. For this reason, the selection of the motor itself has
become an important and tedious process. The conditions under which an electric motor has to
operate and the type of load it has to handle, determine its selection.
While selecting a motor, the following factors must be taken into consideration:
i. Cost:
 Initial cost and
 Running cost.
ii. Electric characteristics:
 Starting characteristics,
 running characteristics,
 speed control characteristics, and
 Braking characteristics.
iii. Mechanical characteristics:
 Type enclosure and bearings,
 Arrangement for the transmission of power,
 Noise, and
 Cooling.
iv. Size and vetting of motors:
 Requirements for continuous, Intermittent, or variable load cycle and
 Overload capacity. Type of drive: 0. the drive is for one or more machines and
 The type of transmission through gears, belts, etc.
v. Type of drive:
 The drive is for one or more machines and
 The type of transmission through gears, belts, etc.
Describe the Speed-Torque characteristics of DC and induction motors

Characteristics of DC Motor

The performance and, therefore, suitability of a DC motor are determined by its characteristics.
The important characteristics of DC motor are:

i. Torque vs. armature current characteristics (T vs. Ia):

 This characteristic curve gives the relation between torque developed in the armature (T)
and armature current (Ia). This is also known as the electrical characteristic.
ii. Speed vs. armature current characteristics (N vs. Ia):
This characteristic curve gives the relation between speed (N) and armature current (Ia).
This is also known as speed characteristics.
iii. Output (HP) vs. armature current characteristics (HP vs. Ia):
The horsepower of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque, so its characteristics
follow the shaft torque characteristics.
iv. Speed vs. characteristics (N vs. T):
This characteristic gives a relation between speed (N) and torque (T) developed in the
armature. This curve may be derived from the two characteristics mentioned in
characteristics (i) and (ii) above.
Characteristics (i), (ii), and (iii) are called starting characteristics, and (iv) is known as
running characteristics.

While discussing motor characteristics, the following relations should always be kept in mind

Where
Ta is the torque developed in the armature in N-m,
Ia is the armature current in ampere,
Eb is the back emf in volts, and φ is the flux in Weber

Characteristics of Shunt Motor

The field winding connected across the armature terminals is called a shunt motor as shown in
Fig. Rated voltage is applied across the field and armature terminals.
 Fig. DC shunt motor

Starting Characteristics

The study of starting characteristics of a motor is essential to know the starting torque necessary
to accelerate the motor from standstill position is also to require to overcome the static friction
and the standstill load or, to provide load torque

Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia)

In the expression for the torque of a DC motor, torque is directly proportional to the product of
flux per pole (φ) and armature current (Ia):

Since, in case of a DC shunt motor, the flux per pole (φ) is considered to be constant.

So, the torque is proportional to armature current and is practically a straight line passing through
the origin as shown if Fig. 1.3.
 Fig. 1.3 Torque vs. armature current characteristics
To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of armature current at
starting. This may damage the motor, hence DC shunt motors can develop moderate starting
torque and hence suitable for such applications where the starting torque requirement is
moderate.
Describe four quadrants of the speed-torque characteristics that cover all possible
combinations of any electric drive system

Select electric motor based on joint motor speed load characteristics

Use knowledge of electrical drives to select proper starting methods for induction and DC
motors

Identify starting methods for induction and DC motors

Describe characteristics of starting methods

Identify factors for motor starter selection

Explain application of starting methods

Describe speed control methods for induction motors and DC motors

SPEED CONTROL OF DC MOTORS

In practical applications, a motor may be required to perform a number of desirable jobs
conforming to different load conditions and speed requirements. The availability of DC motors
to adjustment of their operating speed over wide ranges and by a variety of methods is one of the
important reasons for the strong competitive position of DC machinery in industrial applications.
The nature of speed control required by different industrial drives are:
i. Some drives require a continuously variable speed over the range from zero to full speed,
such drives are known as variable-speed drives.
ii. Some drives require only two to three fixed speeds over a region, such drives are known
as multi-speed drives.
iii. In some cases, speed is needed for adjusting or setting up the work on a driven machine
only for a few revolutions per minute. Such a speed is known as creeping speed.
For example, a crane or hoist requires the same torque at all speeds, while a fan or centrifugal
pump requires a torque proportional to the square of the speed. For most of the drives, however,
a control of speed within ±25% of the normal speed is required.
The speed and torque of a DC motor can be expressed by the following relationships.

