i y fem with example, pea Been of the given fle access method. 0 ee Procedure to create and access directories and assign the given files acess pet missions ires of the given RAID level structure of hard disk. To learn various File Access Methods and File Allocation Methods To study Directory and its different Structures To become familiar with Disk Structure To learn Concept of RAID and its Levels File management is one of the important functions of an operating system. It facilitates storage, access and retrieval of both data and programs or all the operating system and of the users. File management is the process of manipulating files in a computer system. The operating system defines us kc-ical storage unit known as a file, with all data being stored in the form of files. ‘A file is a collection of specific information stored in the memory of the computer system. inanagement includes the process of creating, modifying and deleting the files. File management system is a system software that is concerned with file services such as accessing @ file, directory maintenance, access control and others. ‘A file management system is that set of system software that provides services to users and applications in the use of files. The system that an operating system or program uses to organize and keep track of files known as file system. ‘Some of the tasks performed by the file management function of operating system are as follows: 1, Filemanagement helps in creating new files and placing them at a specific location. >. Itprovides a uniform logical view of data to the users rather than physical view, ie,, the internal structure by giving user-friendly interface for confidential data, such as electronic funds or criminal records. ; File management helps in easily and quickly locating the files in the computer system, itmakes the process of sharing the files among different users easy. Itcontrols transferring of data blocks between the secondary storage an as between different files. ae : Ithelps store the files in separate folders known as directories that ensure better organization of data. ‘Memory space man: at allocates and manages space for the files. File management ile ‘modify the content as well as the name of the file as per the user's "requirement. File Itprovides security measures d main memory, as well agement is an important function of file management systems and it also — ES afsit SER ris recorded on secondaty storage gy. Nas * A file is @ named collection of related informat ‘magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and optical | 4 data, Data files may be num, * commonly files represent programs (source and object forms) 2 mletic alphabetic, alphanumeric or binary. e meaning is defined by thes + Im general file isa sequence of bits, bytes line ot records Wes _* creator and user. theinformationnafileisdefinedBYHTSCEEMEY grams, Object propran, * Many different types of information may be stored in 2 AE’ sound recording an Executable programs, Numeric Data, Text, Payroll records, Graphic Ind so on. : is a sequence of ch: * A file has a certain defined structure according to its type. A SE reactions, mt vii organized into lines. A source file is a sequence es further organized as declarations followed by executable ei ar ; + Amabject files a sequence of byes organized into Blocks understandable Y Whe yates Mae executable file isa series of code sections that the loader can bring Concept * The operating system extracts from the physical properties of its eee ac a logica storage unit called as file. Files are mapped by the operating system onto the physits Srvices * The information in a file is defined by it creator. Many different types of information may be sto; ina file like source programs, object programs, executable programs, numeric data, text, payr, records, graphic images, sound recording and so on. + Afile has a certain defined structure according to its type. : * A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines; a source file is a sequence of subro and functions, each of which is further organized as declarations followed by executable statements ‘+ An object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks understandable by the system's linker. + Anexecutable file is a series of code sections that the loader can bring into memory and execute, File is defined as “collection of related data. OR A file is “collection of data or information”. File Attributes A file has certain attributes, which vary from one operating system to another. The Attributes nothing but the properties of files which store the file related data. + Attributes are useful to get the information about a particular file or directory. Following is the is: of some file attributes. + File attributes are required by a file system to manage a file. Attributes are useful to get information about a particular file or directory. + Following is the list of some common file attributes: 1. Name: The symbolic file name is the only information kept in human readable form. 2, Type: This information is needed for those systems that support different types. 