MSCE

AGRICULTURE

Form 3

Study Notes
Table of Contents
TOPIC 1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL ..................................................................................................3

TOPIC 2: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL...............................................................................................24

TOPIC 3: PLANT PROPAGATION ..................................................................................................................36

TOPIC 4: FARM RECORDS .............................................................................................................................45

TOPIC 5: CROPPING SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................50

TOPIC 6: ENTERPRISE COMBINATION .......................................................................................................66

TOPIC 7: MUSHROOM PRODUCTION .........................................................................................................70

TOPIC 8: AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES AND THEIR SERVICES .................................87

TOPIC 9: BUDGETING ....................................................................................................................................96

TOPIC 10: LIVESTOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING .........................................................................................103

TOPIC 11: AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES ...........................................................................................135

TOPIC 12: ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES FOR DECISION MAKING IN AGRICULTURE ...........................139

Page 2 of 143
TOPIC 1: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
List of physical properties of soil

Soil texture

Soil structure

Soil colour

Soil temperature

Soil consistency

Soil porosity

Soil depth

Soil texture

Soil texture refers to the degree of coarseness or fineness of the soil particles

This is due to the presence of the three soil particles; sand, silt and clay

Soil texture can therefore be defined as proportion of the three soil particles in a soil

Proportion can be interchanged by

• percentage
• ratio
• amount
• quantity

Mineral composition of soil

a. Sand

It is one of the rock particles that make up soil in terms of size. Sand is the largest of the three

Sand particle range from 0.02cm to 2mm in diameter

Sand particles can also be characterized by

(i) Not sticking to finger

(ii) It produces cracking noise when rubbed

(iii) Feel very rough when rubbed.

Page 3 of 143
b. Clay

This is the smallest of the three. Clay particles are smaller than 0.002m in diameter

Clay particles are very stick either when wet or dry when rubbed; they are very smooth if dry.

Rubbing wet clay particles them becomes shiny(polishing)

c. Silt

Silt is the medium of the three

It partially sticks either when wet or dry

When rubbed it is partially smooth nor cracking noise

It is partially shiny

Determining soil texture

There are many ways in which the amount of sand, silt and clay in a soil can be found/estimated

Among the many ways are

i. Feel method

ii. Sieving method

iii. Sedimentation method

i. Feel or Bing Method

This is one of the mechanical methods of estimating the amount of sand, silt and in a soil.

Materials needed

i. Soil samples (15-20g)

ii. Water

iii. Containers

iv. Pet dishes

Procedure

Page 4 of 143
1. Collect a soil sample approximately about 15- 20g.

2. Put the collected soil sample between your thumb and the forefinger and rub it

Expected results

If the soil sample is very rough this means that the soil has plenty of sand

If the soil is very fine, the soil has abundant clay.

3. Add a few drops of water to the soil sample and rub it.

If the soil sample is very sticky soil is made up of clay particles

If soil sample partially sticks is made up of silt.

If soil sample does not stick, soil is made up of sand.

4. Try to mould a ball

If you make ball and does not break, the

If you make a ball but breaking in the course of rounding it the soil has plenty of silt.

If you fail to make a ball the soil is made up of sand

5. Try to make a rod

If you succeed to make a rod without breaking the soil is made up of clay

If you succeed to make up a rod but only a short one the soil is made up of silt.

With sand you cannot make any rod

Sedimentation method

It is aimed at showing that the soil is made up of different sized particles.

Apparatus/materials needed

50g of garden soil

Water

Sodium carbonate

Stop watch

250cm3 measuring cylinder

Page 5 of 143
Procedure

i. Put 50g of soil sample in a 250cm3 measuring cylinder

ii. Add about 5-10g of sodium carbonate powder

To help breakdown the soil clods further

iii. Add about 150cm3 of water

iv. Cover the mouth of the cylinder with your palm, while holding its bottom with the other hand and
shake the content thoroughly or vigorously

v. Leave the content to settle for about 30 minutes.

Observations

i. The soil particles settled in different depending on particle size

ii. Gravel settles at the bottom, followed by coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay.

iii. Humus is suspended on the water surface

Conclusion

Soil is a mixture of different particle size, i.e., mineral particles.

Textural classes of soil

Sandy soil

Loam soil

Clay soil

Page 6 of 143
Soil Triangulation

Silt, clay and sand in the soil can be presented as percentages in a triangular manner.

Importance of Soil Triangulation

It helps to identify various combinations of clay, silt and sand

It helps to know the amounts of the various particles in a given soil sample.

How to use the soil triangle

How to use the Soil Triangle

1. First, look at the orientation of the percentages on the sides of the triangle.

2. To classify a soil sample, find the intersection of the three lines that correspond to three properties

3. On the chart all of the percentages will add up to 100%.

Note: Two intersecting lines can also be drawn and used to classify a soil sample.

Comparing the different classes of soil based on texture

Materials

Three measuring cylinders

Three funnels

Three different soil samples; sandy, clay and loam soil (sun dried). Each sample weighing 20g

150ml of water

Page 7 of 143
 Stop watch/clock

Cotton wool/filter paper

Method

1. Set up three measuring cylinders with funnels

2. Take the weighed 20g of each soil sample and put in the funnels of the measuring cylinders

3. Add 50ml of water into each of the funnels

SET UP

Observation

Observations

i. Observe water drains and stops coming through

ii. After 5 minutes, water levels in different measuring cylinders vary/differ

iii. Water level is the highest in the measuring cylinder with sandy soil, followed by loamy soil and
least in the measuring cylinder with clay soil.

iv. After 10-15 minutes, measure and record the amount of water that drained through each of the soil
samples

v. Calculate the amount of water held by sand, clay and loam by subtracting the amount of water
drained from 50ml of water that was poured/added into each funnel

Conclusion

Sandy soils have highest drainage, but lowest water holding capacity

Clay soil has the highest water holding capacity, and poor drainage

Loam soils have moderate drainage and moderate water holding capacity

Page 8 of 143
Characteristics of different soils based on testure

Type of Characteristics

soil
Sandy ▪ Particles are loosely packed and so have a lot of air spaces
▪ Well aerated

▪ Dry up easily (hold very little water)

▪ Crops easily wilt during dry season or drought
▪ Easy root growth

▪ Easy to cultivate

▪ Well-drained

▪ High leaching rate

Clay ▪ Particles are tightly held together

▪ Poorly aerated

▪ Poorly drained (drains very slowly)

▪ Can easily become waterlogged

▪ Holds a lot of water

▪ Becomes sticky when wet and hard when dry

▪ Heavy to work on

▪ Roots find it difficult to penetrate

Page 9 of 143
 Loam ▪ Even mixture of sand, silt and clay
▪ Has all good properties of sandy and clay soils
▪ Well aerated

▪ Well drained

▪ Holds large amounts of water

▪ Contains a lot of plant nutrients

▪ Crops grow well

▪ Easy to

cultivate

Effects of soil texture on crop production

Effects of soil texture on crop production

i. It influences resistance to erosion

Sandy soil is easily eroded

ii. It influences the type of crop to be grown, e.g.,

Tobacco grows well in well-drained sandy/clay loam soil

Maize grows well in well-drained loam soil

Cassava grows well in well-drained, rich, sandy loam soil. However, it can tolerate poor soils

Cotton grows well in rich, sandy loam soil

Groundnuts, beans and soya beans require sandy or light loam soil

Rice grows well in rich heavy clay soils which retain a lot of water

iii. It influences water holding capacity/water retention of the soil

Determines type of crop to be grown/cultivated, e.g., rice grows well in

soils with highest water retention (clay soils)

iv. It affects nutrient holding capacity of the soil/fertility

Good textured soils must be able to supply nutrients to growing plants

Page 10 of 143
 Light textured soils are prone to erosion and encourages leaching of the plant nutrients

v. Determines soil aeration and drainage

Well drained and aerated soil is necessary for crop production, e.g., loam soils

Well aerated soils enable microorganisms responsible for decomposition of organic matter to
thrive well

vi. It influences the ease with which the soil is cultivated

Soils must be easily cultivated at different moisture contents (consistencies)

