CHAPTER TWO

Electrical Power Transmission Line

Parameters

1
2.1. introduction
Components of a transmission line

2
 Main components of Overhead lines:
i. Conductors:- carry electric power from the sending end station to the
receiving end Station.
ii. Supports: poles or towers and keep the conductors at a suitable level
above the ground.
iii. Insulators:-which are attached to supports and insulate the conductors
from the ground.

iv. Cross arms:-provide support to the insulators

v. Others:- such as phase plates, danger plates, lightning
arrestors, anti-climbing wires etc.

3
 2.2. Transmission line Design consideration.

 To design new transmission line, power planning studies should be

considered to meet the future demands and new generations.
 Transmission line design is based on the the optimization of

A. Electrical factor.
B. Mechanical factor
.
C. Environmental Factor
D. Economical Factor.

4
 A. Electrical consideration.
• Low voltage drop
• Minimum power loss for higher power transmission efficiency.

• The line should have sufficient current carrying capacity so that

the power can be transmitted without excessive voltage drop or
overheating.
• Conductivity of Conductor:

R = ρ.L/A , or R = L/σ. A

Where: L: Conductor length.

A: Conductor cross sectional area. ρ:

resistivity Ϭ: Conductivity (σ= 1/ρ)

5
 Cont…..
• The conductor conductivity must be very high to reduce
conductor resistance r and hence reduce losses
PL= 3 I2 R
• conductor spacing, type, and size also determines the series
impedance and shunt admittance.
• series impedance affects line voltage drops and power losses
and stability.

6
 B. Mechanical consideration.

• Mechanical consideration focuses on the strength of

conductors, insulators, strings and support structures.
• The conductors must be mechanically strong enough to support
the specified thickness of ice and wind loads in addition to its
weight.

- The Spans between the towers can be long.

- Sag will be small.
- Reducing the number and height of towers and the number of
insulators.
7
 C. Environmental factor

Environmental factors include land usage and visual impact .When

a line route is selected, the effect on local communities and
population centers, land values, access to property, wildlife, and
use of public parks and facilities must all be considered.
Reduction in visual impact is obtained by aesthetic tower design
and by blending the line with the country side .
Also, the biological effects of prolonged exposure to electric and
magnetic fields near transmission lines is of concern.
Extensive research has been and continues to be done in this area.

8
 D. Economical factor /consideration.

• The optimum line design meets all the technical design criteria at
lowest overall cost, which includes the total installed cost of the line as
well as the cost of line losses over the operating life of the line.

• Many design factors affect cost. Utilities and consulting organizations

use digital computer programs combined with specialized knowledge
and physical experience to achieve optimum line design.

9
 Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines
Conductor

Conductor is which carry electric power from the sending end station to the
receiving end station.

Aluminum has replaced copper as the most common conductor metal for

overhead transmission.
Although a larger aluminum cross-sectional area is required to obtain the
same loss as in a copper conductor, aluminum has a lower cost and lighter
weight.
Also, the supply of aluminum is abundant, whereas that of copper is
limited.
10
 Conductor Properties
i.High electrical conductivity.
ii.High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses.

iii.Low cost so that it can be used for long distances

Commonly used conductor materials:-
a)Copper
b)Aluminum
c)Steel-cored aluminum
d)Galvanized steel
e)Cadmium copper

Conductors are preferably stranded to increase flexibility.

11
The choice of a particular material will depend up on

 The cost
 Its electrical properties
 Its mechanical properties

 The local conditions

12
 A. Copper type
 High electrical conductivity

 Greater tensile strength

 Hard drawn copper used as stranded conductor

 High current density, i.c the current carrying capacity of copper per
unit X-sectional area is quite large.
High cost due to less availability

13
 B. Aluminum type
 Cheaper & light in weight, for small span.
 Small conductivity & tensile strength (60% of copper).
 Cross-sectional area of conductor larger than copper.
 Cross-sectional area of conductor larger than copper(Almunium
diameter= 1.26 times of copper),for the same resistance.
 Higher tower with greater sag.
All Aluminum Conductors (AAC)

14
C. Steel cored aluminum:
To increase strength of aluminum conductors reinforced with a core
of galvanized steel wires Abbreviated as ACSR (Aluminum
conductor steel reinforced).

Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)

1 Steel strands
2 Aluminum strands

15
 Advantages of ACSR
 High mechanical strength can be utilized by using spans of
larger lengths.
 Tower of smaller height can be used.
 A reduction in the number of supports also include reduction in
insulators and the risk of lines outage due to flash over or faults
is reduced.
 losses are reduced due to larger diameter of conductor.

 High current carrying capacity.

 Heat expansion coefficient must be very small.

Rt = R0. (1 + α0 .t) 16
Types of Support Structure
• Wooden Poles

• Reinforced Concrete Poles

• Steel Poles

• Lattice Structure Steel Towers.

17
Wooden Poles

18
cont…

19
 Cont….

The main objections to wooden supports are :

(i)Tendency to rot below the ground level ,causing foundation
failure
(ii) comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
(iii)cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
(iv) less mechanical strength and
(v) require periodical inspection.

20
Reinforced Concrete Poles

21
 RCC (Reinforced concrete poles):-

• Greater mechanical strength

• Longer life

• Longer spans

• Good outlook

• Little maintenance

• Good insulating properties

22
 Steel Poles
• Greater mechanical strength

• Larger spans

• Longer life

• Used for distribution purpose in cities

• Three types:

• Rail poles

• Tubular poles

• Rolled steel joints

23
cont…

24
25
Cont…

26
 Steel Towers.
 In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for
distribution purposes at low voltages, say up to 11,15 kV.
 However, for long distance transmission at higher voltage, steel
towers are invariably employed.
 Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life, can
withstand most severe climatic conditions and permit the use of longer
spans.
Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth.
This minimizes the lightning troubles as each tower acts as a lightning
conductor.

27
 Types of Towers

1 Suspension Tower

2 Tension Tower

3 Angle Tower

4 End Tower

28
1- Suspension Tower

29
2- Tension Tower

30
3- Angle Tower

31
 4- End Tower
This type of towers exists in the beginning and at the end of the
line which exposed to tension in one side.

32
 Sag in Overhead Lines
 While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors
are under safe tension.
If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to
save conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe
value and in certain cases the conductor may break due to excessive
tension.
In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully
stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.
 The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point
on the conductor is called sag.

33
Cont…

34
 Cont….

Conductor sag and tension.

The conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the
conductor material required and to avoid extra pole height for sufficient
clearance above ground level.
It is also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the
mechanical failure of conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports.
However, low conductor tension and minimum sag are not possible.

Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise in made between the two. 35

 Ground Clearance of Different Transmission Lines

 As per this clause, of IE 1956, minimum ground clearance of 33KV un

insulated electrical conductor is 5.2 meter.
 This clearance is increased by 0.3 meter for every 33KV above 33KV.

36
 Cont…
 For, Example the minimum ground clearance of 132KV transmission
line would be,
 132KV – 33KV = 99KV and 99KV/33KV = 3
Now, 3 × 0.3 = 0.9 meter.
So, as per logic, the ground clearance of 132KV bottom conductor would
be, 5.2 + 0.9 = 6.1 meter.
 The minimum clearance of 66KV transmission line is also taken as 6.1
meters.

Conductor Spacing
 Spacing = (S )0.5 + V/150 Where:

S: Sag in meters.

V: Line voltage in kV.

37
 Electrical Power Transmission Line Parameters
 A transmission line has resistance, inductance and capacitance uniformly
distributed along the whole length of the line.

.
The Four parameters which determines the properties of the
Transmission line.
Series Components:-Series reactance and series resistance
 Shunt components:- Shunt capacitance and shunt conductance
38
 Cont…
i) Resistance. It is the opposition of line conductors to current flow

The resistance is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the

line.
 However, the performance of a transmission line can be analyzed
conveniently if distributed resistance is considered as lumped.

