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1
… Henry L. Doherty
CHAPTER

Engineering Materials

Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will know:
1. Classification of Engineering Materials
2. Unit Cell Geometry and Miller Indices
3. Inter-Planar Spacing
4. Atomic Packing Fraction (APF)
5. Crystal Imperfections and Cooling Curves
6. Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
7. Heat Treatment
8. Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials
9. Tensile Test and Brinell Hardness Test

Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering Materials
mMaterial

Metals Non Metals

Natural Materials Synthetic Materials

Non Ferrous
Ferrous

(Wood, Rubber, Oil, Glass, Diamond etc.)

Plastics Ceramics Composites

Wrought
Cast Iron
Steel

Iron

Glass reinforced

Al Cu Mg W Zn Pb Ni
Thermoplastic

Cemented
Glass

Porcelain
Thermosetting

Concrete
Carbon fibre

plastic (GRP)
carbide
Alloy Steel

Plain carbon

Gray Cast White Cast Ductile Cast Malleable Cast

Steel

Iron Iron Iron Iron

 Engineering Materials

Unit Cell Geometry

The properties of a material are intimately connected to its basic molecular structure. Some
knowledge of this structure is therefore essential for understanding the various macroscopic
properties exhibited by material. The “lattice parameter” is the length between two points on the
corners of a unit cell. Each of the various lattice parameters are designated by the letters a, b, and c.
If two sides are equal, such as in a tetragonal lattice, then the lengths of the two lattice parameters
are designated a and c, with b omitted. The angles are designated by the Greek letters α, β, and γ,
such that an angle with a specific Greek letter is not subtended by the axis with its Roman
equivalent. For example, ∝ is the included angle between the b and c axis.

System Axial Lengths and Angles Unit Cell Geometry

c β
Monoclinic a ≠ b ≠ c, α = γ = 90° ≠ β
a

c α
Triclinic a ≠ b ≠ c, α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90° β

b a

Cubic a = b = c, α = β = γ = 90° a
a
a

Tetragonal a = b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90° c
a
a

Orthorhombic
a ≠ b ≠ c, α = β = γ = 90° c
(Trigonoal)
a
b

Rhombohedral a = b = c, = α = β = γ ≠ 90° a
a a
a

c
Hexagonal a = b ≠ c, α = β = 90°, γ = 120°

a
a
 Engineering Materials

The cubic lattice is the most symmetrical of the systems. All the angles are equal to 90° and all the
sides are of the same length (a = b = c). Only the length of one of the sides (a) is required to
describe this system completely. In addition to simple cubic, the cubic lattice also includes
body-centered cubic and face-centered cubic. Body-centered cubic results from the presence of an
atom (or ion) in the center of a cube, in addition to the atoms (ions) positioned at the vertices of the
cube. In a similar manner, a face-centered cubic requires, in addition to the atoms (ions) positioned
at the vertices of the cube, the presence of atoms (ions) in the center of each of the cubes face. The
tetragonal lattice has all of its angles equal to 90°, and has two out of the three sides of equal length
(a = b). The system also includes body-centered tetragonal.

Miller Indices
The designation of the individual vectors within any given crystal lattice is accomplished by the use
of whole number multipliers of the lattice parameter of the point at which the vector exits the unit
cell. The vector is indicated by the notation [hkl], where h, k, and l are reciprocals of the point at
which the vector exits the unit cell. The origination of all vectors is assumed and defined as [000].
Miller indices are the designation of the planes and direction in the unit cells. Miller indices of a
given plane is the reciprocals of its intercepts on the x, y and z axis.
Properties of Miller Indices
 Miller indices of equally spaced parallel plane are the same.
 Miller indices of a plane passing through the origin is shown by Miller indices of a plane parallel
to it.
 If two planes having Miller indices as ( h1 k1 l1 ) and (h2 k 2 l2 ) are perpendicular to each other
then h1 h2 + k1 k 2 + l1 l2 = 0
 Distance between the parallel planes having low index numbers are greater than those having
high index numbers.
 All members of family of planes or directions are not necessarily parallel to one another.