3. Location: This information is apointer toa device and to the location of the file on that device 4, Size: The current size ofthe fie (in bytes, words or blocks) and possibly the maximum allowed size are included in this attribute. 5. Protection: Access control information controls that who can do reading, writing, executing and soon. c 6. Time, Date and User Identification: This information may be kept f ‘ 2 for st modifica- tion and last use. These data can be useful for protection, secusity end Retrcrierine 7. Identifier: File system gives a unique tag or number that hi ed which is used to refer files internally. Identifies file within file system 200 8, Creator or Owner: A creator is a user or a person who ; ; person who owns that file currently. has created that file and the owner is + The information about al files is stored in the directory structure, which i : oe re, storage. By using the name of file and its unique identifier we can erence o thee ofa file. Y ; r63 File Management ile is an abstract data performed on files, eens a file properly, we need to consider the operations that caN lete and truncate files, m provides system calls to create, write, read, reposition, exist to store informatic i ' Rees to allow storage ar eae aly it to be retrieved later. Different systems provide different ee er cea reer Common file operations are as follows: found for the file. eae Saccapea ts ie ets a file, First space in the file system must be entry records the name of the fil new file must be made in the directory. The directory iepcore le and the location in the file system. Writing a File: To write a fil 7 , ea file, we make a system call specifying both the name of the file and the information to be written to the file, Given th Re see ieestincae lec ie name of the file, the system searches the aa le then the write pointer must be updated whenever a write Bese, To rea from a file, we use a system call that specifies the name of the file and eres tom ory) the next block of the file should be put. System needs to Keep 2 read pointes 0 location in the file where the next read is to take place. Once the read has taken place, the read pointer is updated. 4, Repositioning within a File: The directory is searched for the appropriate entry, and the current file position is set to a given value. Repositioning within a file does not need to involve any actual 1/0. This file operation is also known as a file seeks. 5, Deleting a File: To delete a file, we search the directory for the named file. Having found the associated directory entry, we release all file space and erase the directory entry. 6. Truncating a File: Instead of deleting a file and then recreate it, this function allows all attributes to remain unchanged but for the file to be reset to length zero. User wants to erase the contents of the file. Other common operations include appending new information to t renaming an existing file. (eE3 File Types To operate on the file in reasonable way an operating system recognizes the type 0 naming is given for the easy human interactions or convenience. The file name is split into two parts a name of file and extension. For example “student.xls" the file name is student and it is created in MS-Excel application. ‘he system uses the extension to indicate the type of the file and the type of operations that can be “done on that file. Only a file with a .com, .exe, or bat extension can be executed, for instance, com and .exe files are two forms of binary executable files, whereas a bat file isa containing, In CII format, commands to the operating system. +he common file tyy the end of an existing file, and f a file. File Usual E ene Ready to run machine language program. exe, com, obj, 0 Compiled, machine language, not linked. ¢.c0, pas, asm, £77 Source code in various languages. txt, doc Textual data documents. bat, sh ‘Commands to the command interpreter. ‘wp, ref, tex, doo, etc. Various word processor formats. ib, a, dll Libraries of routines for programmers. "ASCII or binary file in a format for printing or if, dvi, pat ps, gif, dvi, P scat are, zip, tar Related files grouped into one