Strain Gauge based

Transducers

Sanju Tanwar
Assistant Professor
Centre of Nanotechnology
Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
Overview
• What is Strain?
• What is Strain Gauge?
• Grid Patterns
• Working Principle of Strain Gauge
• Strain Gauge Installation
• Types of Strain gauge
• Measuring circuits: Wheatstone bridge
• Strain rosettes
• Strain Gauge Adhesives and Mounting Methods
• Strain Gauge Applications
 What is strain ?
• Strain is the amount of deformation due to an
applied force. More specifically strain is defined as
the fractional change in length.
• Strain can be negative (compressive) or positive
(tensile) whereas dimensionless strain is sometime
expressed in units such as in/in or mm/mm.
• In practice magnitude of strain is very small therefore
it is expressed as microstrain.
 What is Strain Gauge ?
•A strain gauge (or strain gauge) is a device used
to measure strain on an object. It is also termed
as Load cell.
•Invented by Edward E. Simmons and Arthur C.
Ruge in 1938
•The most common type of strain gauge consists
of an insulating flexible backing which supports
a metallic foil pattern.
 Schematic View Of Strain Gauge

Insulated backing

Solder Tags - for

attachment of
wires.
Y
Gauge, wire / foil approx. 0.025 mm thick
X

• The gauge shown here is primarily sensitive to

strain in the X direction, as the majority of the
wire length is parallel to the X axis.
Tension
Strain Gauge Compression

l
R => Rl l
A

l
R  Resistance R
 Property of material

R l Length of wire

A  Effective cross sectional area of wire

 Gauge Length
• Gauge length is an
important consideration
in strain gauge selection
• The gauge length is the
dimension of the active
grid as measured inside
the grid end loops.
• The gauge length (GGG )
ranges from 0.008 in (0.2
mm) to 4 in (100 mm).
 Grid Pattern

(a) (b) (c) (d)

• Uniaxial Gauge with a single grid for measuring strain in the grid
direction .
• Biaxial Rosettes Gauge with two perpendicular grids used to
determine principal strains when their directions are known.
• Three-Element Rosettes Gauge with three independent grids in
three directions for ascertaining the principal strains and their
directions.
• Shear Patterns Gauge having two chevron grids used in half-bridge
circuits for direct indication of shear strains (difference in normal
strains) .
 Working Principle
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed,
its resistance changes on account of the fact
that both length and diameter of the conductor
changes.
Metal conductor

Tensile force
F D ΔD

L
L ΔL

R=ρ is a resistance of unstrained conductor

R=ρ (1)
Let the tensile stress ‘s’ applied to the wire . With result change
in length ΔL, Change in area ΔA, change in diameter ΔD.
In order to find ΔR ; R is differentiated w.r.t. stress ‘s’

ρ ρ ρ
= − + (2)

Dividing equation (2) throughout with R=ρ

1 1 ρ
= − + (3)
ρ
In equation (3) per unit change in resistance is due to
(a) per unit change in length ΔL/L
(b) per unit change in area ΔA/A and
(c) per unit change in resistivity Δ /
A= ∴ = 2. D. (4)

Dividing both sides by A

=
( )
= (5)

1 1 ρ
= − +
ρ
1 ρ
= − + (6)
ρ
 /
Now Poisson's ratio = =-
! " # /

=- × (7)

Putting equation (7) in equation (6)