Inter-Planar Spacing
The perpendicular distance between a plane and another parallel plane passing through the origin is
called interplanar spacing.
z z z

100
c 1/2 c c

y 111 1/2 y y
1/2 110
a a a
x b x b
x b
h k l h k l h k l
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, , −(100) , , −(111) , , −(110)
1 ∞ ∞ 1⁄ 1⁄ 1⁄
2 2 2 1 1 ∞
 Engineering Materials

For example, the direction along the a-axis is x, y or z according to this scheme would be [100]
because this has a component only in the a-direction and no component along either the y or z axial
direction. A vector diagonally along the face defined by the x and y axis would be [110], while going
from one corner of the unit cell to the opposite corner would be in the [111] direction.
Crystal planes are the planes in a crystal and can be specified using a notation called Miller indices.
The Miller index is indicated by the notation [hkl] where h, k, and l are reciprocals of the plane with
the x, y, and z axis. To obtain the Miller indices of a given plane requires the following steps:
Step 1: The plane in question is placed on a unit cell.
Step 2: Intercepts with each of the crystal axis are then found.
Step 3: The reciprocal of the intercepts are taken.
Step 4: These are multiplied by a scalar to ensure that is in the simple ratio of whole numbers.
For example, the face of a lattice that does not intersect the y or z axis would be (100), while a plane
along the body diagonal would be the (111) plane. An illustration of this along with the (111) and
(110) planes is given in above figure.

These atoms, ions, or molecules are called Lattice Points and are typically visualized as round
spheres. A Unit Cell is the smallest collection of lattice points that can be repeated to create the
crystalline solid. The solid can be envisioned as the result of the stacking a great number of unit cells
together. The unit cell of a solid is determined by the type of layer (square or close packed), the way
each successive layer is placed on the layer below, and the Co-ordination Number for each lattice
point (the number of “spheres” touching the “sphere” of interest).

Co-ordination Number
The co-ordination number is defined as the number of nearest and equidistant atoms with respect
to any other atom in a unit cell.

Atomic Packing Fraction (APF)

The atomic packing fraction is defined as the ratio of total volume of atoms per unit cell to the total
volume of unit cell.
The Packing Efficiency (PE) is the fraction of the crystal (or unit cell) actually occupied by the atoms.
It must always be less than 100% because it is impossible to pack spheres (atoms are usually
spherical) without having some empty space between them.
P.E. = (area of circles within the unit cell) / (area of unit cell)
1. Simple Cubic
The simple cubic system consists of one lattice point on each corner of the cube. Each atom at a
lattice point is then shared equally between eight adjacent cubes and the unit cell therefore
contains in total one atom.
Placing a second square array layer directly over a first square array layer forms a "simple
cubic" structure. Again not close packed - primitive or simple cubic cell with atoms only at the
corners.
Co-ordination number = 6
Packing density (52%)
The atoms are in contact along the cell edge. Therefore a = 2r.
A very rare packing arrangement for metals, one example is a form of Polonium (Po)
 Engineering Materials

a
a
a
Simple Cubic
2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
The body-centered cubic system has one lattice point in the center of the unit cell in addition to
the eight corner points. It has a net total of 2 lattice points per unit cell.
A more efficiently packed cubic structure is the "Body-Centered Cubic" (BCC). The first layer of
a square array is expanded slightly in all directions. Then, the second layer is shifted so its
spheres nestle in the spaces of the first layer.
Co-ordination number = 8
Packing density (68%)
The atoms are only in contact along the body diagonal.
For a unit cell edge length a, length body diagonal = a(3)1/2 = 4r.
Therefore 4r = a(3)1/2
Examples of BCC structures include one form of Fe, V, Cr, Mo, W, Li, Na

a
a
Body Centered Cubic

3. Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

The Face-Centered Cubic system has lattice points on the faces of the cube, that each gives
exactly one half contribution, in addition to the corner lattice points, giving a total of 4 lattice
points per unit cell. A Cubic Closest Packed (CCP) structure is created by layering close packed
arrays. The spheres of the second layer nestle in half of the spaces of the first layer. The spheres
of the third layer directly overlay the other half of the first layer spaces while nestling in half the
spaces of the second layer.
Because the FCC structure is still close packed it is as efficient in its packing as the hcp structure
(74%), and the coordination number of the atoms is still 12.
8 at the corners (8×1/8 = 1), 6 in the faces (6×1/2=3), giving a total of 4 per unit cell.
In the FCC cell the atoms touch along the face diagonals, but not along the cell edge.
 Engineering Materials