file, sometimes : compressed, for archiving or storage. : Binary file containing audio or audio/video information. ‘Avi, mp3, mov, mkv, mpeg, rm IAerating Systems mation. Table below showing the exte form infor sai fean a doc Microsoft word document. Power-point slide show, i dat Data file eadshects ppt Power-point presentation file. [ds eee ea de Tle 5 c Csource code file. op Fin file ava Java source code file fprstimsuaze fle — Fu Portable document format fle. | html terete a dbf Database file. obj “Audio video interleave file. r es HBS audio file. ae Graphical interchange format file ™m Real media file. bmp Bitmap image fle x Lpg) JPEG Image file. mab ere = a | te Seu ne oe Visual basic script file. = tt ‘True type font. ‘al Dynamic link library. a rv, Device driver. ico con fle = Sys Window system files. ini ‘Window initialization file. r zip Zipped file. iso Diskimage file. : class Java class file. fla ‘Adobe flash animation. . | en Temporary file lp Help file. i. © Stream of Bytes (See Fig. 6.1 (a)) Files can be structured in any of several ways. Three common possibilities are depicted in Fig. 6.1 * OS considers a file to be unstructured. * Used by UNIX, Windows, most © Records (See Fig. 6.1 (b)) * A fileis a sequence of fixed len; * Collection of bytes treated asa * Operations at the level of. © Tree of Records (See Fig. 6.1 (o) * Afile consists of a tree of recor + Records of variable length. + Each hasan ass ol 4 Record (a)Byte sequence _(b) Record Sequence + Simplifies file management for the OS. Appli ications can impose their own structure modern Operating system. igth record, each with some internal structure. ‘unit; Example: employee record. Tecords (read_rec, write rec). * File is a collection of similar records, os: can optimize operations on records, ‘ds, not necessarily all the same length. ociated key. Record retrieval based on Key, Fe 64 Tirealdndsor a)tem Structure; create and store d em normally store isconnections. associate a name toa pie sname,iespectve of where the danse ote an operating system implements a software lay ‘age devices wit! lata ina com S data in si puter system for later Tetrieval and Ttorage devices such as disks so ti 'Y can identify that particular piece later by using yes ea the top of the 1/0 subsystem (device drivers) =o Telative ease (See Fig. 6.2) the file management system and sometimes naively called e file system. file management system provides an abstraction of software objects called files (See Fig. 6.2), a collection of files comprises a file system Fig. 6.2: A Abstract View ofa File Management System File system organizes a particular storage area as a collection of "access units! called blocks and these blocks collectively store a single file system. The file management system applies operations on blocks to manipulate the file system. Fig. 6.2 shows file system software architecture. The file system structure must be designed in such a way that the capacity of the hard disk is optimally utilized without slowing the process of retrieving the data from files. The goals of the file system structure are as follows: 1. The required information should be retrieved with a single access to the disk. If the required information is infeasible to retrieve with one access, then it should include as many few accesses to the disk as possible, . The related information on the disk should be grouped at a single place, so that it is easy to retrieve all the related information. Fig. 6.3: File System Software Architecture is a section of hard disk that has been allocated to contain files. This section of hard feces by ‘mounting the file system over a directory. After the file system is mounted, it s just like any other director to the end user. ver, because of structural dif- ces between the systems and Hordware ooo Fes Disk Exchange. Blocks ies, the data vithin these entities be managed ones | ely. the operating is installed ma & g Bizitime itis eal [a] [es] [ae into a direc- Fig, 6.4: File System Tree Structure, as in Fig. 6.4.os File Managems, Operating Systems 66 LX ACCESS METHODS * File stores information, When iti used, this information must be 4 ‘memory. There are several ways that the information in the fi : a a ‘* An access method describes the manner and mechanisms by which 2 Process accesses the data/information ina file. ch as those of * Some system provide only one access method for files while other ee ae et support many access method, and choosing the right one for a parti design problem, Serial File * The least complicated form of file organization is the serial file or pile. Data are collected in the order in which they arrive, * The purpose of this file is simply accumulating the mass of data and save it, Records may have different fields, or similar fields in different orders. Thus, each field should be self- , describing including a field name as well asa _Fi8-6. eee aise —* Advantages of Serial File: 4. Simple organization. 