Clay soils are had to work with unlike sandy soils

vii. It determines roots penetration into the soil

Good textured soil must allow easy root entry and growth

viii. It influences organic matter content in the soil

Loamy soils have high organic matter content, which is essential for crop growth and development
(upon their decomposition)

Soil structure Definition

It is the physical appearance of the soil in relation to the way the soil particles are grouped or
arranged

It is the way individual soil particles are arranged or packed together to form aggregates or
collections

Agents of soil structure

Humus (organic matter)

Colloids (clay)

Types of soil structure

1. Single-grained structure

soil particles are cemented together

particles are tiny and spherical

prone to wind erosion

Page 11 of 143
 not very suitable for crop production

Crumby structure

Consists of tiny, porous aggregates of irregular shapes

Gives rise to stage of aggregation

from single-grained structure

few particles are joined together

One of the best soil structures for crop production

Particles allow air spaces

3. Granular structure

granules made of friable (easily broken up), rounded aggregates of irregular shapes

normally found in the top layer of the cultivated soils

aggregates are loosely packed

4. Prismatic structure

Soil particles are cemented in the form of vertically oriented pillars

Particles are prism-like

5. Columnar structure

Soil aggregates are vertically arranged, 15 cm or more in diameter

Rounded tops and cylindrical

6. Platy/pyramidal/plate-like structure

Arranged in thin horizontal layers called plates

Plates overlap each other

Poor for crop production

Due to poor root penetration

7. Blocky structure

Page 12 of 143
 Soil aggregates are arranged in rectangular blocks

Because they easily fit together

8. Cuboidal structure

Blocks have six irregular faces

Confined to sub soils

Effects of soil structure on crop production

1. It influences air circulation in the soil

Single-grain structured soil allow better movement of soil air for plant roots to respire than platy
soils

2. It influences water-holding capacity of the soil

Crumb structures hold water for plants to use while single-grain and granular structures lose water
more readily through seapage

It affects microbial activities in the soil

Crumb structures have a better environment for micro-organisms to live, and work more actively
to decomposition of OM to release nutrients for plant growth than single grain structures

4. It affects soil cultivatibility

Granular structures are more workable than platy structures

5. It affects nutrient retention

Crumb structures reduce the rate of leaching of minerals salts while single grain structure lose
nutrients through leaching more easily

6. It affects root penetration and development

Platy structures hinder root development while single grain structures facilitate root development

Methods of maintaining and improving soil structure

1) Application of organic manure and inorganic fertilizers

To bind loose soil particles together

Page 13 of 143
 Improves water holding capacity

Improves microbial activities in the soil

To loosen tightly packed soil particles

Improves soil aeration and drainage

2) Tilling the soil at the right moisture content/consistency

Enables breakdown of large soil clods without clodding or padding

Ensures that soil particles are not broken down

3) Crop rotation

Should include cover crops to reduce chances of splash erosion

Fibrous rooted crops help to bind soil particles together

4) Cover cropping

Prevents splash erosion

Increases water infiltration

5) Minimum tillage

Helps to prevent over pulverization of soil

Which makes it liable to soil erosion

It also reduces moisture loss

6) Mulching

Improves nutrient status of the soil upon their decomposition

Reduces soil erosion

Helps to cement together the loose soil particles upon decomposition of the mulch

7) Fallowing/land rotation

Helps the soil to rebuild itself, i.e., destroyed soil structure is given time to recover

8) Liming

Page 14 of 143
 Helps in improving drainage and aeration of heavy soils through flocculation

9) Using machinery properly

To prevent heavy machinery drawn by tractors from damaging soil structure

Excessive cultivation can also damage soil structure

10) Avoiding overgrazing

Reduces chances of soil erosion

Moving animals through their hooves also destroy soil structure

Dark or black soils contain a lot humus (organic matter)

5. Type of parent material (mineral matter)

Red, yellow or brown soil contains soil a lot oxide

Soils with glittering appearance contain mica

A soil rich in silica/quartz is whitish or

greyish-white in colour

Soil colour indications

Soil colour

Definition: It refers to the appearance of the soil.

Soil can be described as:

Black or dark or dark grey, dark-brown Red or reddish brown

Yellow yellowish brown or orange Light or white or whitish grey

Factors that influence/determine soil colour

1. Nature and abundance of iron

Iron in its various forms, e.g., iron oxide or yellow oxide imparts red, yellow, grey and bluish-grey
colours

In waterlogged soils, iron in unoxidised form gives grey, green, bluish-grey colours

In well-drained soils or under dry conditions, iron forms red oxides imparting a red colour to the
soil

Page 15 of 143
2. Moisture content

Soil colour darkens as the soil changes from dry to moist

3. Aeration and drainage

Poorly drained or waterlogged soil looks greyish in colour

Such soils are poorly aerated

Well-drained soil is usually brown, red or yellow in colour

Dark or black soils contain a lot humus (organic matter)

5. Type of parent material (mineral matter)

Red, yellow or brown soil contains soil a lot oxide

Soils with glittering appearance contain mica

A soil rich in silica/quartz is whitish or

greyish-white in colour

Soil colour indications

4. presence and amount of organic matter

Effects of soil colour on crop production

1. It indicates level of organic matter content in the soil

The darker the soil, the greater the organic matter content which releases plant nutrients suitable
for plant growth and development

2. It indicates level of soil fertility

Page 16 of 143
 Dark soils indicate presence of organic matter which is rich in plant nutrients suitable for crop
production

3. It indicates suitability of soil for specific crops

Greyish or yellowish soils indicate that they are waterlogged which will the help the farmer to
decide on the most suitable crop to be grown, e.g., rice

4. It indicates agricultural limitations of the soil

Grey soils due to water-logging help the farmer to decide on the measures to take to make the soil
more productive for crops

5. It indicates heat absorption capacity of the soil

The darer the soil, the greater the amount of heat absorbed from the sun

This supports microbial activity and plant growth

6. It indicates nature or type of mineral elements in the soil

Red soils show presence of lots of iron oxides

Iron is useful for plant growth

It affects photosynthetic rate in crops

How soil colour can be maintained or improved

(i) Adding organic manure

(ii) Draining the soil

Soil temperature

Definition: It is the coldness or hotness of the soil

Factors that influence soil temperature

1. Moisture content of the soil

Water requires a lot of energy or heat to warm up.

Clay soils tend to be cold making seed germination slower

Sandy soils warm up quickly making seed germination faster

Page 17 of 143
2. Season of the year

Soils are exposed to sunlight, longer in summer than in winter (rather cold season in case of
Malawi)

3. Soil depth

Soil temperature varies with depth below the surface

Topsoil experiences more temperature variations or fluctuations than subsoil

4. Soil colour

Dark soils absorb much heat from the sun

This raises/increases soil temperature

Light covered soils do not absorb much heat

Lowers soil temperature

5. Soil vegetative cover/mulching

Covered soils tend to have medium or optimum temperature, i.e., there is little fluctuation in the
soil temperature, when the soil is covered

In very hot areas, mulching soils tend to keep the temperatures lower than the surrounding are
soils

6. Slope of the land

In the southern hemisphere, a garden sloping towards the north is heated more than land facing
south

Ways of maintaining/improving/modifying soil temperature

1. Mulching

To keep the soil temperature in check (regulates-reduces/minimises)

Especially in hot areas

2. Planting vegetative cover

Reduces or keeps the soil cool in very hot areas

3. Draining the soil

Page 18 of 143
 Helps to raise the temperature (in once water- logged conditions)

4. Irrigating/flooding the soil

To cool down the soil temperature (in very hot areas)

Effects of soil temperature in agricultural production

It affects chemical reactions

Speed up in soil with high temperature

Affects availability of plant nutrients

It affects transpiration and evaporation

The higher the temperature, the greater the evaporation, transpiration and evapotranspiration.