Where
V is the terminal voltage in volts,
Ia is th armature current in ampere,
Ra is the armature resistance in ohm,
φ is the flux per pole in wb,
V is the speed of DC motor in rpm, and
T is the torque in N-m.
Therefore, the speed of DC motors can be regulated by varying φ, R, or V. The speed of DC
motors can be controlled by the following methods:
1. Field control or flux control method.
 2. Armature control method.
3. Applied voltage control.

Speed control of DC Shunt Motors

Speed of DC shunt motor can be controlled by varying the flux, armature resistance, and applied
voltage to the armature terminals.
Various methods of controlling the speed of the shunt motor is given as follows
Field control method
The speed adjustment of the DC shunt motors by field control may be obtained by one of the
following methods.
i. Field rehostatic control method.
ii. Reluctance control method.
iii. Field voltage control.
Field-rehostatic control method
In this method, speed control is obtained by controlling the field current or flux by means of a
variable resistance inserted in series with the shunt filed winding. The external resistance (Re)
connected in series with the field winding is shown as shunt field regulator. The method of
regulating the speed by varying the flux or field current in the shunt field winding is known as
flux control method. Circuit diagram illustrating the speed control of a shunt motor is shown in
Fig. 1.15.

Fig. 1.15 Field-rheostatic control of shunt motor

The variation of external resistance 'Re’ in the field reduces the field current and hence the flux
'φ' also reduces. The reduction in flux will also result in an increase in the speed. For a DC shunt
motor, speed is inversely proportional to field flux (φ). Since in this method of speed control,
flux can be only reduced. Consequently, the motor runs at a speed higher than the normal speed.
For this reason, this method of speed control is used to give motor speeds above normal or to
correct for a fall in speed due to load.

Reluctance Control

In this method of speed control, the motor must be constructed with special mechanical features
so that the reluctance of the magnetic circuit can be changed, which makes the motor more
expensive. Hence, the variable reluctance type of motor is seldom used.

Field Voltage Control

This method requires a variable voltage for the field circuit; such a variable supply can be
obtained by means of an adjustable electronic rectifier.

Armature Control Method of DC Shunt Motor

The speed adjustment of the DC shunt motors by armature control may be obtained by one of the
following methods.
i. Armature rheostatic control method.
ii. Armature diverter method or potential divider method.

Armature rheostat control method

In armature or rehostatic control method of speed, a variable rehostatic or resistance connected in

series with the armature is known as controller resistance. The circuit diagram of the armature
control method is shown in Fig. 8.16.
 Fig. 1.16 Armature rheostatic control of shunt motor

The speed is directly proportional to the voltage applied across the armature. The voltage across
the armature can be controlled by changing resistance connected in series with it. As the
controller resistance is increased, the potential difference across the armature is decreased
thereby decreasing the armature speed. There is a particular load current at which the speed
would be zero is called stating current. The main disadvantage of this method is speed up to zero
is not possible, as it requires large rehostat in series with the armature that is practically
impossible.

Armature Diverter Method or Potential Divider Method

The main disadvantage of the above method can be overcome by connecting a rheostat in a
potential divider arrangement as shown in Fig. 1.17.
 Fig. 1.17 Potential divider method of shunt motor

When the variable rheostat is at minimum position, the voltage across the armature is zero. If
rheostat is moved toward maximum position, the voltage across the armature increases then
speed also increases. The variation of speed with the armature voltage is shown in Fig. 8.18

Fig. 1.18 Speed-voltage characteristics

Speed Control of DC Series Motor

The speed control of a DC series motor can be obtained by changing the series field current, flux,
or voltage applied across the armature. The methods of the speed control of the series motor are:
i. Field control method.
ii. Armature control method.