2, Data usually stored prior to processing. 3. Less complexity and good efficiency for variable sized record. 4, Utilizes space very well for varying data structure, Disadvantages of Serial File: 1. Because there is no structure to these file, record access is very difficult. 2. Required more searching time, Records are not arrange in proper manner. Sequential File Access * The simplest access method is sequential access. Information in the file is processed in order. on: record after the other. * The bulk of the operations on a file are reads and writes, The sequential file are done in sequential order. * Aread operation reads the next portion of the file and au tracks the 1/0 location. Similarly a write appends to the e newly written material, vn mst be accessed and read into comp) accessed. tead and write operations on the tomatically advances a file pointer, w' nd of the file and advances to the end of *: Fig.6.6 + Inthis type of file, fixed format is used for records, All reco the same number of fixed length fields in particular order, + One particular field usually the first field in each rec uniquely identifies the record, ds are of the same length consistine ° ‘ord is referred to as the key field. The key fie# felds in fixed order, sequential order based on key field Easy to access the next record, Data organization is very simple, Absence of data structures, 4. They are easily stored on tapes as well as disks, Automatic backup Copy is created, ae of ae Space because of master file and transaction file. » For interactive applications that involve qu ract eries and/ i Sequential file provides poor performance, nn Paste of indivi recods, the 3. i cae time consuming since, reading, writing and searching always start from beginning of * Sequential files are typically used in batch ay all the records such as payroll, billing etc. 23 Indexed Sequential File Access An indexed sequential file is a sequential file in which the records are indexed, An indexed sequential file is an improvement over a sequential file. Two features are added in this file namely, an index to the file to support random access, and an overflow file. The index provides a lookup capability to reach quickly the vicinity of a desired record while the overflow file is similar to the log file used with a sequential file but is integrated so that a record in the overflow file is located by following a pointer from its predecessor record. Indexing of records provides the facility of searching the records randomly. An indexed file is a simple sequential file that contains an index as its records. Entries in indexed files are made up of two dds, the key field, which is the same as the field in the main file and a pointer jointing to some record in the main file. o find a specific field in the main file, the ndex is searched for the highest key value, is equivalent to the desired value, pointer related to key field start searching ie record at location it indicates. search continues in the main file at the plications where they are involved in the processing of i Fig, 6.7: ndexed Sequential File friable length records are allowed. Inde) sea eental file may be updated in sequential orrandom mode. IndexeFilo Maroon Operating Systems 6s. : Hemen Disadvantages of Index Sequential File: Indexed File Access: KeEEd Direct File Access ‘ 8, @ Performa,, 1. The major disadvantage of the indexed sequential file is that, i aise tees ina) deteriorates rapidly because of overflows and consequently # a le becomes unavailable Teorganization. Reorganization is an expensive process and the Ming reorganization. 2 When a new record is added to the main file all of the index files must be updated. 