It affects microbial activities

Influences OM decomposition rate

The rate is low below 25˚C and above 40˚C

It affects root growth

Too low or high temperature impedes root growth and development

Plants grow best at 25˚C

It affects seed germination

Too high temperatures impede or kills seeds

Too low soil temperatures delay germination

Soil consistency Definition:

It refers to the state of the soil under different moisture conditions or levels

It refers to the strength with which soil particles are held together

Factors that influence soil consistency

1. Soil resistance to pressure

2. The way the soil particle hold together

Page 19 of 143
Ways of maintaining/improving soil consistency

1. Drainage

2. Cultivating the soil at the right moisture content

3. Proper use of farm machinery or equipment

Effects of soil consistency on crop production

1. It influences water holding capacity of the soil

2. It affects the workability of soil, i.e., ability to be cultivated

Too dry soil enhances its destruction

Wet soils stick to implements and puddles

Soil depth

Definition: It refers to the distance of the soil from top soil to the bed rock

It is associated with the soil profile

Well developed and mature soils tend to be deep

Under developed soils tend to be shallow

Factors that influence soil depth

1. Soil erosion

Shallow soils in eroded areas

Deep soils in areas of deposition

2. Slope of the land

Soil depth increases as you go down the slope

Soils are shallow on the steep slope, due to soil erosion

3. Parental material

Shallow soils

If formed from materials resistant to weathering

Page 20 of 143
 Deep soils

If formed from parental materials that weather more easily

Effects of soil depth on crop production

1. It affects soil aeration

The deeper the soil, the greater the aeration in the soil

This enhances root respiration and development for increased crop production

2. It affects plant nutrition

The deeper the soil, the deeper the nutritive top soil layer which has most organic matter and
mineral nutrients

3. It affects microbial activity

The deeper the soil, the greater the zone available for microorganisms to break down organic
matter

OM release nutrients for plant growth

4. Affects root development

Good in deep soil, thus reduced plant lodging

Very poor in shallow soils, hence increased plant lodging

5. Water holding capacity

High water retention in deep soils

Low/poor water retention in shallow soils (prone to drought)

Soil porosity

Definition: It refers to the condition of the soil to allow water and air to pass through it

Soil porosity is due to the presence of air and water spaces in the soil (pore spaces)

It is determined by soil structure

Total porosity is low in sandy soils

Since soil particles are close together with few but large pore spaces

Page 21 of 143
 Porosity is high in clay soils

Because of many but tiny pore spaces

A term related to porosity is BULK DENSITY

Porosity and Bulk Density

Density: It is the mass (weight) per unit volume

Bulk density: it is the sum total of the pore spaces and solid particles of the soil

Mathematically:

𝐵𝐷 = 𝑊
𝑉

Where BD is bulk density, W is weight of oven-dry soil and V is volume of oven-dry soil.

Bulk density takes into consideration both the solid components and the pore spaces of the soil.

Therefore Bulk density is used to determine the porosity of the soil

Mathematically:

% porosity = (100−BD) %

Particle Density

Particle density refers to the density of mineral particles of the soil.

NOTE:

BD for clay soil is 1.00g/cm3

BD for fine sandy loam soil is 1.3g/cc

Average particle density is 2.65g/cc

Percentage of air and water in an ideal soil is about 50%.

Ways of maintaining or improving porosity of soil

1. Adding organic manure

2. Cultivating the soil

Also refer to ways of maintaining and improving soil structure

Page 22 of 143
NOTE:

Since soil porosity is associated with soil structure, any measure taken to improved structure will
also improve its porosity.

Effects of soil porosity on crop production

1. It determines the rate of water holding capacity of the soil.

The higher the porosity, the lower the water holding capacity of the soil

2. It affects the rate of leaching of mineral salts

The lower the porosity, the lower the rate of leaching

More nutrients will be available for plant growth and

Page 23 of 143
TOPIC 2: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
These include:

1. Soil pH

2. Nutrient status of the soil

3. Salinity

4. Cation Exchange Capacity

Soil pH (Soil reaction) Definitions

It is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil OR

It is the negative logarithm of the Hydrogen (H+) concentration, i.e., pH = -log (H+)

Ions that determine soil pH

a) Hydrogen ions (H+)

b) Hydroxyl ions (OH-)

Conditions for soil pH

When H+ = OH- in concentration, the soil is neutral (pH 7)

2. When H+ > OH-, the soil is acidic, i.e., soil pH is low (pH value is less than 7)

3. When OH- > H+, the soil is alkaline, i.e., soil pH is high (pH values are greater than 7)

Test for soil pH

Methods:

i. Using Universal Indicator or Litmus paper

ii. Using pH meter or scale (ranges from 1 to 14)

Page 24 of 143
Determining soil pH of a given soil sample using Universal Indicator solution or Litmus paper

Experiment

Aim: To determine the pH of soil samples using Universal Indicator solution

Materials

Soil samples

Test tubes

Barium Sulphate (BaSO4) powder

Distilled water

Universal Indicator solution

pH indicator colour charts

Procedure

1. Put a soil sample in a test tube to a depth about 1 cm

2. Add an equivalent amount of BaSO4 powder to the test tube containing the soil sample

BaSO4 ensures flocculation and precipitation of colloidal clay, i.e., break down the soil particles
further

3. Add distilled water to soil sample

4. Shake the test tube vigorously

5. Allow the contents to settle, then add 8 to 10 drops of Universal Indicator solution

6. Shake the test tube well allow the contents to settle for about 30 to 60 minutes

7. Hold the test tube against the printed colour chart

8. Compare each colour on the chart with the colour of the suspension and note the pH of the colour
which matches it most closely

Expected Results

1. Pink or red colour shows that the soil is acidic

Page 25 of 143
2. A blue or purple colour shows that the soil is

alkaline or basic

3. Green colour indicates neutral soils

NOTE

Instead of using Universal indicator solution, Litmus paper is another substitute.

Put some soil solution on a white tile

Dip a Litmus paper into the solution

Expected Results

1. Blue Litmus paper will turn red if the solution is

acidic

2. Red Litmus paper will turn blue if the soil solution is basic/alkaline

Factors affecting soil pH

a) Leaching

Decreases soil pH

H+ replaces calcium (Ca2+), sodium (Na+) and magnesium (Mg2+) which are washed down the
profile.

b) Use of acid-forming fertilizers

Continuous and heavy application of sulphate of ammonia makes the soil acidic (reduces soil pH)

c) Microbial activity

Decrease soil pH through

H+ released during decomposition of organic matter

Page 26 of 143
 CO2 produced by microbes dissolve in water and forms carbonic acid

d) Weathering of parent material

Parent material that contains Sulphur decreases soil ph through formation of sulphuric acid

Soils formed from limestone have a high pH (thus alkaline)

Parent material that results in the accumulation of such ions as potassium (K+), sodium (Na2+),
calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) increase soil pH (more basic)

e) Nutrients uptake by plants

Some nutrients get lost during harvesting and are replaced by H+, which increase soil acidity, i.e.,
reduces soil pH

f) Type of vegetation

Some vegetation produce a lot of organic matter releasing nutrients that influence soil pH

Amount of soil cover by the vegetation influences soil pH

Soils in forests tend to have a lower pH than those in grasslands

g) Poor drainage

Sandy soils have lower pH as it is prone to leaching (elements get replaced by H+)

