CHAPTER 6 - SCULPTURE

Sculpture, an artistic form in which hard or plastic materials are worked into threedimensional art
objects. The designs may be embodied in freestanding objects, in reliefs on surfaces, or in environments
ranging from tableaux to contexts that envelop the spectator. An enormous variety of media may be
used, including clay, wax, stone, metal, fabric, glass, wood, plaster, rubber, and random “found” objects.
Materials may be carved, modelled, moulded, cast, wrought, welded, sewn, assembled, or otherwise
shaped and combined.

In this chapter, you will know the origin and importance of sculpture, the types, media, and techniques
of sculpture. This will be give you the ability to make your own sculpture at the end of the chapter.

The Origin of Sculpture

Sculpture is from the Latin word sculpere which means “to carve.” The tools used in sculpture are varied
and is changing throughout history. It engages our sense differently than paintings because it occupies
space as a three-dimensional mass through carving, casting modeling or assembling materials (Sheldon,
1968). It has sought to produce artworks that are as permanent and is working in durable and expensive
materials such as bronze granite, limestone, marble, and stone. More rarely, precious metals such as
gold, ivory, jade, and silver were used for chryselephantine works. More common and less expensive
materials were also used for broader consumption, like cast metals, ceramics, glass, and hardwoods.

The sculpture has long been one of the most popular forms of fine arts and one of the most beautiful
representations of the humankind. It was also used to represent societal concerns, such as morality,
politics, and religion (Witcombe, 1997). For many of years, scuplture has filled many roles in human life.
For example, the earliest sculpture was made to supply magical help to trackers, to represent gods, and
to hope of making their ancient kings becomes immortal.

Most common purpose of sculpture during the ancient time is associated with religion. Different images
like a human-made object revered for the spirit are familiar in many cultures. One of the oldest
sculptures discovered is an ivory statuette, dating approximately 30,000 BCE from a cave at Hohlenstein-
Stadel, Germany called Löwenmensch (which means a“lion-human”). This Paleolithic period statue is
about 12” tall and depicts a human figure with a feline face.

Another very iconic and famous piece of sculpture is “the Sphinx” of Egypt. This sculpture of an image of
the pharaoh Khafreand is part of a funerary complex for the pharaoh. Egyptian sculpture and all
Egyptian art were on the belief in a life after death wherein the body of their ruler (the pharaoh) was
preserved carefully and buried with some goods with him to provide for his needs forever. The
Egyptians often combined features from various creatures to symbolize ideas. For example, the head of
the pharaoh Khafre is added to the bowing figure of a lion to form the Great Sphinx. This type of
masterpiece suggests the combination of huma intelligence and animal strength. The Great Sphinx of
Egypt is an enormous sandstone sculpture, measuring 240’ ft. Long and 65’ ft. High.
Importance of Sculpture
 The sculpture is a perceptive-regeneration of reality through the use of threedimensional form. As a
specialized work of art, its objective is to exemplify a concept by forming a visual equivalent. Since the
shape is the dominant characteristic of sculptures, the human body and animals have been its primary
subject. They are constructed using bronze, clay, ivory as their mediums.

Likewise, the making of Sculpture is with the idea of expressing religious, personal, and political views.
This kind of artwork is meant to create a sense of patriotism, pride, greatness and spiritual respect.
Statues and sculptures have always been an integral part of museums and art history. They become
more popular as decoration items in private homes and office facilities. Sculptures and miniatures have
also become more popular as decoration items, and in the long term, valuable art investments.
Types of Sculptures

Bust. A bust is a sculpted and painted representation of the upper part of the human figure such as the
head, neck, shoulders, chest or breast.

Statue. A statue is a life-size or a larger size of a sculpture of a person or an animal, made of metal,
stone or wood. The world's tallest statue is the 420 feet (128 meters) Spring Temple Buddhain Henan,
China.

Architectural. Architectural sculpture is a universal classification used to describe a structural design

such as buildings, bridges, burial chamber and other big projects. It is from a brand of materials which
includes carved stone such as brownstone, cast iron, machine pressed sheet zinc, terra cotta, concrete
and other architectural supplies.