1 ρ
= + +
ρ

For small variation above van be written as

∆ ∆ ∆ ∆' ∆ / ∆
= +2 + () = ∈= +,-./0 =
' ∆ /
Gauge factor (() ) is defined as the ratio of per unit change in resistance to
per unit change in length
∆ ∆
= () =() ∈
∆'/' ∆'/'
Gauge factor= 1 + 2 + or = 1 + 2 +
∈ ∆ /
Gauge factor= 1 + 2 as the strain is in the term of microstrain
Gauge factor= 1 + 2 is valid only when Piezoresistive effect i.e.
change in resistivity due to strain is almost negligible
For metals Poisson's ratio is between 0-0.5
Material Gauge factor
Nickel -12.1
Manganin +0.47
Nichrome +2.0
Constantan +2.1
Soft Iron +4.2
Platinum +4.8
carbon +20
 Problem
A resistance wire strain gauge uses a soft iron wire of small
diameter. The gauge factor is +4.2. Neglecting the Piezoresistive
effect, calculate the Poisson’s ratio.
∆'/'
Gauge factor = 1 + 2 +
∈
Gauge factor= 1 + 2 (neglecting Piezoresistive effect)
∴ 12/++203 + -.,/2 =(4.2-1)/2 = 1.6
 Strain Gauge Installation
• The Strain Gauge is bonded to the specimen under
test, only after the following:
– cleaning the surface using a degreaser
– cleaning it again with a conditioner solution (mild acid that
accelerates the cleaning process)
– neutralizing by applying a base (neutralizes any chemical
reaction introduced by the Conditioner)
– finally bonding it with a super glue.

• The Strain Gauge has 2 leads which exhibit variation

in resistance when strain is applied.
 Types of Strain gauge
•Unbounded Strain Gauge
•Bonded Wire Strain Gauge
•Bonded Metal Foil Strain Gauge
•Vacuum Deposit Strain Gauge
•Semiconductor Strain Gauge
•Diffused Metal Strain Gauge
 Unbonded strain gauge
•Wire Diameter 0.003mm
•Length of wire 25mm
•Resistance of each arm 120-1000 ohms
•Input Voltage 5-10V DC
 Bonded Wire Strain Gauge
•Fine wire with diameter about .025 mm
•Grid of wire is cemented to the carrier (Base)-
sheet of paper, thin sheet of Bakelite or Teflon
•Small as 3X3mm, larger 25X12.5mm
 Materials used for Bonded wire
strain gauges
Materials Composition Gauge Factor Resistivity
ohm m
Nichrome Ni: 80% 2.0 100 X10-8
Cr:20%
Constantan Ni:45% 2.1 48 X10-8
Cu:55%
Isoelastic Ni:36% 3.6 105 X10-8
Cr:8%
Mo:05%
Nickel -12.1 6.5 X10-8

