UNIT I - INTRODUCTION AND SURVEY

Review and importance of the study of transients - causes for transients. RL circuit transient with
sine wave excitation - double frequency transients - basic transforms of the RLC circuit
transients. Different types of power system transients - effect of transients on power systems –
role of the study of transients in system planning.

INTRODUCTION:
The term transient has long been used in the analysis of power system variations to
denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. Another word in common usage
that is often considered synonymous with transient is surge. A utility engineer may think of a
surge as the transient resulting from a lightning stroke for which a surge arrester is used for
protection. End users frequently use the word indiscriminantly to describe anything unusual that
might be observed on the power supply ranging from sags to swells to interruptions. Because
there are many potential ambiguities with this word in the power quality field, we will generally
avoid using it unless we have specifically defined what it refers to.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSIENTS:
There are several classifications of transients on Power Systems based on different
aspects. These classifications are discussed below.
i) Based on Origin of Transients:
The transients are studied in two categories, based upon their origin. They are,
1. Due to Atmospheric Origin
2. Due to Switching Origin
Due to Atmospheric Origin:
The source for the transient due to atmospheric transient is lightning. Lightning phenomenon
is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds discharges into a neighboring cloud or
to the ground. The electrode separation, i.e. cloud-to-cloud or cloud-to-ground is very large, perhaps
10 km or more. The mechanism of charge formation in the clouds and their discharges is quite a
complicated and uncertain process.
Switching Origin:
The making and breaking of electric circuits with switchgear may result in abnormal
overvoltage in power systems having large inductances and capacitances. In circuit breaking
operation, switching surges with a high rate of rise of voltage may cause repeated restriking of the
arc between the contacts of a circuit breaker, thereby causing destruction of the circuit breaker
contacts. The switching surges may include high natural frequencies of the system, a damped normal
frequency voltage component, or the restriking and recovery voltage of the system with successive
reflected waves from terminations. The wave shapes of switching surges are quite different and may
have origin from any of the following sources.
(a) De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, banks, etc.
(b) Disconnection of unloaded transformers, reactors, etc.
(c) Energization or reclosing of lines and reactive loads,
(d) Sudden switching off of loads.
(e) Short circuits and fault clearances.
(f) Resonance phenomenon like ferroresonance, arcing grounds, etc
ii) Based on mode of generation:
Based on mode of generation, transients are classified into Electromagnetic transients and
Electromechanical Transients.
Electromagnetic transients:
Electromagnetic transients are generated predominantly by the interaction between the
electrical fields of capacitance and magnetic fields of inductances in the power systems. The
electromagnetic phenomena may appear as traveling waves on transmission lines, cables, bus
sections, and oscillations between inductance and capacitance.
Electromechanical Transients:
Electromechanical transients are caused by interaction between the electrical energy
stored in the system and the mechanical energy stored in the inertia of the rotating machines, that
is, generators and motors.
iii) Based on nature:
Power system transients are classified into two types depending on its nature. They are,
1. Impulsive transient.
2. Oscillatory transient.
Impulsive transient:
An impulsive transient is defined as a sudden change in the steady state condition of
voltage, current or both, that is unidirectional in polarity either positive or negative. Impulsive
transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times, which can also be revealed by
their spectral content. The most common cause of impulsive transients is lightning. Figure 1.1
illustrates a typical current impulsive transient caused by lightning.
Because of the high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients can be
changed quickly by circuit components and may have significantly different characteristics when
viewed from different parts of the power system. They are generally not conducted far from the
source of where they enter the power system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted
for quite some distance along utility lines. Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency
of power system circuits and produce oscillatory transients.

Oscillatory transient:
An oscillatory transient is defined as a sudden change in the steady state condition of
voltage, current or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity values changing
polarity rapidly. It is described by its spectral content (predominate frequency), duration, and
magnitude. Back-to-back capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the
tens of kilohertz as illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

iv) Based on frequency:

The study of transients in power systems involves frequency range from dc to about 50
MHz and in specific cases even more. Usually, transients above power frequency involve
electromagnetic phenomena. Below power frequency, electromechanical transients in rotating
machines occur. Table 1-1 shows the division into four groups, and also the phenomena giving
rise to transients in a certain group is indicated.
Sl.No
Type Frequency Range Representation mainly for
.
1. Low Frequency Oscillations 0.1 Hz – 3 kHz Temporary Overvoltage
2. Slow front surges 50/60 Hz – 20 kHz Switching Overvoltage
3. Fast front surges 10 kHz – 3 MHz Lightning Overvoltage
4. Very fast front surges 100 kHz – 50 MHz Restrike Overvoltage

SOURCESS OF POWER SYSTEM TRANSIENTS:

There are two main sources of transient overvoltage on utility systems: capacitor
switching and lightning. These are also sources of transient overvoltage as well as a numerous of
other switching phenomena within end-user facilities. Some power electronic devices generate
significant transients when they switch. The major causes for power system transients are
explained in detail.
Capacitor switching:
Capacitor switching is one of the most common switching events on utility systems. The
use of capacitors on power systems is quite common that provide reactive power (in units of
VARs) to correct the power factor, which reduces losses and supports the voltage on the system.
Some capacitors are energized all the time (a fixed bank), while others are switched according to
load levels. Various control means, including time, temperature, voltage, current, and reactive
power are used to determine when the capacitors are to be switched. The use of capacitors
produces oscillatory transients when switched. Transient caused by capacitor switching in the
utility side is shown in below figure.
Capacitor-switching transients are usually not damaging. However, the timing of
switching may be unfortunate for some sensitive industrial loads. For example, if the load picks
up the same time each day, the utility may decide to switch the capacitors coincident with that
load increase. There have been several cases where this coincides with the beginning of a work
shift and the resulting transient causes several adjustable-speed drives to shut down shortly after
the process starts. One simple and inexpensive solution is to determine if there is a switching
time that might be more acceptable. For example, it may be possible to switch on the capacitor a
few minutes before the beginning of the shift and before the load actually picks up. It may not be
needed then, but probably won’t hurt anything. If this can’t be worked out, other, more
expensive solutions will have to be found.
Lightning:

Lightning is a strong source of impulsive transients. Currents from lightning strokes

passing through the power system cause high-impulse voltages that frequently flash over
insulation and lead to other phenomena, such as short circuits. Lightning does not have to
actually strike a conductor to inject impulses into the power system. Lightning may simply strike
near the line and induce an impulse by the collapse of the electric field. Lightning may also
simply strike the ground near a facility causing the local ground reference to rise considerably.
This may force currents along grounded conductors into a remote ground, possibly passing near
sensitive load apparatus. An example for lightning transient is shown in figure 1.1.
Ferroresonance:

The term ferroresonance refers to a special kind of resonance that involves capacitance
and nonlinear characteristics of iron-core inductance. Ferroresonance can occur most probably on
the transformers. Such a resonance can result in voltages as high as five times the rated system
voltage, damaging lightning arresters and other equipment and possibly even the transformer
itself. When ferroresonance is occurring, the transformer is likely to produce loud squeals and
groans, and the noise has been compared to the sound of steel roofing being dragged across a
concrete surface. An example of transient caused by ferroresonance is shown in the below figure.
RL CIRCUIT TRANSIENT WITH SINE WAVE EXCITATION:

Consider a simple RL circuit energized by sine wave excitation which is shown in below
figure. Here the load is represented by a series combination of resistance and inductance. The
arbitrary angle Ɵ in the source voltage permits closing of the switch at any instant in the voltage
cycle. Also the source is assumed to have negligible impedance compared with the load.

The steady state power factor of the circuit is given by,

R R
cos φ= = 2 2 2 1/ 2
|Z| ( R + ω L )

When the switch is closed, the expression for current is given by,
EFFECT OF TRANSIENTS ON POWER SYSTEMS:

Transient phenomenon is an aperiodic function of time and does not last longer. The
duration for which they last is very insignificant as compared with the operating time of the
system. Yet they are very important because depending upon the severity of these transients, the
system may result into black out in a city, shut down of a plant, fires in some buildings, etc.
Apart from electrical power systems, electronic components are also affected by transients. The
effects of transient on various components of electrical system are discussed below.
Motors:
Motors will run at higher temperatures when transient voltages are present. Transients
can interrupt the normal timing of the motor and result in "micro-jogging". This type of
disruption produces motor vibration, noise, and excessive heat. Motor winding insulation is
degraded and eventually fails. Motors can become degraded by transient activity to the point that
they produce transients continually which accelerates the failure of other equipment that is
commonly connected in the facility's electrical distribution system. Transients produce hysteresis
losses in motors that increase the amount of current necessary to operate the motor. Transients
can cause early failures of electronic motor drives and controls.
Lighting:
Transient activity causes early failure of all types of lights. Fluorescent systems suffer
early failure of ballasts, reduced operating efficiencies, and early bulb failures. One of the most
common indicators of transient activity is the premature appearance of black "rings" at the ends
of the tubes. Transients that are of sufficient magnitude will cause a sputtering of the anodes--
when these sputters deposit on the insides of the tube, the result is the black "ends" commonly
seen. Incandescent lights fail because of premature filament failures. The same hysteresis losses
produced in motors are reproduced in transformers. The results of these losses include hotter
operating temperatures, and increased current draws. The results of transient activity on
fluorescent tubes can be clearly noticed at the ends of tubes as dark rings. Effective transient
suppression will eliminate those rings and make your bulbs last 4 to 6 times longer.
Electrical Distribution Equipment:
The facility's electrical distribution system is also affected by transient activity. Transient
degrade the contacting surfaces of switches and circuit breakers. Intense transient activity can
produce "nuisance tripping" of breakers by heating the breaker and "fooling" it into reacting to a
non-existent current demand. Electrical transformers are forced to operate inefficiently because
of the hysteresis losses produced by transients and can run hotter than normal.
ROLE OF THE STUDY OF TRANSIENTS IN SYSTEM PLANNING:

Power system planning is a process in which the aim is to decide on new as well as
upgrading existing system elements, to adequately satisfy the loads for a foreseen future.
Overvoltage from lightning strikes, electrical failures or switching actions, as well as
other transient phenomena, may significantly impact system performance and equipment
condition. The recovery of a power system subjected to a severe large disturbance is of interest
to system planners and operators. Respective modeling, analysis and insulation coordination
studies build the foundation for the resilience of equipment and systems. For example, consider
we are going to build a transmission line, passing through a mountainous area. Once built, the
line may be subject to severe lightning. Lightning is such a very fast phenomena that it affects
the system within nanoseconds. The designer should think of appropriate provisions on the line,
by proper modeling the system in these very fast situations and performing enough studies, to
make sure that the line does not fail, if such lightning happens in practice. This is a typical very
short-term study of power systems. A detailed duration for power system studies is shown in the
below figure. Though system planning studies is a long term one and transient studies involve
short term, the transient studies play a major role in system planning.

Power system transient analysis for transmission and distribution systems is an integral
part of pre-specification analysis, operation and maintenance practices, root cause analysis, and
system planning for equipment. Energizing transients are becoming increasingly more important
with the growing number of shunt and series reactive device installations in power systems. This
is because reactive device switching is one of the most frequent utility operations, potentially
occurring multiple times per day and hundreds of time per year throughout the system,
depending on the need for system voltage/VAR support. There are a number of important
concerns to be aware of when these devices are energized at the transmission system voltage
level.

Two Mark Questions

1. What are the sources of transients?

The major sources of transients in power system are,
i. Lightning
ii. Switching and
iii. Ferroresonance
2. What are the types of power system transients?
Power system classified based on 4 categories. They are listed below.
i. Based on Nature
a) Impulsive transient
b) Oscillatory transient
ii. Based on mode of generation
a) Electromagnetic Transient
b) Electromechanical Transient
iii. Based on frequency
a) Low Frequency Oscillations
b) Slow front surges
c) Fast front surges
d) Very fast front surges
iv. Based on origin
a) Atmospheric Origin
b) Switching Origin
3. What is double frequency transient? Draw its circuit.
A circuit with inductance and capacitance on both sides of the circuit breaker gives rise to
double frequency transients.

4. State the importance of transient study in planning.

Power system planning is a process in which the aim is to decide on new as well as
upgrading existing system elements, to adequately satisfy the loads for a foreseen future. The
designer should think of appropriate provisions on the line, by proper modeling the system in
these very fast situations and performing enough studies, to make sure that the line does not
fail, if transients such lightning happens in practice.
5. List the effects of transients in power system.
Few effects of transients in power system components are,
i. Motors will run at higher temperatures
ii. Produces hysteresis losses in motors
iii.Degrades the contacting surfaces of switches and circuit breakers
iv.Electrical transformers are operates inefficiently
6. What are the effects of lightning transients?
Lightning produces a steep fronted voltage wave on the line. The voltage of this may rise
from zero to peak value in about 1µs and decay to half the peak value in about 5µs.
7. What is meant by arcing ground?
The phenomena of intermittent arc taking place in line to ground fault of a three
phase system with consequent production of transients is known as arcing ground. It can be
prevented by earthing the neutral.
8. Define transient.
The term transient is defined as the variations in power system parameters to denote an
event that is undesirable and momentary in nature.
9. What is meant by subsidence transient?
When a disturbance such as fault occurs on the primary of transformer, then subsidence
transient is produced. Due to this sudden reduction of voltage produced on the primary.
10. What is ferroresonance?
The resonance that involves capacitance and nonlinear characteristics of iron-core
inductance is known as ferroresonance.
11. What is lightning?
Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated in the clouds
discharges into a neighbouring cloud or to the ground. The electrode separation, i.e. cloud-to-
cloud or cloud-to-ground is very large, perhaps 10 km or more
12. What are the types of lightning?
Types of lightning are,
 Cloud-to-Ground Lightning - Negative
 Cloud-to-Ground Lightning – Positive
 Ground-to-Cloud Lightning
 Intracloud Lightning
Based on type of stroke, lightning is classified as
 Direct Stroke and
 Indirect Stroke.
16 Mark Questions
1. Explain the various types of power system transients.
2. Explain the basic transforms of RLC circuit transients.
3. Explain the various sources of transients in power systems.
4. Explain RL circuit transient with sine wave excitation.
5. Explain the effects of transients on power system.
6. Briefly explain the importance of study of transients in planning.
7. Explain briefly about double frequency tansients.