Medium and techniques

Sculpture techniques have the aim of providing practical and technical support through several
procedures. These processes are either additive (added material) or subtractive (material is removed or
carved out). Sculptures primarily use four basic techniques, namely:

Carving. It is a procedure in which the artists cut away objects until reached the desired form. Various
tools are used, depending the materials to be carved and the statue to which the work has progressed.

a. Stone carving- It is a type of sculpture which requires patience and planning. It is a shaping activity of
pieces of rough natural stone through the use of essential hand tools like hammer and chisel.

b. Wood carving- It is the art of shaping objects of wood using cutting tools. It is done through a
specialized carving knife (used to cut or smooth the wood), the slicer saw (used to cut off chunks of
wood), the chisel (used for lines and cleaning up flat surfaces), and the gouge (used in carving hollows,
rounds, and sweeping curves).

Casting. Casting is a method by which a liquid material is usually poured into a frame or pattern, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to harden. It has two types, namely:
a. Glass casting- It is a shaping activity of pieces of rough natural stone through the use of essential hand
tools like hammer and chisel.

b. Slip casting- It is a technique for the mass-production of pottery, especially for shapes not easily made
on a wheel.

Molding. Molding sculpture is an additive process. It is the working of soft or plastic materials(like clay
and wax) by hand to build up or shape to create a form.

Assembling. Assembling is an additive process of gathering and joining different materials to create an
assembled artwork. An example of assemblage is Martin Puryear's network of welded and sandblasted
stainless steel tubes whose joints are bound together by strands of silver and patented bronze.

Basic Sculpture Terms

a. Armature- It is skeleton-like framework used to support the building of paper-mâché, usually made or
stiff wire.

b. Assemblage- It is a three-dimensional art assembly of various materials, often taken from scraps,
junk, or various natural or human-made objects.

c. Base- It is the portion of the work on which the sculpture rest.

d. Craftsmanship- It is a skill with which one uses tools and materials in producing art.

e. Plaster of Paris- It is an excellent white powder which sets hard when blended in the water.

f. Freestanding- It refers to a method when a sculpture is intended to view from all sides.

h. Manipulation- It is a process of shaping an object by a skilled worker.

i. Replica- It refers to a precise reproduction of an artwork.

CHAPTER 7 - PHOTOGRAPHY

Since its invention photography has affected how the world views and consumes history, as well as
everyday life. A photograph is capable of not only capturing a brief moment in time, but can represent
an entire social movement or be a catalyst for change. Read on to learn about the creation of
photography as a medium, its art historical narrative, as well its importance in the digital era.

The Origin of Photography

The word photography is from two Greek words photos or phos, for “light” and graphe, for “lines” or
“drawing.” Therefore, Photography is described as the art in creating or drawing durable images by
recording light using either photographic film or image sensor (Spencer, 1973). It was first coined by Sir
John Herschel in a lecture before the Royal Society of London, on March 14, 1839. It has become a
powerful means of communication and a mode of visual expression that touches human life in many
ways (Eder, 1945).
Importance of Photography

We have always wanted to reproduce the world around us, beginning with cave drawings to painting on
canvas and eventually leading to the invention of photography. Our photographs share so much about
who we are as individuals. It tells what we find beautiful, fascinating, funny, delicious, meaningful,
inspiring. It allows us to showcase our style, interests, relationships, and adventures, to mark the
passage of time. Photography has been used in advertising, books, magazines, newspapers, television,
and in research to convey information and advertise products and services.

The Digital Era of Photography

Until the present times, photography was quite a problematic type of art to maintain. One may have
cameras with different lenses, manual focus, and complicated settings. However, with the advent of
digital cameras, all this complexity vanished. Digital cameras have a different way of saving images.
Instead of using film, it uses a sensor in to save images onto a digital memory card or internal storage
((Tolmachev, 2010; Ma, 2017).

Digital photography is the art of manipulating and producing digital pictures. It uses electronic
photodetectors to capture the image focused by the lens. The captured image is stored as a computer
file ready for digital processing, viewing, and publishing.

The technique in photography originated during early-to-mid 1600s. It started from the camera’s
predecessor known as the camera obscura (a Latin word which means “dark room”). It was a box
wherein when the light went through the pinhole it formed an image on the glass. The famous artists of
the Renaissance who use the obscura were Leonardo da Vinci and Michael Angelo.