3. Consumes large memory space for maintaining index files. Both the sequential and indexed sequential file searches the records on the basis ee ey fields, 1p searching is required on the basis of other attributes, i.e., based on some criteria, ‘Such as ie value jp Sny field, then both these files become inadequate. The third form of file organization schema, thay Supports this feature is known as indexed file, Bi indexed file access method, multiple indexes are maintained, one for each field a a recor Records are searched only through these indexes, Whatever may be the field, its pointer should ex; in the related index for searching. pea Fig. -6.25° represents the conceptual | arrangement of these logical terms Ee te ei pecord DIFE) on fring the logical structure of a hard be eae ee. pen. Master Boot Record: 5 + Itcontains a small program to load and start the active partition from the hard disk. The MER is created on the hard disk drive by executing FDISK.EXE command of DOS. (If there i MBR) like C:>FDISK.EXE/MBR Itis located at absolute sector 0 or we can say at cylinder 0, head 0 and sector 1(The MBR). If we have more than one partition, then there are Extended Master Boot Records, located at the beginning of each extended partition volume, (DBR) Dos Boot Record: i +” After the partition table, the DOS Boot Record(DBR) or sometimes called DOS Boot Sector is the second most important information on your hard disk. It contains some important information about disk geometry like: Bytes Per Sector, Sectors pe cluster, Reserved Sectors etc. * The DBRis created by the FORMAT command of DOS, * The job of DBR is to load the operating system from the hard disk drive int. computer and give the systems control to the loaded program. * Fordoing this, the DBR contains a small program which is executed by the MBR Executable program All DOS partitions contain the program code to boot the machine, but only that partition is giver control by the MBR which is specified as active partition. FAT (File Allocation Table) * The FAT was introduced in 1977 to store data and has been modified several times to accommodate expanding needs, ‘ * It was developed to fulfil the requirements of a fast ant fl . i a removable and fixed medialis @ Reale system for managing data on both + FAT keeps a map of the complete surface of the disk drive su i : 4 . taken up by which file ete, When some data stored on the aes eo its the FAT to find out the areas of the hard disk which contains the data, ee * The FAT manages the disk area ina group of sectors called “CLUSTER” Root Directo u * The Root Directory is like a table of contents for the infofmation « (80 bs + The directory area keeps the information about the ‘llsbatietanear ss ti ee ei attribute, fle size and starting cluster ofthe particular file em ue etestion, file ‘+ The number of files that one can store on the root di s Data Area OR Files Area: MESO dePends on the FAT type being used. + The remainder of the volume after Root Directory isthe Data Are * The data area contains the actual data stored on the disk sustanee’ + When we format a harddisk the FORMAT command of DOS does nor the data area. The FORMAT command only removes the directory esto) OF Over write the data on not touch the actual data area, This makes the recovery of ian FAT entries and it does 2 reir Ei formatted hard disk drive fo the main memory of: Arr storing the drive failure, ines multiple physical di lisk drive es redundancy, performance improvensens * With multiple disk: mt c ‘s and a RAID Riis scheme, a system can stay up 3c asy n stay up and runni: ae = = ime the replacement disk is being installed and data restored. gas Penne an + Data is distributed across in one of several i the drives in : putes i : f several ways, referred to as RAID levels, depending on * The different schemas, or data distribution layou reveal bea i ti its, are named by the word RAID followed by a * Each schema, or a RAID level, provides a di ty, a schema, p provid ifferent balance among the key goals: reliability, RAID levels greater than RAID 0 provi i fi e provide protecti nee E payebeeeon against unrecoverable sector read errors, as well 7 | Consists of data mirroring, without parity or striping. > | Consists of bit-level striping with dedicated Hamming-code parity. 3 _ | Consists of byte-level striping with dedicated parity. 4 5 Consists of block-level striping with dedicated parity. Consists of block level striping with distributed parity. S| Consists of block-level striping with double distributed part. set to mirror primary striped set. O41 | Createsa second stripe 740 _ | Creates a striped set from a series 0 0 (strij Disk Array Without Fault Tolerance): ; Feces ‘the data into multiple available drives eau erformance but offering no fault tolerance or redundancy. ae Jevel 0 does not provides any of the RAID factor and cannot be consi a 1 re yeahs ee Te in ait ‘ping i in this level to gain in perfo! This Ie note eames pe thls ete ooned size and written toa different drive in the array. al sas 2 it uses 100% of the storage capacity since no redundans red. I for this level is when your data ‘changes infrequent}Y sd access. if mirrored drives. ally giving a very high read and write nan organization chOperating Systems S24 ‘* Web servers, graphics design, audio and video editing, and online asi a some eet applications that might benefit from this level. Calculation (See Fig. 6.26): No. of Disk: 5 Size of each disk: 100GB Usable Disk size: SOOGB LL stripped into multiple drives. 