(ii) Inductance. When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a

changing flux is set up which links the conductor. Due to these flux
linkages, the conductor possesses inductance.
Mathematically, inductance is defined as the flux linkages per ampere
i.e., Inductance, L =ψ/I henry
where ψ= flux linkages in weber-turns
I = current in amperes
The inductance is also uniformly distributed along the length of the line.
Again for the convenience of analysis, it can be taken to be lumped.
39
 Cont…
(iii) Capacitance. As any two conductors of an overhead transmission
line are separated by air which acts as an insulation,
therefore, capacitance exists between any two
overhead line conductors.
Capacitance, C =q/v farad

(iv)conductance (G) are shunt elements. The leakage conductance

takes into account the energy losses occurring through leakage due to
insulators , skin effect , corona effect between conductors. Very small
value.
40
 Resistance of a Transmission Line
 The resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important
cause of power loss in a transmission line.
 The resistance R of a line conductor having resistivity ρ, length l and
area of cross section a is given by ;
 Temperature dependent resistances
R=R0 [1+ α Δ t]
Skin Effect
 When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this current is
uniformly distributed over the whole X-section of the conductor.
 However, an alternating current flowing through the conductor does not
distribute uniformly, rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the
surface of the conductor.
 The tendency of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of a
41
conductor is known as skin effect.
 Cont….
 Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor
through which current flows is reduced. Consequently, the resistance of
the conductor is slightly increased when carrying an alternating current.

Proximity Effect

 When the conductors carry the high alternating voltage then the
currents are non-uniformly distributed on the cross-section area of the
conductor. This effect is called proximity effect.
 The proximity effect is important only for conductor sizes greater
than 125 mm2.

42
 Cont…
 When two or more conductors are placed near to each other, then their
electromagnetic fields interact with each other.
 Due to this interaction, the current in each of them is redistributed such
that the greater current density is concentrated in that part of the strand
most remote from the interfering conductor.
 If the conductors carry the current in the same direction, then the
magnetic field of the halves of the conductors which are close to each other
is cancelling each other and hence no current flow through that halves
portion of the conductor.
 The current is crowded in the remote half portion of the conductor.

43
 Cont…
 When the conductors carry the current in the opposite direction, then
the close part of the conductor carries, the more current and the magnetic
field of the far off half of the conductor cancel each other.
Thus, the current is zero in the remote half of the conductor and
crowded at the nearer part of the conductor.

Re = Rdc(1 + ys + yp) Where Rdc – uncorrected DC level of the core

Ys – skin effect factor
yp – proximity effect factor,
Re – effective or corrected ohmic
resistance of the core. 44
 Inductance of a Transmission Line
 Inductor stores electric energy in the form of magnetic field.
 The inductance of a circuit is defined as the flux linkages per unit
current.
Therefore, in order to find the inductance of a circuit, the determination
of flux linkages is of primary importance.
1. Flux linkages due to a single current carrying conductor.
 Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radirus r metres and
carrying a current I amperes (r.m.s.)
This current will set up magnetic field.
 The magnetic lines of force will exist inside the conductor as well as
outside the conductor. Both these fluxes will contribute to the inductance of
the conductor. 45
 (i) Flux linkages due to internal flux.

 According to Ampere’s law, m.m.f. (ampere-turns) around any closed

path equals the current enclosed by the path. The current enclosed by the
path is Ix and m.m.f. = Hx×2π x.
∴ Hx×2π x= Ix

46
 Cont…


 If µ (=µ0µr) is the permeability of the conductor, then flux density at

the considered point is given by;

 Now, flux dφ through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx and

axial length 1 m is given by;

47
 Cont…

(ii) Flux linkages due to external flux

 Now let us calculate the flux linkages of the conductor due to external flux.
 The external flux extends from the surface of the conductor to infinity.

48
 Cont…

Now, flux dφ through a cylindrical shell of thickness dx and axial

length 1 metre is

 The flux dφ links all the current in the conductor once and only once.

49
Cont…

50
2. Flux linkages in parallel current carrying conductors.

Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current

 Flux linkages with conductor A due to current IB

 Flux linkages with conductor A due to current IC

51
 Cont…
 Total flux linkages with conductor A
=(i) + (ii) + (iii) + ......

 Similarly, flux linkages with other conductors can be determined.

The above relation provides the basis for evaluating inductance of any
circuit.

52
 Inductance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line
 A single phase line consists of two parallel conductors which form a
rectangular loop of one turn.
 When an alternating current flows through such a loop, a changing
magnetic flux is set up.
 The changing flux links the loop and hence the loop (or single phase
line) possesses inductance.

 Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current

...(i)
53
 Cont…
 Flux linkages with conductor A due to current IB
...(ii)

 Total flux linkages with conductor A is

ψA= exp. (i) + exp (ii)

54
Cont…

55
 Cont…
 Expression in alternate form.

The quantity e−1/4 = 0·7788

 so that r′ =r e−1/4 = 0·7788 r
The term r′(= r e−1/4) is called geometric mean radius (GMR) of the wire.
56
 INDUCTANCE OF COMPOSITE CONDUCTOR LINES

 Stranded conductors are under the general classification of composite

conductors, which means conductors composed of two or more elements
or strands electrically in parallel. We limit ourselves to the case where
all the strands are identical and share the current equally.
 The method is applicable to the determination of inductance of lines
consisting of circuits electrically in parallel since two conductors in
parallel can be treated as strands of a single composite conductor.

57
Inductance three phase system (symmetrical spacing )
Fig. below shows the three conductors A, Band C of a 3-phase line
carrying currents IA , IB and IC respectively.
 Let d1, d2 and d3 be the spacing between the conductors as shown.
Let us further assume that the loads are balanced i.e. IA+ IB+ IC= 0.

58
 Cont….
Flux linkages with conductor A due to current IB

Total flux linkages with conductor A is ψA =(i) + (ii) + (iii)

59
 Cont…

(i) Symmetrical spacing.

 If the three conductors A, Band C are placed symmetrically at the
corners of an equilateral triangle of side d, then, d1=d2=d3= d.

60
 Cont…

 Derived in a similar way, the expressions for inductance are the same
for conductors Band C.

(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing.

When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other, the
conductor spacing is said to be unsymmetrical.
Under such conditions, the flux linkages and inductance of each phase
are not the same. 61
 Cont…
A different inductance in each phase results in unequal voltage drops
in the three phases even if the currents in the conductors are balanced.

In order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we generally
interchange the positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the
line so that each conductor occupies the original position of every other
conductor over an equal distance.
Such an exchange of positions is known as transposition.

62
 Cont…
 Let us further assume balanced conditions i.e., IA+ IB+IC= 0. Let the
line currents be :

 the total flux linkages per metre length of conductor A is

63
Cont…

64
 Cont..

 If we compare the formula of inductance of an unsymmetrically

spaced transposed line with that of symmetrically spaced line, we find
that inductance of each line conductor in the two cases will be equal if

The distance d is known as equivalent equilateral spacing for

65
unsymmetrically transposed line.
 Concept of Self-GMD and Mutual-GMD
(i) Self-GMD (Ds). In order to have concept of self-GMD (also sometimes
called Geometrical mean radius ; GMR), consider the expression for
inductance per conductor per metre already derived

In this expression, the term 2 × 10-7 × (1/4) is the inductance due to
flux within the solid conductor. For many purposes, it is desirable to
eliminate this term by the introduction of a concept called self-GMD or
GMR.
It can be proved mathematically that for a solid round conductor of
radius r, the self-GMD or GMR = 0·7788 r.
 Inductance/conductor/m = 2 × 10-7loged/Ds* where Ds = GMR or self-
GMD = 0·7788 r 66
 (ii) Mutual-GMD.
mutual-GMD simply represents the equivalent geometrical spacing.
a) The mutual-GMD between two conductors (assuming that spacing
between conductors is large compared to the diameter of each
conductor) is equal to the distance between their centres
i.e. Dm= spacing between conductors = d.
b) For a single circuit 3-φline, the mutual-GMD is equal to the
equivalent equilateral spacing
Dm=(d1d2d3)1/3
c) The principle of geometrical mean distances can be most profitably
employed to 3-φ double circuit lines.

 Consider the conductor arrangement of the double circuit shown

in Fig.below

67
 Double circuit three phase lines
 A three phase double circuit line consists of two parallel conductor for
each phase.
In order t o have low reactance value ( t o increase transmission line
performance), GMD supposed t o be low and GMR is said t o be high value.

Therefore, the individual conductors of a phase should be kept as far

apart as possible(for high self GMD),while the distance between phases be
kept a slow as permissible (for low mutual GMD).

68
 Cont…

The value of Ds is the same for all the phases as each conductor has the
same radius.

69
Inductance Formulas in Terms of GMD

70
 Inductance in Bundled conductor
 At extra-high voltages ( EHV) , that is, voltages above 230 kV,
corona with its resultant power loss and particularly its interference
with communications is excessive if the circuit has only one conductor
per phase.
 The high-voltage gradient at the conductor in the EHV range is
reduced considerably by having two or more conductors per phase in
close proximity compared with the spacing between phases.
Such a line is said to be composed of bundled conductors. The bundle
consists of two, three, or four conductors.