(Lattice Parameter)
a 2r

r = Radius of Atom
Face Centered Cubic

Length face diagonal = a(2)1/2 = 4r

Use this information to calculate the Density of an fcc metal.
Again there are many examples of ccp (fcc) (ABCABC) metal structures, e.g. Al, Ni, Cu, Ag, Pb, Au
& Pt.

4. Hexagonal Closed Packed

# atoms/unit cell = 6
Coordination Number =12
APF = 74%

Crystal Imperfections
Crystals are rarely perfect, i.e., the lattices are not without imperfections. These imperfections
govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline solids. The imperfections in a crystal
lattice structure are classified as follows:

1. Point Defect (Zero Dimensional)

Point defects are of 5 types
Vacancy, Interstitial, Substitutional, Frenkel and Schottky defect.
If an imperfection is restricted to the neighbourhood of a lattice point, the imperfection is
referred to as a point defect. Point defects are mostly of 3 types, Vacancy, Interstitial impurity
and Substitutional impurity as depicted in below figure.

(a) Vacancy (b) Interstitial Impurity (c) Substitutional Impurity

Types of Point Defects

 Engineering Materials

2. Line Defect
If an imperfection extending along a line has a length much larger than the lattice spacing, the
imperfections is called as line defect or a Dislocation. Dislocations are of two types, edge
dislocations and screw dislocations.
Y
’

X X
’ Y

X
Y

(a) Edge Dislocation (b) Screw Dislocation

Edge and Screw Dislocations

(a) Edge Dislocation is represented by two types

1. Positive Edge Dislocation (⊥)
2. Negative Edge Dislocation (⊤)
(b) Screw Dislocation is represented by two types
1. Positive Screw Dislocation ⟳
2. Negative Screw Dislocation ⟲

3. Surface Defect
When an imperfection extends over a surface, the imperfection is known as surface defect.
The most common type of surface defects is twins. There are some other types of surface
defect like Grain boundary defect, Tilt boundary defect & stacking faults.

Twin Planes

Displace Atoms
Twinning Mechanism
4. Volume Defect
 Engineering Materials

There is one more type of defect

Volume Imperfection.

Cooling Curves

Cooling Curve Of Pure Metal (Single Metal)

Pouring Temperature
Superheat

T/t = Cooling Rate

Equilibrium Freezing
Temperature [T]

Temperature
Thermal Arrest
Local Solidification Time

Total Solidification Time

Time (t)

Cooling Curve Of Alloy (Mixture Of Two Metals)

Temperature [T]

Liquid Liquidus
Solidus
Freezing Range

Liquid & Solid Solid

Cu %Ni Ni Time (t)

Phase Diagram Cooling Curve

1. Eutectic Point
In a binary phase diagram when a liquid phase (L) changes completely to two solid phases
(α & β) on cooling and vice versa on heating, the state of the system is called Eutectic point.
Cooling
α β
L ⇄ (Solid Phase) + (Solid Phase)
Heating

2. Eutectoid Point
In a binary phase diagram when a solid phase changes to two solid phase on cooling and
vice-versa on heating then, the state of the system is Eutectoid point.
 Engineering Materials

γ Cooling α β
(Solid Phase) ⇄ (Solid Phase) + (Solid Phase)
Heating

3. Peritectic Point
In a binary system when solid and liquid phase changes to solid phase on cooling and
vice-versa on heating, the state of the system is peritectic point .
Cooling
β L α
+ ⇄ (Solid Phase)
(Solid Phase) (Solid Phase)
Heating

4. Peritectiod Point Liquid

In a binary phase diagram when two solid phase change to one solid phase, the state of the
system is peritectoid point.
Cooling
β β α
+ ⇄ (Solid Phase)
(Solid Phase) (Solid Phase)
Heating

Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

1. At Eutectoid Point
 Temperature – 723℃
 C-content in iron – 0.83%
 Eutectoid reaction
Cooling
Austenite (γ − Iron ) ⇄ Ferite(α − Iron) + Cementite (FE3 C)
Heating
This mixture of α − iron and cementite are in alternate layers called pearlite.