Ways of maintaining/improving or modifying soil pH

1. Liming (application of agricultural lime)

To neutralise soil acidity (to increase soil pH)

2. Application of inorganic fertilizers

To increase soil pH , e.g. acid forming Calcium Ammonium Nitrates (CAN)

3. Application of organic matter(organic manure)

Reduces acidity in the soli through released Ca2+, Mg2+

Effects of soil pH in agricultural production

1. It affects availability of different plant nutrients in the soil

There is low phosphorus availability at very low ph (acidic conditions)

There is low potassium and iron availability at very high ph (basic)

Page 27 of 143
2. It affects microbial activities in the soil

Essential for decomposition of OM, e.g., bacteria and fungi

Bacteria tend to be active when the ph is above 5.5

Fungi tolerate a wide range of soil ph

Nitrification and nitrogen fixation y bacteria take place vigorously at ph 5.5

Very low ph levels inhibit the activity of nitro-fixing bacteria

3. It determines chemical properties of the soil

This determines type of crops to be grown in a given area

Some crops do well in acidic soils, e.g., tea, pineapples

Some crops like basic soils, e.g., beans, peas, g/nuts, cabbage, soya beans, sunflower

Some crops do well under a moderate ph (ph 6 and ph 7)

4. It influences soil-borne diseases and soil pests

Low soil ph encourages multiplication of fungi, i.e., soil-borne fungal plant diseases are common
in acidic soils

Diseases caused by soil-borne bacteria are common in alkaline soils

Plant damage by nematodes (soil pest) is more common in acidic soils

Nutrient status of the soil

Nutrients are substances needed by plants and animals for growth and development.

Availability and amount of nutrients in the soil determines soil fertility

Factors that influence nutrient status of the soil

1. Composition of the soil itself/parent material

It affects the ability of the soil to retain and release plant nutrients

Inorganic (minerals) and organic constituents

Page 28 of 143
2. Soil structure and texture

Soils with structures like single-grained, are prone to leaching

Reduces nutrients amounts

3. Farming practices/methods of cultivation

Bush fires destroy OM which is essential for improving soil structure and releasing nutrients

Overgrazing removes vegetative cover

Nutrients are then lost through erosion

Monocropping exhausts certain elements in the soil

4. Soil acidity

Affects both release of nutrients and microbial activities in the soil

5. Mineral uptake by plants and crop removal

Nutrients are removed with crops upon harvesting as they are contained in the plant during growth
and development

6. Leaching of basic nutrients

Decreases soluble nutrients like nitrates availability as they are washed down the soil profile

7. Soil erosion

Decreases nutrients as they are washed away together with the top soil through water and wind

8. Excessive irrigation

Heavy irrigation results in nutrients being leached and washed out from the top soil

9. Drainage

When waterlogged land is drained to remove surplus water, some nutrients get washed away in the
process as well

10. Use of chemical fertilizers

Increase amounts of nutrients in the soil

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) Definitions:

It refers to the ability of the soil to exchange cations (at a given ph and per unit weight of soil)

Page 29 of 143
 It is the degree to which soils can absorb and exchange nutrients

An example of CEC process

Lime added to acidic soil (with high concentration of H+). Ca2+ and Mg2+ in lime will replace the
H+, thereby raising soil pH

Forms of plant nutrients in the soil

a. Cations

These are positively charged ions, e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+

Cations are held or absorbed into soil colloids

b. Anions

These are negatively charged ions, e.g., Cl-, NO - and CO

Anions are found in the soil solutions

They are not easily leached from the soil

They can be replaced by or exchanged with the ions of the soil solution through CE process.

CEC is used as a measure of fertility in nutrient retention capacity and the capacity to protect the
ground water from Cation contamination

CEC is highly dependent on the soil texture and organic matter content (the more clay and OM in the
soil, the higher the CEC)

Factors that affect CEC

1. Type of clay colloids

2. Soil pH

CEC increases with an increase in soil pH

3. Relative concentration of the cations in the soil

Effects of CEC in crop production

1. It influences the supply of some nutrients, e.g., Ca+, Mg2+ and K+

Page 30 of 143
 A higher CEC enables plants to get nutrients for growth and production

2. CEC competitive rate avails cations to plant roots for uptake

As plant roots take up cations, other cations in the soil water replace them on the colloids

High concentration of one Cation forces other cations off colloids and take their place

3. It maintains soil fertility

Humus (OM) has the highest CEC value because OM colloids have large quantities of negative
charges

Plant nutrients found in OM include; NH +, Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+

Clay has greater capacity to attract and hold cations, hence richer in plant nutrients

Sand has no capacity to exchange cations because it has no electric charge

Thus low/poor nutrients content

Can only be improved by adding OM

OM contributes to CEC through the exchange of elements with others that have similar or like
charges, e.g., NH +, Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+

Soil Salinity

Definition: It refers to the condition that is associated with the accumulation of soluble salts in the
soil.

Examples of salts found in the soil

Nitrates (NO -)

Sulphates (SO4)

Bicarbonates (CO3)

Chlorides (Cl-)

Types of soil based on soil salinity

1. Saline soils

Page 31 of 143
These are soils which have a high concentration of soluble salts

Causes of soil salinity

i. Irrigating virgin land with poor quality water

As water evaporates, the salts build up in the soil

ii. Application of chemical fertilizers

May lead to a build up of salts in the soil

iii. Salts contained in parent material

Upon weathering, salts are released into the soil

iv. Low rainfall and evaporation

Salts accumulates on and below the soil surface due to capillary action

Salts may also accumulate in the soil due to limited leaching

v. Poor drainage

Salts tend to build up in such poorly drained soils

Sodic soils

These are soils which contain high amount of sodium

3. Sodic-saline soils

These are soils which contain both soluble and sodium salts

Note: High amounts of sodium in saline-sodic soils are toxic to plants

Signs/indicators of salinity in soils

Page 32 of 143
Irrigating soil by flooding with salt free water

Salts are flushed out and become leached

2. Drainage

To carry some salts away

3. Application of gypsum

Helps to convert insoluble carbonate salts into sulphates (readily soluble and easily leached
through irrigation)

4. Preventing or reducing evaporation

Minimizes build up of salts in the soil

5. Growing salt tolerant crops

That can successfully survive in saline soils

Effects of salt accumulation on crop production

1. Increased soil ph (more alkaline)

Making some nutrients unavailable to plants, e.g., K, Fe, Mn, B, Mg and Ca.

2. Influences water availability

Due to osmotic concentration

This affects seed germination and plants growth

3. Salts may also be toxic to some crops .Those that are sensitive to high concentration of salts

Page 33 of 143
Sensitivity of some crops to salts

Determining soil salinity

Soil salinity can be determined by conducting a field test through laboratory analysis

This is done at research stations, e.g., Bvumbwe in Thyolo and Chitedze in Lilongwe

Field test for soil salinity is also called an EC1:5 (i.e., EC one-to-five) test

This mseans 1 part of soil sample to 5 parts of distilled or rain water used in the test

Steps for soil salinity test

1.Assessing or determining the texture of the soil sample

2. Measuring the salinity of a solution made up of the distilled water mixed with the soil sample

It is collected using salinity meter

3. Multiplying the test result (salinity meter reading) y the conversion factor based on soil texture to
get soil salinity (ECe)

This shows how soil salinity will affect plant growth

Table below shows conversion factors

Page 34 of 143
Experiment: Field test on salinity

Materials

Soil sample 20-50g

Distilled water or rain water

Jar or container with lid

Mortar and pestle

Calibrated salinity meter

Procedure

1. Collect a soil sample (20-50g) and leave it to dry for a day or two

2. Crash the air dried sample with a hammer or use a mortar and pestle.

3. Put the soil sample into a jar with a lid and add distilled or rain water (one part of soil for every
five parts of water).