Platinum 4.8 10 X10-8

 Bonded metallic strain gauges
 Greater heat dissipating capacity
 Formed from a sheet of metal less than 0.005mm thick
by photo-etching process
 Easy manufacturing process
 Can be apply in curved surface
 10 million cycles at ±1500 micro-strain can be applied
to foil gauge
Bonded metallic strain gauges
 Bonded metallic strain gauges
• The metallic strain gauge consists of a very
fine wire or metallic foil arranged in a grid
pattern.
• The grid pattern maximizes the amount of
metallic wire or foil subject to strain in the
parallel direction.
• The grid is bonded to a thin backing, called
the carrier, which is attached directly to the
test specimen.
• The strain experienced by the test
specimen is transferred directly to the
strain gauge, which responds with a linear
change in electrical resistance.
• Gauge factor is defined as:
 Vacuum Deposit Strain Gauge
• Thin film vacuum deposition process to bond strain gauges
directly to stainless steel.
• The process begins by preparing the surface which remove all
surface pinholes and cracks.
• The next step is the deposition of an oxide layer to insulate the
circuit from the metal substrate.
• Following this, a thin film resistive alloy is sputtered over the
oxide layer.
• This film is laser trimmed under power to produce the four
resistors of the Wheatstone bridge
Vacuum Deposit Strain Gauge
 Semiconductor Strain gauge
• Semiconducting wafers or filaments of length varying
from 2 mm to 10 mm and thickness of 0.05 mm are
bonded on suitable insulating substrates (for
example Teflon).
• The gold leads are usually employed for making
electrical contacts.
• The electrodes are formed by vapour deposition.
• The assembly is placed in a protective box
 Advantages of Semiconductor Strain Gauge
• The gauge factor of semiconductor strain gauge is very high,
about ±130.
• Semiconductor strain gauge exhibits very low hysteresis i.e.,
less than 0.05%.
• They are useful in measurement of very small strains of the
order of 0.01 micron
• The semiconductor strain gauge has much higher output, but
it is as stable as metallic strain gauge.
• It has a large fatigue life i.e., order of 106 operations can be
performed.
• It possesses a high frequency response of 1012 Hz.
• It can be manufactured in very small sizes, their lengths
ranging from 0.7 to 7.0 mm.
 Diffused semiconductor Strain gauge
Thin film element molecularly bounded (no adhesive) into
a ceramic layer which is deposited directly onto the force
detector.
 Strain Gauge Applications
•Measurement of pressure
•Measurement of force
•Measurement of small displacement
•Measurement of Torque
•Measurement of Load etc.
 Measuring Circuits
• In order to measure strain with a bonded resistance
strain gauge, it must be connected to an electric circuit
that is capable of measuring the minute changes in
resistance corresponding to strain
• Strain gauge is connected in a Wheatstone bridge circuit.
• A strain gauge bridge circuit indicates measured strain by
the degree of imbalance.
• It provides an accurate measurement of that imbalance.
 Wheatstone Bridge
• As shown in figure, if R1, R2, R3,
and Strain gauge Rg are equal,
and a voltage, VIN, is applied
between points A and C, then
the output between points B
and D will show no potential
difference.
• However, if Rg is changed to
some value which does not
equal R1, R2, and R3, the bridge
will become unbalanced and a
voltage will exist at the output
terminals.
• The variable strain sensor has
resistance Rg, while the other
arms are fixed value resistors.
 Wheatstone Bridge
• The sensor, however, can occupy one, two, or
four arms of the bridge, depending on the
application.
• The total strain, or output voltage of the
circuit (Vout) is equivalent to the difference
between the voltage drop across R1 and R4, or
Rg .
• It is given by Vout = VCD – VCB
Wheatstone Bridge

 R4 R2 
Vout    Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 Wheatstone Bridge
say,
Vin  5.00volts
(3) (3)

 R4 R2 
Vout    Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 3 3 
Vout   5.0
3 3 3 3
(3) (3) Vout 0
 Wheatstone Bridge
say,
Vin  5.00volts
(4) (2)

 R4 R2 
Vout   Vin
 R3  R4 R1  R2 
 4 2 
Vout   5.0
2 4 4 2
4 2
(2) (4) Vout    5.0
6 6
Vout  1.667volts
 Wheatstone Bridge Working
• The bridge is considered balanced when R1/R2 = Rg/R3
and, therefore, VOUT equals zero.
• Any small change in the resistance of the sensing grid will
throw the bridge out of balance, making it suitable for
the detection of strain.
• A small change in Rg will result in an output voltage from
the bridge.
• If the gauge factor is GF, the strain measurement is
related to the change in Rg as follows:
 Quarter Bridge Strain Gauge
• R2 is set at a value equal to the strain gauge resistance with no
force applied.
• The two ratio arms of the bridge (R1 and R3) are set equal to each
other.
• Thus, with no force applied to the strain gauge, the bridge will be
symmetrically balanced and the voltmeter will indicate zero volts,
representing zero force on the strain gauge.
• This arrangement, with a single element of the bridge changing
resistance in response to the measured variable (mechanical
force), is known as a quarter-bridge circuit.
 Wire resistance
The strain gauge's resistance (Rgauge) is not
the only the resistance being measured:

The wire resistances Rwire1 and Rwire2, being

in series with Rgauge, also contribute to the
resistance of the lower half of the arm of the
bridge, and consequently contribute to the
voltmeter's indication.
 Three wire configuration
• Because the third wire carries practically no current (due to the
voltmeter's extremely high internal resistance), its resistance will
not drop any substantial amount of voltage.
• The resistance of the top wire (Rwire1) has been "bypassed" now
that the voltmeter connects directly to the top terminal of the
strain gauge, leaving only the lower wire's resistance (Rwire2) to
contribute any stray resistance in series with the gauge.
• There is a way, however, to reduce wire resistance error far
beyond the method just described, and also help mitigate another
kind of measurement error due to temperature.
 Dummy Strain Gauge
• In strain gauges the resistance
change with changes in
temperature causing errors.
• Thus, quarter-bridge circuit as
shown can used to reduce the
errors
• By using a "dummy" strain
gauge in place of R2, the
change in resistance is in the
same proportion when
temperature changes, thus
canceling the effects of
temperature change.
 Half Bridge Circuit
• In half bridge the upper strain gauge
position is so that it is exposed to the
opposite force: as the lower gauge is
compressed, the upper gauge will be
stretched, and visa-versa.
• Both gauges responding to strain, and the
bridge will be more responsive to applied
force.
• This utilization is known as a half-bridge.
• Since both strain gauges will either
increase or decrease resistance by the
same proportion in response to changes
in temperature, the effects of
temperature change remain canceled and
the circuit will suffer minimal
temperature-induced measurement error.
Bending Beam Load Cell

Strain Gauge

Strain Gauge
Bending Beam Load Cell

Strain Gauge
In Tension

Strain Gauge
in compression
Full-bridge circuit
• In few applications where complementary pairs
of strain gauges are bonded to the test specimen
is called a full-bridge circuit.
• It may be advantageous to make all four elements
of the bridge "active" for greater sensitivity.

R
R
Full Bridge Strain Gauge
R

R
 Problem - Low Level Output
• The output of a strain gauge circuit is a very low-level voltage signal
• The low level of the signal makes it particularly susceptible to
unwanted noise from other electrical devices.
• Capacitive coupling caused by the lead wires' running too close to AC
power cables or ground currents are potential error sources in strain
measurement.
• Other error sources may include magnetically induced voltages when
the lead wires pass through variable magnetic fields, parasitic
(unwanted) contact resistances of lead wires, insulation failure, and
thermocouple effects at the junction of dissimilar metals.
• The sum of such interferences can result in significant signal
degradation.
 Solution
• Shielding: Most electric interference and noise problems can be solved
by shielding.
• A shield around the measurement lead wires will intercept
interferences and may also reduce any errors caused by insulation
degradation.
• Shielding also will guard the measurement from capacitive coupling.
• If the measurement leads are routed near electromagnetic
interference sources such as transformers, twisting the leads will
minimize signal degradation due to magnetic induction.
• By twisting the wire, the flux-induced current is inverted and the areas
that the flux crosses cancel out.
• For industrial process applications, twisted and shielded lead wires are
used almost without exception.
 Drawbacks of Strain gauge
1. A strain gauge is capable only of measuring strain in
the direction in which gauge is oriented.
2. There is no direct way to measure the shear strain or
to directly measure the principal strains as directions of
principal planes are not generally known.
 Strain rosettes