In the 1820s, Joseph Niepce, a French scientist improve the lithography, a method of printing technique
which is based initially on the immiscibility of oil and water. Joseph discovered a way to copy engravings
onto glass using a variety of materials (mainly bitumen, a light-reacting asphalt). When light shined
through the paper, it burned an image into dark bitumen, which created an almost identical image from
the original.

In the year 1900, photography became available to everybody. Its fame started with George Eastman,
who was the founder of the Eastman Kodak Company. The first camera open to the public was the
Kodak no 1.

On October 17, 1969, Willard Boyle and George Smith of Bell Laboratories invented the Charge-Coupled
Device (CCD), a type of sensor that is used to capture an image by taking the light and translating it into
digital data.
 In December 1975, the first recorded attempt in the building of a prototype digital camera was made by
Steven Sasson, an engineer at Eastman Kodak. This camera weighed 9 pounds and can record black and
white images to a cassette tape. To view the photos, the Kodak engineers had to develop a unique
screen. It was able to capture a .01 megapixel image (10,000 pixels) and took 23 seconds to record a
copy to the tape.

In 1988, the first real digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was produced by the
Fuji DS-1P. During this year, the first JPEG and MPEG standards were fixed. These standards set in place
a universal format which allowed images (JPEG) and video (MPEG) to stored in a compressed form which
can be recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card.

In 1990, Dycam Model became the first commercially available digital camera. It also sold the Logitech
Fotoman. It used a CCD (Charge Couple Device) image sensor, stored pictures digitally, and connected
directly to a computer for download (Said, 1990).

Rule of Thirds Composition

One of the main factors that differentiate a great photograph from an ordinary one is composition, or
how are objects/ subjects placed in the shot. The Rule of Thirds is a great compositional technique for
making photos more dynamic and exciting. It is also a compositional rule for painting and photography.

The Rule of Thirds is also known as the guideline which applies to the process of composing visual
images like in painting, designs, and photographs (Meech, 1991). The instruction proposes that the
picture is visualized as divided into nine equal parts by two equally-spaced horizontal lines and two
equally-spaced vertical lines, and those essential compositional elements should place along these lines.
Proponents of the method claim that aligning a subject with these points create more composition,
energy, and tension (Peterson, 2003).

The Rule of Thirds asserts that an image is most pleasing when its subjects poised along imaginary lines
which divide vertically and horizontally the image into thirds. It is applied by aligning a subject with the
guidelines and their intersection points, placing the horizon on the top or bottom line (Krages, 2005).

Likewise, using the Rule of Thirds helps produce nicely balanced easy on the eye pictures. Also, as you
have to arrange things relative to the edges of the frame, it helps get rid of small subject surrounded by
vast space’ syndrome.

Types of Photography

Photography is one of the best favorite pastimes that many of us craved. A photograph is definitely
worth a thousand words and has the power to convey a whole new meaning of a particular condition.
Different pictures are made to share its unique characteristics of selectivity, instantaneity, and
Credibility (Barrett, 2007). There are several types of photography and thus, several kinds of
photographers. The different types of photography require various techniques, and types of
photographer use their talent in their meticulous field of expertise. The following are some standard
photography styles that enjoy a prominent position in the creative world.
Aerial Photography- It refers to the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated position. It is
acquired through the use of a specialized camera mounted such as fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters,
drones, balloons, kites, parachutes, etc.

Astrophotography- It focuses entirely on taking images from space. This type could vary from the
planets to the stars or any other exciting configurations.