2. At Eutectic Point
 Temperature - 1175℃
 C-content in iron −4.3%
 Eutectoid reaction
Cooling
Liquid Iron ⇄ Austenite(γ − iron) + Cementite (Fe3 C)
Heating
Melting point of iron in its purest form is 1539℃. It lowers with increase in carbon content and is
lowest at 4.31% carbon at 1175℃.
Percentage of Carbon Name
Purest to 0.05% Wrought iron
0.05% - 0.10% Dead mild steel
0.1% - 0.3% Mild steel
0.3% - 0.6% Medium carbon steel
0.7% - 1% High carbon steel
2% - 4.5% Cast iron
4.5% - 6.67% Pig iron
6.67% - or more Iron ore
 Engineering Materials

Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram

An iron carbon equilibrium diagram indicates the phase changes that occur during heating and
cooling and the nature of amount of structural components that exist at any temperature. The iron
carbon equilibrium diagram shows the phases and resulting microstructures corresponding only to
equilibrium conditions.

Eutectic reaction occurs at eutectic point. The equation may be written as

Liquid (L) --> Austenite + Cementite (Eutectic mixture (Ledeburite))
Eutectoid reaction occurs at eutectoid point. The equation may be written as
Austenite (γ) --> Ferrite + Cementite (Heating Eutectoid mixture (Pearlite))
Peritectic reaction equation may be written as
Delta (δ) + Liquid (L) -->Austenite
Pertiectic Point
δ +L
2800K
α = Ferrite
1760K δ
2600K LIQUID (L) (Alpha-Iron)
γ
δ+γ γ+L γ = Austenite
2200K Eutectic L + Fe3 C (Gamma Iron)

γ Point
1800K Fe3 C- Iron
γ + Fe3 C Carbide =
α+γ Cementite
1400K Eutectoid
1421K
Point
α
1000K α+ Fe3 C

0.83% 2.00% 4.30% 6.67% %

Hypo Hyper Hypoeutectic Hypereutectic Carbon

Eutectoid Cast Iron Pig Iron
Steel

T-T-T Diagram (Time-Temperature-Transformation)

The phases finally formed in a heat affected zone during cooling or subsequent heating depend upon
time and temperature. TTT diagram shows the time required for transformation to various phases
at constant temperature and therefore, gives a useful initial guide to likely transformations. The TTT
diagram for an Eutectoid (about 0.8%) carbon steel.
 Engineering Materials

Critical Cooling Point Is

Show (CCR)

Nose of TTT Curve or

At 550℃ and at 1 Sec

Critical Cooling Rate Transformation Start
Curve 1 sec
Austenite
Transformation End
800
700
600 Furnace Cool Coarse Pearlite
550℃ Air Cool Fine Pearlite
500
Temperature (℃)

Upper Bainite
400
Austemper
300 Austensite Lower Bainite
200
Martensite Martensite Start
Martemper
100 Martensite Finish
Water Quench Oil Quench

10−3 10−2 0.1 1 10 100 103 104 105

Time(Seconds)

Heat Treatment
1. Annealing
It is the heating of steel to austenite temperature and then cooling slowly in the furnace
primarily intended to soften the part, improve its machinability and relieve internal stresses
also. Supercritical or full annealing involves heating a part above the upper critical
temperature that is the temperature at which austenite begins to transform to ferrite during
heating and then slowly cooling in the furnace to around 315°C (600°F).