• Since for strain analysis in biaxial state of stress we should

know strain in three directions and due to drawbacks in a
strain gauge, Strain rosettes came in to picture.
• Strain rosette can be defined as the arrangement of strain
gauges in three arbitrary directions.
• These strain gauges are used to measure the normal strain
in those three directions.
• Depending on the arrangement of strain gauges, strain
rosettes are classified into:
1. Rectangular strain gauge rosette
2. Delta strain gauge rosette
3. Star strain gauge rosette
Strain rosettes
Strain rosettes
Strain rosettes
Strain rosettes
Strain Gauge Adhesives and Mounting
Methods
• The bonded type of resistance strain gauge of either wire or
foil construction is a high-quality precision resistor which must
be attached to the specimen with a suitable adhesive.
• For precise strain measurements, both the correct adhesive
and proper mounting procedures must be employed.
• The adhesive serves a vital function in the strain-measuring
system; it must transmit the strain from the specimen to the
gauge-sensing element without distortion.
• This role can be easily accomplished if the adhesive is suitably
strong.
 Mounting a strain gauge
• When mounting a strain gauge, it is important to carefully prepare the
surface of the component where the gauge is to be located.
• This preparation consists of
1. Removing any paint or rust to obtain a smooth but not highly polished
surface.
2. Next, solvents are employed to remove all traces of oil or grease.
3. The surface is etched with an appropriate acid.
4. Finally, the clean, degreased, and etched surface is neutralized (treated with
a basic solution) to give it the proper chemical affinity for the adhesive.
5. The gauge location is then marked on the specimen.
6. The gauge is positioned by using a rigid transparent tape.
7. The position and orientation of the gauge are maintained by the tape as the
adhesive is applied and as the gauge is pressed into place by squeezing out
the excess adhesive.
 Adhesives
• A wide variety of adhesives are available for bonding strain
gauges.
• Factors influencing the selection of a specific adhesive
include:
 the carrier material
 the operating temperature
 the curing temperature
 the maximum strain to be measured
• Adhesives used in common use are
 Epoxy Cements
 Cyanoacrylate Cement
 Polyester Adhesives
 Ceramic Cements
 Epoxy Cements
• Epoxies are a class of thermosetting plastics which, in general, exhibit a
higher bond strength and a higher level of strain at failure than other types
of adhesives used to mount strain gauges.
• Epoxy systems are usually composed of two constituents, a monomer and a
hardening agent.
• The monomer, or base epoxy, is a light amber fluid which is usually quite
viscous.
• A hardening agent mixed with the monomer will induce polymerization.
• Amine-type curing agents produce an exothermic reaction which releases
sufficient heat to accomplish curing at room temperature or at relatively low
curing temperatures.
• Anhydride-type curing agents require the application of heat to promote
polymerization.
• Temperatures in excess of 250°F (120°C) must be applied for several hours to
complete polymerization.
 Cyano-acrylate Cement
• Adhesive consists of a methyl-2-cyanoacrylate compound.
• This adhesive requires neither heat nor a catalyst to induce polymerization.
• When this adhesive is spread in a thin film between two components to be
bonded, the minute traces of water or other weak bases on the surfaces of the
components are sufficient to trigger the polymerization process.
• In strain-gauge applications, a thin film of the adhesive is placed between the
gauge and the specimen and a gentle pressure is applied for about 1 or 2 min
to induce polymerization.
• Once initiated, the polymerization will continue at room temperature without
maintaining the pressure.
• The performance of this adhesive system, however, will deteriorate markedly
with time, moisture absorption, or elevated temperature.
• It should not be used where extended life of the gauge system is important.
 Polyester Adhesives
• Polyesters, like epoxies, are two-component adhesives.
• The polyesters exhibit a high shear strength and modulus; however, their
peel strength is low and they are less resistant to solvents than epoxies.
• Their primary advantage is the ability to polymerize at a relatively low
temperature [40°F (5°C)].
 Ceramic Cements
Method-I
• The first method utilizes a blend of finely ground ceramic powders such as
alumina and silica combined with a phosphoric acid.
• Usually this blend of powders is mixed with a solvent such as isopropyl
alcohol and an organic binder to form a liquid mixture which facilitates
handling.
• A pre-coat of the ceramic cement is applied to form a thin layer of
insulation between the gauge grid and the component.
• A second layer of ceramic cement is then applied to bond the gauge.
• In this application, the carrier for the gauge is removed, and the grid is
totally encased in ceramic.
• The ceramic cements are used primarily for high-temperature application
or in radiation environments, where organic adhesives cannot be
employed.
 Method-II
• A second method for bonding strain gauges with a ceramic material
utilizes a flame-spraying process.
• A special gun is used to apply the ceramic particles to the gauge.
• The flame-spray gun utilizes an oxyacetylene gas mixture in a
combustion chamber to produce very high temperatures.
• Ceramic material in rod form is fed into the combustion chamber;
there the rod decomposes into softened semi-melted particles
which are forced from the chamber by the burning oxyacetylene
gas.
• The particles impinge on the surface of the component and form a
continuous coating.
• For this type of application, gauges are constructed with a grid fabricated
from wire which is mounted on slotted carriers.
• The carrier, which holds the gauge and lead wires in position during
attachment, is made from a glass-reinforced Teflon tape.
• The tape is resistant to the molten flame-sprayed ceramic particles;
however, after the gauge grid is secured to the component, the tape is
removed and the grid is completely encased with flame-sprayed ceramic
particles.
 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
FOIL STRAIN GAUGES
• The factors affect the performance of a strain-
gauge system are
– Strain-gauge Linearity
– Hysteresis
– Zero Shift
– Temperature Compensation
– Elongation Limits
– Dynamic Response of Strain Gauge
– Heat Dissipation
– Stability
Strain-Gauge Linearity, Hysteresis, and
Zero Shift
• If gauge output, in terms of measured strain, is plotted as a function of
applied strain as the load on the component is cycled, results similar to
those shown in figure will be obtained.