 Increasing the number of conductors in a bundle reduces the

effects of corona and reduces the reactance.
71
 Advantage of bundling
reduces the line reactance:-which increases
the line performance
 The power capability of the line
 Reduce high-voltage gradient at the conductor:- which reduces
 the corona loss
 the radio interference

72
 GMR of bundled conductor
• When Bundled conductors are changed in numbers of
sub conductors, its Geometric Mean Radius or self
GMD is affected instead of Mutual GMD.

• If Ds is the GMR of each sub conductor and d is bundle

spacing.

• For the two sub conductor bundle.

73
74
 Capacitance of a transmission line
 Capacitance of a transmission line is the result of the potential difference
between the conductors.
 The capacitance between conductors is the charge per unit of potential
difference.
 Capacitance between parallel conductors is a constant depending on the
size and spacing of the conductors.
 For power lines less than about 80 km (50 mi) long, the effect of
capacitance can be slight and is often neglected .
 For longer lines of higher voltage capacitance becomes increasingly
important.
 The flow of charge is current, and the current caused by the alternate
charging and discharging of a line due to an alternating voltage is called
the charging current of the line. 75
 Electric Potential
 The concept of electric potential is extremely important for the
determination of capacitance in a circuit since the latter is defined as the
charge per unit potential.
(i) Potential at a charged single conductor.
 Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor A of radius r metres.

 The electric intensity E at a distance x from the centre of the conductor

in air is given by:

76
 Cont…
 As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero. Therefore, the
potential difference between conductor A and infinity distant *neutral
plane is given by :

(ii) Potential at a conductor in a group of charged conductors.

 Consider a group of long straight conductors A, B, C etc. operating

at potentials such that charges QA, QB, QC etc.coulomb per metre
length exist on the respective conductors.

77
 Cont….
 Potential at A due to its own charge (i.e. QA)

 Potential at conductor A due to charge QB

 Potential at conductor A due to charge QC

 Overallpotential difference between conductor Aand infinite neutral

plane is VA =(i) + (ii) + (iii) + ......

78
Cont…

79
 Capacitance of single phase transmission line
 Consider a single phase overhead transmission line consisting of two
parallel conductors A and B spaced d metres apart in air.

 The total p.d. between conductor A and neutral “infinite” plane is

 Similarly, p.d. between conductor Band neutral “infinite” plane is

80
 Cont…
 Both these potentials are w.r.t. the same neutral plane. Since the unlike
charges attract each other,the potential difference between the conductors is

 Capacitance to neutral.
 Often it is desired to know the capacitance between one of the conductors
and a neutral point between them.
 Since potential of the mid-point between the conductors is zero, the
potential difference between each conductor and the ground or neutral is
half the potential difference between the conductors.
 Thus the capacitance to ground or capacitance to neutral for the two wire
line is twice the line-to-line capacitance 81
Cont…

82
 Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line
(i) Symmetrical Spacing.

overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral

plane is given by

83
 Cont…

 Note that this equation is identical to capacitance to neutral for two-

wire line.
Derived in a similar manner, the expressions for capacitance are the
same for conductors B and C. 84
 ii. Unsymmetrical spacing
• Consider one meter length of a three phase line with three long
conductors,each with radius r, with conductor spacing as shown in

• Let us assume balanced conditions i.e. QA+ QB+ QC= 0

85
 Cont…

 As QA+ QB+ QC= 0, therefore, QB+ QC= − QA

86
Generally, capacitance of Unsymmetrical spacing three phase line

For the case of uniformly transposed lines we

use the same G M R , D m , as before.
2 
C 
 D m

ln  c 
 R b 
where
1
Dm  dabdacdbc  3
1
Rc  (rd d ) n (note r N O T r ' )
b 12 1n

ε in air   o  8.854 10 - 1 2 F/m

87
Effect of bundling on capacitance
The capacitance per phase is found to be

The expression for 𝐺𝑀𝐷 is the same as was found

for inductance calculation . The 𝐺𝑀𝑅𝑐 of each phase
group is similar to the 𝐺𝑀𝑅L, with the exception that
𝑟𝑏 is used instead of 𝐷𝑠𝑏.
88
89