2. Normalizing
Normalizing involves heating the part above the upper critical temperature and then air
cooling outside the furnace to relieve residual stresses in a gear blank and for dimensional
stability. Normalizing is often considered from both a thermal and microstructural standpoint.
In the thermal sense, normalizing is austenitizing followed by cooling in still or slightly
agitated air or Nitrogen. Normalizing requires a heating range which is 40℃ above that of
annealing. Normalized steels are harder and stronger but less ductile then annealed steels
with same composition.

3. Tempering
Any temperature under the lower critical temperature (Acl) can be used for tempering, but it
is the balance of hardness, strength and toughness required in service that determines the
final tempering temperature.

4. Case Hardening
 Gas Carburising is a surface-hardening process which is carried out at a high temperature
usually above 925°C. The process is usually conducted in a sealed quench furnace in which
a carburising gas is introduced. Atomic carbon is generated by the reaction between the
gaseous furnace atmosphere and the steel.
 Engineering Materials

 Flame Hardening in its simplest form is the heating up of medium carbon steel to its
hardening temperature by a flame and then quenching in water or oil. The gas used for the
heating is a mixture of oxygen and usually acetylene although occasionally propane is
employed.
 Carbonitriding or (Gas Cyaniding) is a modified form of gas carburising. Fundamentally the
process varies from carburising by the additional introduction of ammonia into the
carburising atmosphere. The effect of the ammonia is to add nitrogen to the carburised
case. Carbonitriding is carried out at a lower temperature (850 − 875℃) than that
employed in gas carburizing (930 − 950℃) typically in the range of 800°C − 875°C. The
effect of carbonitriding is to impart a hard, wear-resistant case generally in the range of
0.075 - 0.75mm (0.003 to 0.030 inch) deep. Full case hardness with less distortion can be
achieved with oil quenching.

Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials

A common means of distinguishing one material from another is by evaluating their physical
properties. These include characteristics such as density, melting point, optical properties etc. More
often however, the properties that describe how a material responds to applied loads assume
dominant position in material selection. These mechanical properties are usually determined by
subjecting prepared specimen to standard laboratory tests.

Isotropy and Anisotropy: It is the property of having similar properties in all directions. If the
properties are different in different directions, the material is termed as anisotropic, E.g., wood.

Homogenity: If a body has similar properties throughout its volume it is known as homogeneous.
Thus homogeneity ensures the uniformity of properties from point to point.

Continuity: If the material grains in the body are properly bonded to adjacent grains and fill the
total volume, we consider it continuous.

Elasticity
A material can be called perfectly elastic, if and only if
 While loading or unloading, the deformation and recovery are instantaneous.
 The recovery is complete and immediate, i.e. no permanent set is left after unloading.
 The load deformation curve has same shape while loading or unloading.

Anelasticity
This is often called delayed elasticity. Here the recovery is complete but not instantaneous and take
some time.

Ductility
The amount of plasticity that a material can exhibit is a significant feature when evaluating its
suitability for certain manufacturing process. For metal deformation process, the more plastic a
material is, the more it can be deformed without rupture. The ability of a material to change shape
without fracture is known as ductility.
 Engineering Materials

Toughness
Toughness or modulus of toughness is defined as the work per unit volume required to fracture a
material. The tensile test can provide one means of measuring toughness, since the total area under
stress-strain curve represent the desired value.

Hardness
Hardness is a very important but hard to define property of materials. It can be defined as resistance
to permanent indentation or to wear under static and dynamic loading.

Tensile Test/ Stress-Strain Diagrams

The uni-axial tension test is done to obtain different strength related parameters for the engineering
materials. The results and discussion of the test are discussed as under
g′
f
σu

σyu c
g
σyl
e
σe b d
σp a

Stress σ

0
Strain, ∈
Typical Stress-Strain Diagram for a Ductile Material Like Mild Steel

The curve starts from the origin O showing thereby that there is no initial stress or strain in the test
specimen. Upto point ‘a’ Hooke’s law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain. Therefore, OA is
a straight line and point a is called the limit of proportionality and the stress at point a is called the
proportional limit stress, σp . The portion of the diagram between ab is not a straight line but upto
point b, the material remains elastic, i.e., on removal of the load, no permanent set is formed and the
path is retraced.