FIGURE: A typical strain cycle showing nonlinearity,

hysteresis, and zero shift (scale exaggerated).
Strain-Gauge Linearity, Hysteresis, and
Zero Shift
• A slight deviation from linearity is typically observed, and the unloading
curve falls below the loading curve to form a hysteresis loop.
• Also, when the applied strain is reduced to zero, the gauge output
indicates a small negative strain, termed zero shift.
• The magnitudes of the deviation from linearity, hysteresis, and zero shift
depend on the strain level, the adequacy of the bond, the degree of cold
work of the foil material, and the elastic characteristics of the carrier
material.
 Temperature Compensation
• In many test programs, the strain-gauge installation is subjected to
temperature changes during the test period, and careful consideration must
be given to determine whether the change in resistance is due to applied
strain or temperature change.
• When the ambient temperature changes, four effects occur which may alter
the performance characteristics of the gauge:
1) The strain sensitivity of the metal alloy used for the grid changes.
2) The gauge grid either elongates or contracts ( ∆l/l= α∆T)
3) The base material upon which the gauge is mounted either elongates or
contracts (∆l/l=β∆T)
4) The resistance of the gauge changes because of the influence of the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of the gauge material (∆l/l=γ∆T).
Where α = thermal coefficient of expansion of gauge material, β = thermal coefficient of expansion of
base material, γ = temperature coefficient of resistivity of gauge material
• The effects of gauge-grid elongation, base-material elongation, and
increase in gauge resistance with increases in temperature combine
to produce a temperature-induced change in resistance of the
gauge (∆R/R) which can be expressed as