4. Shake the jar vigorously for three minutes to make sure the salts dissolve.

5. Let the soil solution settle for at least one minute before testing

6. Place the salinity meter electrodes in the solution (but not in the soil at the bottom of the jar) and
read the display once it has stabilised

7. Wash the meter electrodes and sample jar with distilled or rain water, and dry them

8. Convert the salinity meter reading to soil salinity (ECe) by multiplying the value by the
conversion factor

NOTE

The Electrical Conductivities are measured in deciSiemen/m which is equivalent to mmhos/cm

In the experiment, the soil sample is small in quantities hence results are given in milliSiemen/cm
(Ms/cm)

Usually, electrical conductivities are measured at 25˚C

Most conductivity meters have temperature compensation controls.

Page 35 of 143
TOPIC 3: PLANT PROPAGATION
Definition: Plant propagation means reproducing or creating new plants from a variety of sources

Types of plant propagation

1. Sexual propagation

2. Asexual propagation

Sexual propagation

Definition: It is the method that uses seeds to produce new plant individuals

Advantages of sexual propagation

Cheapest method of plant propagation

Seeds are readily available

Seed is easy to store

No significant loss in quality and quantity

Seeds remain viable for long period of time (if properly stored)

Handy and less bulky

Seed is easy to sow, handle and prepare or planting

Saves on planting time

Seeds can easily be sown mechanically

Using seed hoppers or drillers

Minimized risks off disease transmission

From parents to off springs

Seeds offer the only way of propagating some crops

Those that cannot e propagated asexually, e.g., maize, g/nuts, e.t.c

Seeds produce new better plants

Due to fertilization and pollination resulting in crop improvement

Page 36 of 143
Disadvantages of sexual plant propagation

Can produce serious variations and off-type

Among the off springs (new plants)

Due to mutation

Cross-pollination may result in new plant acquiring undesirable characteristics/traits

Different from those of the parent plant

Seed formation may fail

If factors influencing pollination and fertilization are absent

Requires a long juvenile period

Before bearing fruits

Requires elaborate seed bed/land preparation

For sowing the seed

Asexual (vegetative) propagation

Definition: It is the production of new plants by using a part or parts of an existing plant, without use
of seeds

Common vegetative planting materials used in Malawi

a) Stem Cuttings

Pieces or cuttings of stem that have buds at each node and that develop adventitious roots are used
for field planting (e.g., Napier grass, cassava, Gliricidia-a shrub legume, Nsenjere)

Can be developed from either stems or roots

Stem cuttings (setts) can be raised in nursery (e.g., tea, rubber) or planted directly into the field
(e.g., sugarcane)

For sugarcane, it is better to use three node cutting than a single-node cutting in order to obtain:

High germination capacity

High initial plant vigour of the germinated shoots

Page 37 of 143
 High yield

For cassava, each cutting should be 25- 30cm long

Other examples of crops that can e propagated using stem cuttings include plums, grapes, hibiscus,
blackberries, carnations, chrysanthemums and poinsettias

Runners

Stems that grow horizontally above the ground

The piece must have a node from which the roots and shoots can develop

The best cutting should be 25-30cm long from the tip

Examples of crops include Strawberries, Sweet potatoes, Star grass, etc

c) Stem tubers

Underground, swollen portions of the stem which act as storage organs

Each tuber has buds from which root system and new shoots develop

examples of crops include Irish potatoes (European potatoes) and Jerusalem Artichokes

Page 38 of 143
Parts of an Irish potato

Suckers

A sucker is a shoot (tiller) arising from an axillary bud at the base of a parent plant

They are cut off or uprooted and planted elsewhere

Examples of crops include bananas, pineapples and sisal

e) Bulbs

A bulb is a storage organ made up of closely, paced, modified, fleshy leaves

Buds develop in the axils of the leaves that make up the bulb

New shoots develop from the buds, feeding on the food stored in the fleshy leaves of the bulb

The new shoots then separate from the parent plant, developing new roots from the base

Examples of crops include onions, tulips, lilies and garlic

Page 39 of 143
 A corm is a thickened (enlarged) base of an underground stem in which food is stored

New shoot develops from the bud on the side of the parent corm

The stored food on the parent (old) corm provides nutrients to the new shoot

Examples of crops include Cocoyam (arrow roots) and Crocus

Rhizomes

Are thick, horizontal underground stems

Shoots and roots develop from the buds on the rhizomes

Examples of crops include bananas, bamboo, ginger and reeds

Parts of a rhizome

Leaves

The lea is used

Characteristics of plants that can e propagated by leaves

plants with prominent net veins

plants whose leaves are thick with stored food

Procedure for propagating plants using leaves

water the plant before collecting the leaf

Page 40 of 143
 select a healthy, mature succulent (juicy) leaf from the parent plant

remove the petiole (leafstalk) with a sharp knife

cut the leaf across several of the larger veins with a sharp knife or scissors

dust the cut veins with a rooting hormone

to encourage the production of new roots

place the prepared leaf into a pot field with damp soil as soon as possible, when the leaf cutting is
still fresh

pin the leaf flat, bottom-side-down, to the surface of the soil using thorns, toothpicks, or sharpened
matchsticks to pierce the leaf

to ensure that the leaf stays in contact with the moist soil at all times

place the pot with the cutting into a transparent plastic bag

to prevent the leaf cutting from wilting as the bag provides humidity

to allow the leaf cutting to get sunlight for photosynthesis

water the cutting (when necessary) while it is inside the bag

remove the cutting from the bag when new leaves or shoots are seen beginning to form

when each of the shoots (new tiny plants growing from the original leaf) has two sets of leaves,
separate the new shoots by cutting the leaf apart with a knife or scissors into separate sections

transplant each of the new plants into separate small pots or polythene tubes filled with soil

Splits

These are sets of bunches from an already established plant, e.g., grass and pyrethrum

j) Bulbils

• These are obtained from sisal

• They are the sucker-like parts taken from the top o the sisal pole

Methods of vegetative propagation

1. Layering

Page 41 of 143
 • Induces part of a plant, usually a branch to produce roots while still attached to the mother
plant
• Once the branch has rooted, it is cut away from the parent plant and planted out
• It is a common method in guavas and mango

Common methods of layering

a) Air layering/Marcotting

Part of the stem to be used is wounded

• To expose the cambium layer from which roots develop

• The wounded part is then covered with soil
• In polythene sleeve paper

b) Tip/Mound layering

• The stem or branch is bent and pegged to the ground

• The pegged part develops roots for a new shoot while it is still attached to the parent plant

c) Trench layering

Follows the same principle as in Tip layering However, a trench is dug where the bent part gets
covered with the soil

2. Budding

• A vegetative bud from one woody plant is transferred and joined to the stem/ branch of
another woody plant called the root stock
• This bud will develop into a branch/stem, which will produce fruits of its mother plant
• All the other branches of the root stock (mother plant) will produce the same fruits of its
origin
• This method is common in citrus fruits, e.g Oranges and Lemons
• Enables farmers to produce two different types of fruits from the same tree

Page 42 of 143
Grafting

It involves joining a part of one woody plant known as a scion to another woody plant (stock)

The two parts (scion and stock) must be from the same species and have the same thickness

The union must ensure that the cambium layers are matched

The cut must be slant or V-shaped

The union must be neatly fitted and taped

Note: The scion can have one or more buds that give rise to the future fruiting plant

Advantages of asexual/vegetative propagation

i. Reduces juvenile period of the plant

Assume the age of their parent plants earlier

Start giving fruits/yield faster

ii. Eliminates the problems of dormancy

No need of seed treatment such as scarification

iii. Ensures genetic uniformity in crops

Since all off-springs will resemble their parents

iv. It automatically preserves the desired trait (character or quality)

v. It offers the only way of propagating crops whose seeds are not viable, bananas, sugarcanes and
some seedless citrus fruits