Field control method

In the series motor, the variation of flux can be brought about by diverting the current flowing
through the series field winding by any one of the following methods.

Field diverter's method

In this method, the series field winding is shunted by a variable resistor ‘R’ known as series field
divertor. Any desired amount of current can be passed through the divertor by adjusting its
resistance. Hence, the flux can be controlled, i.e., decreased, and consequently the speed of the
motor is increased.
The arrangement of field diverter and the speed-armature current characteristics with change in
resistance ‘R’ is shown in Figs. 8.19 (a) and (b).

Fig. 8.19 (a) Field diverter method of speed control and (b) Speed-current characteristics
Armature diverter method

In this method, the armature of the motor is shunted with an external variable resistance (R) as
shown in Fig. 8.20 is known as armature diverter.

Fig. 8.20 Armature diverter method of speed control

For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced due to armature divertor then
flux (φ) must increase (∴ T ∝ Ia). So that, the motor reacts by drawing more current from the
supply. So, the current through field winding increase, so the flux increases and the speed of the
motor reduces.
This method of speed control is used to have the speed below the normal value.

Tapped filed method

In this method, the flux change is achieved by providing a number of tapings from the field
winding, which are brought out side as shown in Fig. 8.21

Fig. 8.21 Tapped field speed control

As shown in Fig. 8.21, the selector switch ‘SW’ is provided to select number of turns. So, the net
mmf will change. This will cause the change in the speed of DC series motor.
This method is used in electric traction.

Series-parallel connection of field coils

In this method of speed control, several speeds can be obtained by grouping the several field
coils as shown in Figs. 8.22 (a) and (b). This method is used generally in case of fan motors

Fig. 8.22 Series–parallel connection of field winding

If the field coils are arranged in series, or parallel, the mmf produced by the coils changes; hence,
the flux produced also changes. Hence, the speed is controlled.

Armature control method

Armature resistance control method is the most common method employed for DC series motor.
The arrangement and speed-current characteristics of series motor is shown in Figs. below.
By increasing the resistance in series with the armature, voltage drop across this resistance
occurs. So that, the voltage applied across the armature terminals can be decreased. As the speed
is directly proportional to the voltage across the armature, the speed reduces.
Speed Control of Induction Motors

A three-phase induction motor is practically a constant-speed motor as the DC shunt motor. The
speed control of DC shunt motor can be achieved easily, but it is difficult to achieve the smooth
speed control of the induction motor because the performance of the induction motor in terms of
its power factor, efficiency, etc. gets adversely effected.
We know that for the induction motor:

The speed of motor N = Ns (1−S). (8.20

From the above two relations:

The speed of the induction motor can be changed either by changing its synchronous speed (Ns)
or by changing the slip and also the parameters R2 and E2 are changed then to keep torque
constant for constant load condition, slip will change, and then its speed gets effected.
Thus, the following methods are used for controlling the speed of the three-phase induction
motors

From stator side

i. Supply frequency control.

ii. Supply voltage control.
iii. Controlling the number of stator poles.

Speed control by varying the supply frequency

This method is impractical for most applications because the frequency of the supply system
must remain fixed. The synchronous speed is given by

Thus, by controlling the supply frequency, the synchronous speed can be controlled over a wide
range which gives the smooth speed control of the induction motor. Hence, in this method,
variable voltage and frequency are achieved by using a converter and inverter circuit as shown in
Fig. 8.25.

Fig. 8.25 Electronic circuit for variable frequency

Rectifier converts normal AC supply to constant DC voltage. This DC supply is then given to
inverter that converts constant DC to variable AC voltage and frequency
We know that:

But, at standstill, rotor-induced emf depends on the supply voltage

i.e., E2 ∝ V
In the operating region of an induction motor or for low-slip region (SX2) << R2.