Where α = thermal coefficient of expansion of gauge material, β =

thermal coefficient of expansion of base material, γ = temperature
coefficient of resistivity of gauge material, Sg= gauge factor
 Elongation Limits
• The maximum strain that can be measured with a foil strain gauge depends on
the gauge length, the foil alloy, the carrier material, and the adhesive.
• The Advance alloys with polyimide carriers, used for general-purpose strain
gauges, can be employed to strain limits of +5 and +1.5 percent strain,
respectively.
• This strain range is adequate for elastic analyses on metallic and ceramic
components, where yield or fracture strains rarely exceed 1 percent; however,
these limits can easily be exceeded in plastic analyses, where strains in the
post-yield range can become large.
• Special-purpose strain-gauge alloys are not applicable for measurements of
large strains.
• The Iso-elastic alloy will withstand ±2 percent strain; however, it undergoes a
change of sensitivity at strains larger than 0.75 percent.
• Armour D and Nichrome V are primarily used for high-temperature
measurements and are limited to maximum strain levels of approximately +1
percent.
 Elongation Limits (Continued….)
• For very large strains, where specimen elongations of 100 percent may be
encountered, liquid-metal strain gauges can be used.
• The liquid-metal strain gauge is simply a Tygon tube filled with mercury or a
gallium-indium-tin alloy, as shown in figure.
• When the specimen to which the gauge is attached is strained, the volume of
the tube cavity remains constant since Poisson's ratio of Tygon is
approximately 0.5.
• Thus the length of the tube increases (∆l=εl) while the diameter of the tube
decreases (∆d = - νεd).
• The resistance of such a gauge increases with strain, and it can be shown that
the gauge factor is given by Sg=2+ε.
 Dynamic Response of Strain Gauges
• In dynamic applications of strain gauges, the question of their frequency
response often arises.
• This question can be resolved into two parts, namely, the response of the gauge
in its thickness direction, i.e., how long it takes for an element of the gauge to
respond to the strain in the specimen beneath it, and the response of the gauge
due to its length.
• It is possible to estimate the time required to transmit the strain from the
specimen through the adhesive and carrier to the strain-sensing element by
considering a gauge mounted on a specimen, as shown in figure.
Dynamic Response of Strain gauges
• A strain wave is propagating through the specimen with velocity c1.
• This specimen strain wave induces a shear-strain wave in the adhesive and
carrier which propagates with a velocity c2.
• The transit time, which is given by t = h/c2, equals 50 ns for typical carrier
and adhesive combinations, where c2 = 40,000 in/s (1000 m/s) and h =
0.002 in (0.05 mm).
 Heat Dissipation
• It is well recognized that temperature variations can significantly influence the
output of strain gauges, particularly those which are not properly temperature-
compensated.
• The temperature of the gauge is of course influenced by ambient temperature
variations and by the power dissipated in the gauge when it is connected into a
Wheatstone bridge or a potentiometer circuit.
• The power P is dissipated in the form of heat and the temperature of the gauge
must increase above the ambient temperature to dissipate the heat.
• The exact temperature increase required is very difficult to specify since many
factors influence the heat balance for the gauge.
• The heat to be dissipated depends upon the voltage applied to the gauge and the
gauge resistance.
• Thus, P = V2/R= I2R
where P = power, I= gauge current, R = gauge resistance, V = voltage across the gauge
 Heat Dissipation
• Factors which govern the heat dissipation include
– gauge size, w0 and l0
– Grid configuration, spacing and size of conducting elements
– Carrier, type of polymer and thickness
– Adhesive, type of polymer and thickness
– Specimen material, thermal diffusivity
– Specimen volume in the local area of the gauge
– Type and thickness of overcoat used to waterproof the gauge
– Velocity of the air flowing over the gauge installation
• A parameter often used to characterize the heat-dissipation characteristics of a
strain-gauge installation is the power density PD, which is defined as, PD=P/A;
where P is the power that must be dissipated by the gauge and A is the area of the
grid of the gauge.
 Stability
• In certain strain-gauge applications, it is necessary to record strains over a period
of months or years without having the opportunity to unload the specimen and
recheck the zero resistance.
• The duration of the readout period is important and makes this application of
strain gauges one of the most difficult.
• All the factors which can influence the behavior of the gauge have an opportunity
to do so; moreover, there is enough time for the individual contribution to the
error from each of the factors to become quite significant.
• For this reason it is imperative that every precaution be taken in employing the
resistance-type gauge if meaningful data are to be obtained.
• Drift in the zero reading from an electrical-resistance straingauge installation is due
to the effects of moisture or humidity variations on the carrier and the adhesive,
the effects of longterm stress relaxation of the adhesive, the carrier, and the strain-
gauge alloy, and instabilities in the resistors in the inactive arms of the Wheatstone
bridge.
 Load Cells
• Load cells are transducers that covert applied force, such as weight, into a
differential electrical output voltage signal.
• Load cells – foil type strain gauges
• Use a Wheatstone bridge circuit to output a signal that can be input to the
microcontroller A/D.
• Foil type strain gauges measure the deflection of the sensing beam to which they
are attached. The beam deflects when a load is applied and thus the ability to
measure weight is achieved.
 The Load Cell setup

Basic setup to measure weight using a strain

guage.
 Load Cell Specification
• Parameters to specify
• Excitation voltage – typically a maximum
• Terminal resistance input – used to determine power consumption –
manufacturers specify minimum resistance.
• Rated capacity – in pounds of kilograms
• Rated output – in mV/V – specifies the output signal per pound given an input
voltage of V