Whose seeds are not viable, e.g., bananas

vi. Vegetative organs are more hardy than seedlings from seeds

Withstand environmental hazards in the field such as drought

vii. Vegetative organs generally have sufficient food reserves

Helps young shoots to become established faster

viii. Plants skip the risky seedling stage in which a number of plants die under adverse conditions

Page 43 of 143
ix. Planting materials are readily available to the farmer from the previous crop

Eliminates the need of buying expensive new hybrid seeds every season

Disadvantages of asexual propagation

i. Risk of transferring diseases to new plants is high

Off-spring inherits (acquires) all the characteristics of the parent

ii. It is more difficult to introduce variation or desirable traits or eliminate undesirable traits into
crops

Making crop improvement difficult

iii. Vegetative materials tend to be bulky

Difficult to handle

Difficult to increase field size

iv. Some of the procedures in vegetative propagation require specialist knowledge and/or skills, e.g.,
layering, budding and grafting

v. Mechanical planting of vegetative planting materials is difficult because they cannot easily fit and
slide down during mechanical seed hoppers or drills

vi. They are not easy to store

They remain viable only for short periods

vii. They may e expensive to get (unless the farmer collects from her previous crop)

There is high demand on time, transport and skills

viii. They are slow and tedious

Makes the whole process boring

Page 44 of 143
TOPIC 4: FARM RECORDS
Definition

A farm record is a set of information stored or retained by the farmer about farm events as they
occur in a farm

A farm record is a written statement or a detailed collection off facts and figures on agricultural
activities, operations, practices and transactions

Reasons for keeping farm records

Provide a history of what has been happening on the farm.

can be used for comparison purposes within the farm.

Help in planning and budgeting.

enable the farmer to make appropriate choices and decisions in the farm.

It is a requirement by financial institutions before any loan can be approved in order:

to determine the need and capability of the farmer to service or repay the loan.

to determine whether the farmer can benefit from the credit if advanced.

Determine the financial status of the farm.

help in detecting theft/fraud or losses very early and in resolving situation.

Help in settling disputes under joint ownership if one of the partners dies in absence of a will.

Help in proper management of various routine livestock or crop production practices, e.g., calving,
vaccinations, harvesting, breeding, culling unproductive livestock.

Provide actual trading information for income tax accessors to avoid over-taxation.

For comparison purposes between farmers dealing with the same enterprise.

helps to discover the causes for the differences.

Determine profits or losses in order to know whether the business should be expanded or
discontinued.

Page 45 of 143
 Helps in settling insurance claims, e.g., in case of fire or any other accident in the farm.

Provide labour information, e.g., terminal benefits.

Help farmers in the selecting the types of livestock to keep and crop to grow.

Help farmers to check their methods of production.

Types of farm records

1. Inventory records.

Inventory records are a list of all the properties or assets that the farmer has on the farm.

Assets are things that can be converted into cash.

Examples of assets

Land

Buildings and other structures (granaries, barns, milking sheds, warehouses, pens or kholas)

Produce in storage

Livestock

Trees (whether for fruit or not)

Machinery

Tools and equipment

Seeds

Feed

Fertilisers or manure

Drugs

Pesticides

Herbicides

Page 46 of 143
 The best time to do inventory in Malawi is at the end of the farming season, when there is not
much work on the farm.

Steps for doing inventory

1. Counting the items physically.

2. Physical measurement of the land, buildings and other structures, and available crops, e.g., in
terms of size.

3. Estimating the value of the assets using the present market prices.

What to consider when estimating the value of assets

Depreciation or loss of value of item over time. this can either

a) Straight line depreciation (reducing the value by 10% per annum).

b) Fixed rate depreciation (declining balance of 20% per annum).

Table 1 shows an example of inventory record template.

Production records

Production records are information on the operations or activities and inputs used in producing a crop
or raising a livestock, and the farm produce or outputs.

Categories of production records

i. Crop production records

These records outline information on the type of crop, allocation in plots, inputs used in each crop
and its yield/ output.

Page 47 of 143
Types of inputs

a) Variable inputs, e.g., seed, fertiliser or manure, pesticides or herbicides, drugs, casual labour.

b) Fixed inputs, e.g, buildings and equipment, permanent labour, machinery

Field record

This refers to the information of all operations that farmers keep in their diaries.

Separate pages should be allocated to each crop or plot.

Table 3 shows an example of a field record template

Livestock production records

These are records of activities or operations and inputs used in producing livestock.

These records depend on the type of livestock kept and their uses.

They can be of different information, e.g., number of livestock, health record, etc.

Page 48 of 143
Table 4 shows an example of livestock record template

Financial records

These are records of all business transactions.

Transactions are in the form of

a) Sales or receipts

b) Expenses or expenditures

These records help the farmer to work out profit or loss for the farm.

Table 5 shows an example of a template of financial records

NOTE:

Farmers need to keep more details of all the income and expenses for the farm.

Farmers should keep a record of farm produce used for home consumption.

This helps farmers to have a clear picture of the output from the farm.

However, the produce used for home consumption MUST NOT be entered in in the sales and
receipt column of the financial record.

Page 49 of 143
TOPIC 5: CROPPING SYSTEMS
Description

Cropping system refers to the patterns, techniques, procedures, arrangements or practices followed in
the cultivation of and production of crops.

It describes:

What crop or crops are grown in an area

How and why such crop or crops are grown

Types of cropping systems

Concept map for some cropping systems practised in Malawi

Shifting cultivation

Cropping system where land is cultivated for several years until crop yields become too low due to
soil exhaustion with no intention of returning to it later.

Low yields forces the farmer to abandon the plot and move on (shift) to farm (cultivate) another.
Page 50 of 143
 Activities involved in shifting cultivation

Cycle of activities in shifting cultivation

1. Clearing the area

2. Cultivating the area continuously for several years

Evaluating crop yields each year

4. Abandoning the area when the yields are too low

5. Moving to the new area NOTE:

No fertilizer is applied at all

Nutrients are added to the soil in the form of ash (potassium and calcium) after burning

Yield decreases each year

After three to five years fertility is too low for crop production

Advantages

It is cheap since it does not require fertilizers

It is simple since operations are generally carried out using hand tools

It weeds and weed seeds effectively through burning the bush

Page 51 of 143
 It may control soil-borne diseases through the use of fire

It controls pests through burning

Disadvantages

It requires a lot of land for the shifting process

It resulting in low yields due to low input levels (no fertilizers, etc.)

The burning of vegetation destroys potential organic matter, some nutrients and microorganisms
which are useful for decomposition process

It exposes the land to erosion since vast areas have to be cleared.

6. Bush fallowing/ land rotation

‘‘Bush’’ means uncleared, wild vegetation.

‘‘Fallow’’ is land left uncropped.

‘‘Bush fallowing’’ means farming a plot, then temporarily leaving it when exhausted so that it can
regain fertility, before returning to it later.

Activities involved in bush fallowing

Clearing the area.

Cultivating the area continuously for several years

Evaluating crop yields each year

Abandoning the area when the yields are too low

Opening up several other plots, one after the other

Returning to the first plot

NOTE:

Activities are similar to those of shifting cultivation

Page 52 of 143
 The left plot returns to bush so it recovers fertility during the fallow period

The fallow period may take as long as

five to ten years

Returning to the first plot makes bush fallowing also to be called land rotation

Advantages

It is cheap as it does not need a lot of capital for fertilizer

It maintains soil fertility through fallow periods

Disadvantages

It encourages deforestation as one bush is cleared after another

It increases the rate of soil erosion through the careless cutting down of trees

It requires a lot of land, which the farmer may not have

7. Monocropping

Monocropping means ‘‘one’’ cropping.