2._| Disk space is fully utilized. No support for Fault Tolerance. 3._| Minimum 2 drives required. No error detection mechanism. 4 High performance, Failure of either disk results in complete data loss in respective array. RAID 1 (Mirroring and Duplexing): 4 * This level performs mirroring of data in drive 1 to drive 2. It offers 100% redundancy as array will continue to work even if either disk fails. So organization looking for better redundancy can opt for this solution but again cost can become a factor. * This level uses mirroring and data is duplicated on two drives. If either fails, the other continues to function until the failed drive is replaced, * At the cost of 50% of available capacity, this level provides very high availability. Rebuild of failed crlves is relatively fast. Read performance is good and write performance is fair compared to single drive read and write, ° Aminimum of 2 drives is required. Whenever the need for RAID 1 high availability and vital data are involved, this level is a good candidate for use. Calculation (See Fig. 6.27): No. of Disk: 2 Size of each disk: 100GB Usable Disk size: 1006B 1. | Performs mirroring of data her (1 f 53 from one drive is written to another drive for | drive for ee a redundancy, ‘ High read speed as either disk can be used if | Slow write one disk is busy. Performan, batts ice as all drives has to 3, | Array will function even if any one of the drive fails. 4.__| Minimum 2 drives required, RAID 2 (Hamming Code Error Correcting Code (ECC This level uses bit-level data stripping rather than block level, To be able to use RAID 2 make sure the disk selected has ya 0 self ‘ this level uses external Hamming code for error detection, “18K tor checking mechanism as This is one of the reason RAID is not in the existence in real rr days come with self-error detection. It uses an extra disk for soreea, Rites the disks used these ity information.Disk 6 Disk 3 Disk 4 Disk 5 Fig. 6. DiskO Disk 12 calculation (See Fig. 6.28): Formula: n-1where nis the no. of disk No. of Disk: 7 size of each disk: 10GB zed with drives ‘no built in error detection mechanism These days all SCSI drives hi ave error ‘One designated drive is used to store parity. detection. 3, | Uses Hamming code for error detection. ‘Additional drives required for error detection. RAID 3 (Parallel Transfer with Parity): d written on the data disks. This requires a minimum of three In RAID 3, the data block is striped an drives to implement. This level uses byte level stripping along with parity. One dedicated drive is used to store the ity information and in case of any drive Failure the parity is restored using this extra drive. But in case the parity redundancy gets affected again "considered in organizations. RAIDS drive crashes then the so not much Disk 2 Fig. 6.28 caleulation (See Fig: 6.29): Formula: n-1wheren is the no. of disk. No. of Disk: 3 Size of each di: (00GB Isable Disk size: 200GB his “Additional drives required for parity. BYTE level stripping with p ‘One designated drive is used to store part No redundancy in case parity drive crashes. Slow performance for operating on ‘small Data is regenerated using parity drive sized files. Data is accessed parallel. High data transfer rates (for large sizedFilo Management Operating Systems 6:26 RAID 4 (Independent Data Disks with Shared Parity Disk): h . rie is very much similar to RAID 3 apart from the feature nad stripping rather than byte level. ‘+ Interleaves stripes like RAID-0, but it requires an additional drive just to store the parity, which is used to provide redundancy. * InaRAID-4 system, ifany one of the disks fails, the data on the remaining disks can be used to reconstruct the data that was on the failed disk. Even if the parity disk fails, the other disks are still intact. Thus RAID-4 can survive the failure of any of its disks. Calculation (See Fig. 6.30): Formula: n-1 where n is the no. of disk No. of Disk: 3 Size of each disk: 1006B Usable Disk size: 200GB 3 - ere RAID 4 uses block leve| RAID4 SS 1. | BLOCK level stripping along with dedicated | Since only 1 block is accessed at a time so arity. performance degrades. | 2, | One designated drives usedito store parity. | Additional drives required for parity. | 3, _ | Datais accessed independently. Write operation becomes slow as every time a parity has to be entered. | 4, | Minimum 3 drives required. 