Commercial Photography- It is a photographic work done for commercial purposes, such as corporate
brochures and leaflets, menus in cafes and restaurants, magazine advertising, merchandising, and
product placement. It has various types such as:

a. Advertising photography- This type of photography is used to highlight a product,service, brand or an

individual, in print advertising (such as magazines, newspapers, leaflet, etc).

b. Architecture and interior photography- This photography is used in capturing images of structures
and beauty of an interior space in which photographers use lightning techniques to attract clients.

c. Automotive photography- This photography is utilized by car or automobile companies and

dealerships to promote brand new or existing cars, driving awareness about a car’s features and benefits
to potential clientele.

d. Food photography- This photography is a specialized category of commercial photography which is

used to capture the pictures of various cuisines and menus in an attractive style.

e. Jewellery photographs- This photography is used in highlighting beautiful images of bracelets,

necklace, ring, and other jewellery items.

f. Journalism photography- This photography is the art of taking photographs which are considered as
attractive and goes along with news topics, to substantiate the news story or report.

g. Product photography- This photography is used in capturing excellent images to attractively

represents a product in advertising. It sometimes includes people as part of the product. It attracts
people to see someone they know or a face that is likable to a product.

h. Sports photography- It is a type of photography which is utilized to write sports news, using excellent
cameras that take sharp pictures of players in action.

Fine Art Photography- It refers to highly creative images that have an abstract influence. These
photographs can be equal to an artist’s expression on painting.

Forensic Photography- It is also known as crime scene photography wherein the work of the
photographer is mainly to capture images for an accurate representation of the scene of the crime.

Headshot Photography- This type of photography focuses mainly on the person’s face. This is also
known as mug shots.
 Macro Photography- This type of photography is about close-up images of a specific topic. It is
commonly applied mainly to capture details of organisms or nature that may not be visible to the naked
eye.

Nature Photography- It encompasses all forms of photography where the main subject has something
to do with nature. It focuses on landscapes, wildlife, underwater, and plants life as they are in their
natural environment.

Nude Photography- It is about the portrayal of the human body in the naked form.

Portrait Photography- It is all about capturing the mood of a person, with an emphasis on the face and
expression of a person.

Still Life Photography- It is all about capturing objects on camera that are deliberately grouped to
create a particular composition. This requires the photographer to have an excellent lighting technique.

Street Photography- It is all about capturing candid images of public places or even people in their
natural element. It requires the photographer the skill to mingle with people and achieve the best
frames.

Travel Photography- It involves capturing images of a particular landscape, traditions, and customs or
even people from different places.

Essential Components and Features of a Camera

Cameras are beneficial devices and used for the sole purpose of capturing still images, may it be for
leisure or security. Any and every camera has some fundamental parts which are very crucial for its
functioning (Dachis, 2001). Some essential components and features of a camera are as follow:

1. Aperture- It is an opening in which light travels through and can be adjusted to control the amount of
light that reached the image sensor.

2. Built-in Flash- It is used to capture a shot of dimly-lit views. It may automatically fired in some modes.

3. Body. It is the housing for the camera.

4. Focus Point Selection Button- It is used to select the position to set the focus (the AF point) during AF
shooting.

5. Hot Shoe- It is the section of the top of the camera and used to attach a flash unit.

6. Lens- It is the eye of the camera.

7. Lens Mount- It is the section for connecting the exchangeable lens to the camera body.

8. Lens Mount Index- It is an align mark on the lens and serves as a basis when you are attaching or
detaching a lens.
9. Lens Release Button- It is a button used when you want to disconnect the lens.

10.Live View Shooting (Movie Shooting Switch) - It is used to turn on or turn off the Live View function.

11.MENU Button- It is used to display the menu for adjusting the different camera operations.

12.Multi-Controller Key- It is used to move between the menu items or to move the magnified display
to a different point during image playback.

13.Self-Timer- It is used to delay the time between pressing the shutter button and the camera taking
the subject.

14.Shutter Release Button-It is the button found on many cameras used to take photos.

15.Shutter Speed- It indicates the time interval during which the shutter is open.

16.Viewfinder Eyepiece- It is used to view the image of the subject you want to capture.

CHAPTER 8 - MUSIC
Music is essential to many of our lives. We listen to it when waking up, while in transit, at work, and with
our friends. For many, music is like a constant companion. It can bring us joy and motivate us,
accompany us through difficult times, and alleviate our worries. Music is much more than mere
entertainment. It has been a feature of every known human society—anthropologists and sociologists
have yet to find a single culture throughout the course of human history that has not had music.
Moreover, Music can bring us back to ourselves, be our mirror, and show us a side of ourselves that we
may have long forgotten or never knew existed.
SOLFA NAME:
DO,RE,MI,FA,SO,LA,SI/TI
STANDARD NOTATION:
C,D,E,F,G,A,B

Music can be written, naming them as in the solfa, “ Do, re, mi, fa, sol,la si/ti, do”. The next table show
how each note is represented in the standard notation or chords. This notation was made to make the
lecture on music notes simple and easy to read.