The whole farm has only one crop and this crop is grown every year.

Activities involved in Monocropping

Identifying a crop that is most suitable for the area

Determined by: - climate and soil

Identifying the capital and managerial ability available

NOTE:

The farmer grows only that one crop every year

The farmer concentrates on and becomes specialised in the chosen crop

Page 53 of 143
Advantages

It produces the highest possible profit for farmers since they grow only the most suitable crop for
the environment

It simplifies farm management- all the farmer’s thoughts and efforts are concentrated on one crop
only

It facilitates farm mechanisation because the land area is usually large enough

It saves costs- since large quantities of inputs required to cover the vast areas can be bought in
bulk at wholesale price or discount rates

It reduces the amount of starting capital since it will be for one type of crop only

The farmer specialises and becomes an expert in one crop

Disadvantages

Pests and diseases build up since pests and disease causing organisms for such a crop multiply
each year

The risk of loss or disappointment is high since in case of rainfall or pest and disease incidence the
farmer will have nothing to fall back on

The soil becomes exhausted quickly since the crop absorbs and uses the same nutrients every year.

8. Monoculture

Monoculture means cultivating only one crop in each plot on a farm continuously

Crops occupy separate plots

Activities involved in monoculture

Deciding what crop or crops to grow during the growing season

Divide the farm into plots with respect to the number of crops to be grown

these plots will be pure stands

a pure stand is plot that occupies only one type of crop

Page 54 of 143
 normally for cash crops

Advantages

It facilitates the use of machinery since adjustments can be made easily to suit the one crop in the
pure stand

It eliminates the possibility of any competition from other crops since there is just the one desired
crop in the plot to make the maximum use of environmental resources

It is easy to use chemicals since the farmer has only the needs of one crop in the plot to address

Disadvantage

It increases the rate at which pests and diseases spread since there are no other crop barriers to
check or slow down the invasion

9. Mixedcropping/Intercroppin/Multiculture/ Polyculture

This is the practice of growing two or more crops on the same plot at the same time.

Activities involved in Mixed cropping

Deciding on what crops to grow

Deciding on what way of planting to follow

Forms of Mixed cropping

Page 55 of 143
Inter-row mixed cropping

One crop is grown between the rows of another crop.

crops are grown on alternate rows or ridges

iii. Relay mixed cropping

This is where the second crop is sown on the plot while the first one is still growing, established,
or even maturing.

This is also known as phased-planting.

For example

cassava is planted in an established maize field

Pumpkin seeds sown when tobacco is almost ready for harvesting.

iv. Multi-level intercropping

This is the a system of growing several types of crops in the same plot which grow to different
heights from the ground so that different levels (storeys or steps) can be seen

Advantages

Saves labour since some operations are done at once for all the crops in the mixture

Saves land since the same land is used for more than one crop

Page 56 of 143
 Increases the total yield per hectare, i.e, yields from different crops

Reduces the risk of crop failure since the farmer can rely on the other crops if one fails

Enables crops to benefit from one another in different ways

legumes fix nitrates to be used by maize

maize acts as stakes for climbing beans

Reduces the spread of pests and diseases

Reduces soil erosion

The mixture provides adequate soil cover

Controls weed growth

by suppressing them through shading so weeds receive inadequate sunlight for photosynthesis

Disadvantages

Mechanization is difficult since each crop has specific needs in terms of operations like ploughing
or ridging

Requires large starting capital to get different machines and farm structures for the different crops

It may be difficult to meet (satisfy) the different nutrient requirement of the various crops in the
mixture, e.g., fertilizer

It is difficult to use pesticides, fertilizers or herbicides since a chemical used on one crop may be
harmful to another

Requires a wide range of knowledge and skills to manage the different crops

Different crops shade one another reducing the rate of photosynthesis

It may result in serious competition between the different crops for water, nutrients and oxygen

Page 57 of 143
10. Continuous cropping

The practice of growing crops on a piece of land every year without fallowing or resting the land.

NOTE:

It can either have one type of crop or more

A farmer may choose to rotate the crops in the plots to maintain fertility and reduce the
multiplication of pests and diseases

Activities involved in continuous cropping

Deciding on what crop or crops to grow

Deciding on how to locate crops in the plots if the farmer wishes to be rotating the crops

Advantages

Ensures 100% utilization of the land resources available to the farm every year

Conserves the soil since land is under crop cover most of the time

Ensures food security or sufficient cash for the farmer from the crops harvested from all parts of
the farm each year

Disadvantages

Exhausts soil fertility since soil nutrients are removed by the crops every year

Results in over-cultivation or over-copping, which destroys the soil structure

Results in multiplication of pests and diseases and some parasitic weeds

11. Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the practice of growing different crops (changing crops) on a piece of land in a
particular sequence (order) every year

Page 58 of 143
Activities involved in crop rotation

Deciding on the crops depending on:

Climate

Soil type

Amount of land, capital, labour available

Managerial ability

Diving the farm into equal plots depending on the number of crops to be grown and the quantity
required

two plots of one crop may be required

Allocating each crop to a plot

NOTE:

Change the crops in the plots each season

A crop rotation cycle

Factors to consider in a crop rotation programme (Principles of crop rotation)

When allocating crops to plots for crop rotation consider the following:

Page 59 of 143
 Alternating tap (deep) rooted crops with fibrous (shallow) rooted crops

Alternating leguminous crops (beans, groundnuts, peas) with non- leguminous crops (cereals,
cotton, tobacco)

Alternating heavy feeders (soil exhausting crops ) with light feeders

Alternating crops that are resistant to specific diseases with susceptible crops those diseases

Alternating crops with good soil cover with those having little soil cover

Crops with similar nutrient demands; growth characteristics; disease pest and weed attacks, should
not follow each other

Crops which are easy to weed should alternate with crops which are difficult to weed

Select the crop sequences which produce the highest yields first and allow for easy control of
weeds, pests and diseases

Advantages

Ensures that crops make full use of soil nutrients from different layers of the soil

Maintains or even improves soil fertility when legumes are included in the rotation to fix nitrates

Controls pests and diseases by breaking their life cycles

Controls parasitic weeds which are host

-specific by depriving them of their host on the plot in some years

Reduces soil erosion when cover crops are included in the rotation to cover and protect the soil
from raindrop impact and run-off.

Ensures a more even distribution of labour demand throughout the year so that serious labour peak
months may not occur

Spreads out financial risks over several crops

Disadvantages

Results in les farm income compared to monoculture

Requires more land to accommodate the various crops

Page 60 of 143
 Requires more labour since some of the crops in the rotation may need high labour

Requires skill in the management of various crops

May not be practical where the farmer needs to use more of the land (up to 90%) for a staple food
crop each year to meet the family food requirements

12. No-till cropping

No-till cropping is where the land is cleared but the soil is left undisturbed in that it is neither tilled
nor ridged, except when making planting holes (stations)

Because of this it is also known as

Minimum tillage.