5. |High read performance since data is accessed independent) RAID 5 (Independent Data Disks with Distributed Parity Blocks): * It uses block level stripping and with this level distributed parity concept came into the picture Jeaving behind the traditional dedicated parity as used in RAID 3. and RAID5, * Parity information is written to a different disk in the array for each stripe. In case i 1 : . Of single disk failure data can be recovered with the help of distributed parity without affecti other read write operations, peeing the pperetionand * One of the most popular RAID techniques, it uses Block Striping of data along wi ‘1 them to all drives, RAID-S systems require a minimum of 3 diske, eee beribg and writes * The impact on capacity is equivalent to removing one drive from the ar 2 ive fai array is said to be degraded, and the data blocks residing on that Se Se ae ee and data on remainder of the drives. cee Baty + RAID controllers usually allow a hot spare drive to be confi ti degraded and the array can be rebuilt in the background wile nomial eet ee arenen the array is * RAID 5 combine’s good performance, good Rees fault tolerance, with high efficiency. It is best suited for transaction processing and ORE is often used for “general purpose” service, as well as for relational database applications, enterprise resource planning and other business systems, Calculation (See Fig. 6.31): oe Formul ~1 where n is the no. of disk No. of Disk: 4 Size of each disk: 1006B : Usable Disk size: 300GB -RAID 6 requires a minimum of four drives {2 be implemented and the usable capacity is always 2 less than the numberof _ available disk drives in the RAID set Applications suited for this level are’ the same as those of level 5, Calculation (See Fig. 6.3 : Formula: n-2 where n is the no. of disk No. of Disk: 4 Size of each disk: 10GB _Usable Disk size: 2006B [Cost Expense can becomes factor parity. 2 parity Blocks are created, Writing data takes longer time due te dual parity. Can survive concurrent 2 drive failures inan array. etre Fault Tolerance and Redundancy. Minimum 4 drives required. irrored set. ive failure as long as they are not in the same mi det. - otis feast, Saunas of RAID-1 and RAID-0, includes both mirroring and striping, ae fi ‘ is implemented as a striped array whose id drives, and is impl Nee eee ee or enteegmpnain oe egments are RAID-1 arrays. jead for fault-tolerance as mirroring alone.File Managemen, Operating Systems 628, RAID O+4 * RAID 01, also called RAID O41, is a RAID RAID 1 level using a mirror of stripes, achieving both replication and sharing of data between disks. Calculation (See Fig. 6.33): Formula: n/2 * size of disk (where n is the no. of disk) No. of Disk: 8 Size of each disk: 1006B Usable Disk size: 40068 RAID O Disk 3 Disk 4 Fig. 6.33 Disk 1 Disk 2 a Es Costly as extra drive is required for each | 1. No parity generation. drive, a 100% disk capacity is not utilized as half is used for mirroring. Very limited scalability. B | 2. | Performs RAID 0 to strip data and RAID 1to mirror. 3._| Stripping is performed before Mirroring, 4. | Usable capacity is n/2 * size of disk (n = no. of disks), 5.__| Drives required should be multiple of 2 6._| High Performance as data is stripped. RAID 1+0 (RAID 10) (High Reliability combined with High Performance): * RAID 10 combines RAID 1 and RAID-O and requires a minimum of four disks to implement. There is also a variant called 0+1. * This RAID level performs Mirroring of data prior stripping which makes it much more efficient and tedundant as compared to RAID 0+1. This level can survive multiple simultaneous drive failures This can be used in organizations where high performance and security are required. In terms of fault Tolerance and rebuild performance it is better than RAID 044, * RAID-10 is not RAID 0+1, RAID-10 uses RAID-1 mirroring and RAID-O striping, and has both security and sequential performance. RAID-10 is a striped RAID-O array whose segments are mirrored RAID-1.Itis similar in performance to RAID 0+1, but with better fault tolerance and rebuild performance. It has the same fault tolerance as RAID-1 with the same overhead for fault tolerance as mirroring alone. * Typically four plus hard drives are used, RAID 1+0, Decause RAID-10 creates two pairs of mirrored arrays and combines these arrays to form one RAID-0 array. RAID-10 is appropriate for redundant storage of large files, and because parity is not calculated, write operations are very fast. Calculation (See Fig. 6.34): Formula: n/2 * size of disk (where n is the no. of disk) No. of Disk: 8 Size of each dis! Usable Disk size: 400GB