The point b is called the elastic limit point and the stress corresponding to that is called the elastic
limit stress, σe . In actual practice, the point a and b are so close to each other that it becomes
difficult to differentiate between them.

Beyond the point b, the material goes to the plastic stage until the upper yield point ‘c’ is reached. At
this point a lower value to a point d, called the lower yield point. Corresponding to point c, the stress
is known as upper yield point stress, σyu and corresponding to point d, the stress is known as lower
yield point stress, σyl . At point d the specimen elongates by a considerable amount without any
increase in stress and upto point e.

The portion de is called the yielding of the material at constant stress. From point e onwards, the
strain hardening phenomena becomes predominant and the strength of the material increases
thereby requiring more stress for deformation, until point f is reached.
 Engineering Materials

Point f is called the ultimate point and the stress corresponding to this point is called the ultimate
stress, σu . It is the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected in a simple tensile test.
At point of the necking of the material begins and the cross-sectional area starts decreasing at a
rapid rate. Due to this local necking, the stress in the material goes on decreasing inspite of the fact
the actual stress intensity goes on increasing. Ultimately the specimen breaks at point g, known as
the breaking point, and the corresponding stress is called the nominal breaking stress based upon
the original area of cross section.
Whereas the true stress at fracture is the ratio of the breaking load to the reduced area of
cross-section at the neck. The initial portions of the diagram are shown in figure below on
exaggerated scale.
σ
σ
b
b a

a
Loading
Unloading
Loading

Unloading

0 ∈ 0 ∈
Residual Strain
(𝐚) (𝐛)

σy

∈
0.2% ∈max
(c)
Stress and Strain Diagram for Mild Steel

Sometimes it is not possible to locate the yield point quite accurately. In order to determine the
yield strength of the material for such materials the yield point stress is defined at some particular
value of the permanent set. It has been observed that if load is removed in the plastic range then the
 Engineering Materials

unloading path line is parallel to the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram as shown in
figure (Loading and Unloading paths of diagram). The commonly used value of permanent set for
determining the value of yield strength for mild steel is 0.2 percent of the maximum strain as shown
in figure above (Stress and Strain diagram).

Yield Stress (Y) indicates the start of plastic deformation. Y is determined approximately by drawing
a parallel line to the linear elastic region of the flow stress curve from 0.2 percent engineering
strain. The intersection of this parallel line with the flow stress curve gives the value of Y.

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) is the maximum engineering stress in a tensile test and signifies the
end of uniform elongation and the start of localized necking.

Elastic Modulus (E) (also known as Young's modulus) is the slope of the proportional or up to
proportion point part of an engineering stress-strain curve.

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law) From the origin O to the point called proportional limit, the stress-
strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was
first noticed by Sir Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional
limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain or
σ ∝ ε or σ = kε

The constant of proportionality is called the Modulus of Elasticity (E) or Young's Modulus and is
equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram from O to A. Then
σ = Eε

Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to A, in N-m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the stress-strain curve
from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the shaded area in the figure above). The resilience of
the material is its ability to absorb energy without creating a permanent distortion.

Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force is gradually
increased from O to C, in N.m/m3. This may be calculated as the area under the entire stress-strain
curve (from O to C). The toughness of a material is its ability to absorb energy without causing it to
break.

Brinell Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test is commonly used to determine the hardness of materials like metals and
alloys.

The test is achieved by applying a known load to the surface of the tested material through a
hardened steel ball of known diameter. The diameter of the resulting permanent impression in the
tested metal is measured and the Brinell Hardness Number is calculated as
BHN = 2 P / (π D (D − (D2 − d2 )1/2)) (1)
Where, BHN = Brinell Hardness Number
 Engineering Materials

P = Load on the indenting tool (kg)

D = Diameter of steel ball (mm)
d = Measure diameter at the rim of the impression (mm)
It is desirable that the test load are limited to a impression diameter in the range of 2.5 to 4.75 mm

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