Rotor resistance is constant; therefore

From the above relation, if the supply voltage ‘V’ is reduced below the rated value torque
developed by the induction motor is reduced. But, so as to maintain the torque constant for
constant load, it is necessary to increase the slip thereby decreasing the speed of induction motor.
This method of speed control is simple, low initial cost, and has low maintenance cost, but it has
limited use because, the operation at voltage is restricted by magnetic saturation and also large
change in voltage is required for relatively for small change in speed

Speed control by changing the Number of Poles

In this method, it is possible to have one or two speeds, one double of the other which is
generally obtained by changing the number of poles. It is also called as pole-changing method.
Changing the number of poles is simply affected by changing the connections of stator winding
with the help of simple switches. Due to this number of stator poles gets changed, in the ratio
2:1. Hence, either of the two speeds can be selected.
Consider the single phase of a certain three-phase winding when the supply is across the two
terminals and the third is kept open, as shown in Fig. 8.26
 Fig. 8.26 Eight-pole winding

Let the conductors which are carrying current in upward direction from South Pole, while the
conductors which carry current in downward direction from north polarity. The distribution of
current is as shown in Fig. 8.26 due to these eight poles get formed
Now, the two terminals 1 and 2 which the supply was given earlier are joined together and
supply is given to the common point of the first two terminals and the third terminal, on
observing the direction of current, it will be found that total eight poles are changed to four poles
only as shown in Fig. 8.27; so that, the speed now will be double of the previous value

Fig. 8.27 Four-pole winding

From rotor side

The following method is used for controlling the speed of three-phase induction motors on rotor
side.
i. Adding external resistance in the rotor circuit.
 ii. Cascade control.
Cascade control
Multiple speeds are derived and motors are sometimes operated in tandem or cascade. If two
motors are to be mechanically coupled together, one of the machines must be phase-wound
motor while the other can be a squirrel-cage motor. The first is connected to the mains in the
usual way, while that of the second stator is fed from the rotor winding of the first, as shown in
Fig. 8.28.

Fig. 8.28 Cascade control of induction motor

When two motors are operated in tandem, they may be running in the same direction, or the
phase rotation of one motor may be reversed, thus tending to make it in reverse direction. In both
the cases, the set will run after it is started, but in the latter case, no starting torque is developed
so that this connection is rarely used.
If P1 and P2 be the number poles of both the machines, then the synchronous speed of the set is
depending on total number of poles P1 + P2 in the first case and P1 − P2 in the second. If the
number of poles of the two motors is not equal; four speeds possible: two for tandem operation
and one for each motor separately.
Let ‘P1’ be the poles of main motor and ‘P2’ be the poles of the auxiliary motor.
If ‘S’ is the slip, the actual rotating speed of the motor is:

But, for the induction motor, the frequency of the rotor current is ‘S’ times of supply frequency.
Frequency fr = Sf
Let, fr1 be the frequency of the rotor current of the main motor and the frequency of the rotor
current of the auxiliary motor is fr2 then:
The speed of the main motor

The speed of the auxiliary motor

As fr1 is so small, so fr2 will be very small; so that, it can be neglected

Since, the two motors are coupled together

Substituting fr1 from above equation in Equation (8.27), we get:

Equation (8.28) relation shows that the speed of the set is that of a single machine having the
number of poles equal to the sum of the numbers of poles of the two machines. Hence, the set
can give four different speeds. If it is required to have the speeds above the normal, the torque of
the second motor is reversed by simply changing two of the leads of the second. This is known
as differential cascading.
Illustrate the use of power converters for speed control of DC and Induction motors

Describe braking methods for induction motors and DC motors

Describe Dynamic or Rheostatic braking of DC and induction motors

Describe Counter current or plugging of DC and induction motors

Describe Regenerative braking of DC and induction motors