THE IMPORTANCE ROLE OF MUSIC IN OUR LIVES

Art and music are fundamental human function and essentials part of human life. Without music are life
is a lost and probably incapable of venting our emotions(Galindo,2003). Based on studies, music can be
a right way of helping our imagination goes to new heights. Its touches our souls and enables us to
express different moods and emotions. Likewise, can be kindle the mind.

The Elements of Music

1. Harmony(from the greek harmonia)- its refers to the veticalization of pitch, or called chord
progression.
2. Key- it is the tonality, a principle in music composition wherein at the end of the piece there is a
feeling of completion by going back to the tonic.
3. Melody( from a greek meloidia) which means “singing” or “chanting”- its refers to the tune of the
song or piece of music.

4. Pitch- a perceptual property that’s allows ordering ordering of sound its either lowness and highness.
5. Rhythm- it is the pattern of the sound in time and beats in music.
6. Tempo- its regards to the speed (slow or fast) of a given piece of music.
7. Texture- its refers how the harmonic materials are combined in a composition.
8. Timbre – its refers to the quality of the sound (tone) that distinguishes
FIVE REASONS WHY EVERYONE SHOULD HAVE MUSIC IN THEIR LIVES

1. Music brings people together

Music creates social cohesion, it speaks to all when words can fail, and wherever you go in the world, it
is understood. Music is a universal gift and its power to connect people is without question. It is an art
form with human interaction at its centre.
2. Music improves your health and wellbeing
Music stimulates the brain which in turn helps with pain relief, reducing stress and memory. A study
from Harvard has shown that relaxing music may lower blood pressure and heart rate after physical
exertion. It can also improve mood and reduce anxiety and through bringing people together, can be an
antidote to loneliness and social isolation.

3. Music can improve confidence and resilience

In a digital age where many services and products are instantly available with the click of a button,
learning a musical instrument provides a platform for people to achieve through discipline and
perseverance.
4. Music is a creative outlet
It provides an opportunity for people from all social and cultural backgrounds to express themselves.
Whether it’s to convey a political message, a particular emotion or just for the sheer joy, musicians have
used sound and music since the dawn of primitive man as a way of expressing themselves and getting
their voices heard.
5. Music is fun!
The joy you can get from music will help lift your spirits and those of everybody else involved. Whether
it’s learning your favourite tune, performing on stage or a good old sing-a-long with your mates, music
brings fun!

MUSIC AND HEALTH

is a fundamental attribute of the human species.

The human brain and nervous system are hard-wired to distinguish music from noise and to respond to
rhythm and repetition, tones, and tunes. Is this a biologic accident, or does it serve a purpose? It's not
possible to say. Still, a varied group of studies suggests that music may enhance human health and
performance.

THE ESSENTIAL IN SONG WRITING

Below are the common essential in song writing(Kamein,1997).

Arrangement
Beat and rhythm
Chord (chord progression)
Concept
Genre and style
Length
Lyrics
Melody
Song section

THE DIFFERENT MUSIC GENRES

Being involved in a musical event with music-minded people who enjoy the same sort of songs can be a
good experience.
Classical music
Folk music
Funk
Hip-hop music
Jazz
Meta music
Opera music
Rock music
Techno music
Trance music
CLASSIFICATION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Alto instruments
These instruments typically have a range that sits in the middle to lower-middle range of the overall
musical spectrum. Specific examples would be needed to give a more precise definition.
Bass instruments
These instruments produce the lowest pitches in an ensemble or orchestra. Examples include the
double bass, tuba, and bassoon.
Baritone intruments
These instruments fall between the tenor and bass ranges. They have a lower pitch than alto
instruments but a higher pitch than bass instruments. Examples include the baritone saxophone and
baritone horn.
Soprano intruments
These instruments have the highest pitch range within an ensemble. Examples include the soprano
saxophone, piccolo, and soprano recorder.