Activities involved in No-till cropping

Clearing the land

Making planting holes

Advantages

Conserves the soil since it is not loosened by tillage, which would make it easy to be eroded by
water and wind

Saves labour since ploughing and ridging are not done

Ensures that crop husbandry practices are conducted and completed on time

Maintains soil structure since it is not damaged by repeated cultivations

Saves money that would be spent for buying and maintaining cultivation machinery and therefore
increases profits

Can be used effectively on hilly areas where machinery could not be used

Disadvantages

May not improve the productivity of clay soils, which require opening up (with plough) to
improve aeration

Herbicides are expensive

Page 61 of 143
13. Biological farming

This is where crops are grown using organic inputs rather than inorganic inputs

Examples of inorganic inputs are: - chemical fertilizers, fungicides, pesticides, herbicides

Examples of organic inputs are:- organic manures (farmyard manure, compost or green manure

Activities involved in organic farming

Deciding on what crops to grow

Deciding on which inputs to use

Making the organic inputs

Deciding on the effective cultural practices to be used

Advantages

Prevents rivers and lakes from being polluted with fertilizers that would otherwise be washed
down by the rains to destroy aquatic life

Protects useful insects which would be destroyed by if pesticides were applied

Improves soil structure through the use of manures

It is cheaper to make and apply manures than to buy fertilizer

Reduces the chances of poisoning

Keeps the ecosystem in a state of balance since organic inputs tend to be environmental friendly

Disadvantages

Organic inputs may not be as quick as inorganic fertilizers in producing results

Large quantities of organic manures will be needed

To replace inorganic fertilizer

Page 62 of 143
14. Agroforestry

Agroforestry refers to the land use systems and practices in which woody perennial trees are
deliberately grown on the same piece of land as crops and/or livestock

Arable crops are grown together with selected trees

Activities involved in agroforestry

Deciding on what types of crops to grow

Deciding on what type of trees to grow

Forms of agroforestry

Silvo-arable cropping:- a type of agroforestry which combines trees and an agronomic cultivated
(arable) crop

Arrangement of crops may take the form of alley cropping where the arable crop

grows between rows of a harvestable tree crop

Silvo-pastoral:- incorporating trees or shrubs and pasture for livestock feed

Trees are sparsely spaced to allow the grass growing between them

Agrisilvo-pastoral:-incorporating trees or shrubs with livestock pasture and crops

rows of an arable crop lie maize may be followed by a row of sparsely trees

Page 63 of 143
Advantage of agro-forestry

It increases the productivity of the land

It increases fertility of the soil by

Increasing the amount of organic matter in the soil when leaves, fruits or branches of trees fall
down and decompose to form humus

Recycling of nutrients from deep in the soil

Fixing nitrogen in the soil, if the tree crop in the mixture is a leguminous, e.g., Faidherbia albida
(msangu)

It increases yield from the arable crops

It protects livestock and crops from adverse weather conditions, e.g., wind, sun-scorch and rain
where trees provide shade

It improves moisture conservation

It reduces the risk of crop failure

It provides a wide variety of products, e.g., fruits, timber, cash crops, beef and dairy products

It provides a suitable income

It increases species diversity by offering a greater variety of habitats for wildlife

It can lead to reduced pests and diseases by encouraging the multiplication of natural enemies of
the pest

It guarantees tree care and follow-up because of the arable intercropping arrangement

It reduces soil erosion

Combination of arable crops and trees improves soil cover

Fibrous roots of cereal or pasture (grass) crops bind the soil while those of the trees stabilise the soil

Presence of both trees and crops break the speed of run-off

Trees (together with crops) act as wind-break

Page 64 of 143
Disadvantages of agro-forestry

It is very difficult to manage as it requires expertise in choosing compatible trees, arable crops and
pasture species

It results in less yield from arable crops than if they were in monocultures because the shorter
crops face unfavourable competition

More labour may be needed, especially to water and protect the trees when young

It is difficult to mechanise farm operations

Space to manoeuvre is confined by trees

It reduces the arable coverage

By choosing to integrate trees, the area for arable crops on the land is reduce

It comes with transition costs

Changing from a current cropping system to an agroforestry cropping system involves a loss of
short term gains.

Page 65 of 143
TOPIC 6: ENTERPRISE COMBINATION
Enterprise combination refers to the mixing of different businesses.

In agriculture, enterprise combination refers to the mixing of different agricultural businesses.

Types of enterprise combination

Competitive enterprise combination

Two enterprises are competitive if an increase in one enterprise results in decrease in the other.

Things that determine a profitable combination

Cost of producing the product

Prices of the products

Rate at which one product substitutes for the other

Graphs of some enterprise combinations

Page 66 of 143
constant substitution or an increasing/decreasing substitution

An increase in one enterprise requires a decrease in the other since the two enterprises are competing
for one or more o the farmer’s resources

2. Complementary enterprise combination

Complementary enterprise is when the enterprises add to the production of each other

Net return or revenue from enterprises is the most important consideration when deciding what to
produce.

Eg,

a) Poultry and vegetable production. Manure from chickens help to increase vegetable production
and the vegetable can be fed to chickens as green feed.

b)

Page 67 of 143
iii. Capital

iv. Managerial skills

2. Farmer’s food requirements

Food production is a priority.

3. Profitability of enterprises

Can be determined by deducting expected costs from the expected income

4. Nature of enterprises (relationship between enterprises)

Competitive

Complementary

Supplementary

5. Opportunity cost

The return that is given up (returns that are lost from an enterprise due to stopping engaging in it)

Comparative advantage

7. Price changes

8. Changes in technology

9. Risks and uncertainty

Ways through which farmers can safeguard themselves against risks and uncertainty

Selecting a more reliable enterprise (one that is unlikely to fail)

Producing several crops (diversification)

Flexibility in methods of production

Practising input substitution

Keeping food in reserve to ensure food security during bad seasons

Rationing the inputs to adjust uncertainty

Page 68 of 143
 Insuring their enterprises

10. Farmer’s abilities

Other factors

Crop rotation to be practised

Expected yield from the enterprise

Enterprise input requirements

Expected prices to be offered on the market

This depends on supply and demand

A quota system, as practised in tobacco industry

This control production

Page 69 of 143
TOPIC 7: MUSHROOM PRODUCTION
Life cycle of fungi (e.g., mushroom)

Importance of mushroom production

Mushrooms provide us with valuable nutrients. Eg. Proteins, vitamins, minerals

Creates employment opportunities. eg. Self

and to others

Source of income to farmers after sales

Source of foreign exchange if done at large scale

Helps in cleaning up the environment as it makes use of waste products of the forest and animals

Assists in crop diversity

Source of medicine

Page 70 of 143
Varieties of mushroom grown in Malawi

i. Oyster varieties

ii. Button varieties

Most farmers prefer Oyster to Button because it requires less supervision

Oyster varieties

a. Pleurotus spp

Page 71 of 143
 relatively easy to grow-yields are elastic depending on the substrate used-grows well between
temperature of 15 to 30 degrees Celsius-can be grown on lignocellulotic land and forestry wastes

b. Pleurotus rajor-caja

highly adaptive

prefer temperature between 22 to 24 degrees Celsius

c. Pleurotus stratus

produces very well in temperatures between 12 to 26 degrees Celcius

2. Button varieties

There are two varieties that are recommended to be grown in Malawi.

(i) TNS 1

requires a cropping temperature between 16 to 20 degrees Celsius

white in colour

potential yield of 15kg/m2

(ii) TNS 2

requires temperature between 18 to 22 degrees Celsius

bigger in size than TNS1

white in colour and scally yield potential of 15kg/m2

NOTE:

Mushrooms normally in Malawi can be grown between March and July since temperatures are
relatively low

To increase the yield of mushroom most of the substrate require pasteurization

d. Pasteurisation refers to subjecting the substance to very high temperatures and then immediate
cooling

Page 72 of 143
Differences between Oyster and Button mushrooms

Oyster mushrooms are easier to grow than button mushrooms

Button mushrooms have a better taste than oyster mushrooms

Oyster mushrooms are less capital intensive than button mushrooms

Oyster mushrooms have a shorter shelf life than button mushrooms

Oyster mushrooms fetch lower prices on the market than button mushrooms

Oyster mushrooms are good for beginning mushroom growers because as stated above they are
easier to grow than button

Button mushrooms require special compost manure and fertiliser, and hence farmers find it
difficult and expensive to produce

Husbandry practices for Oyster mushroom production

Spawn selection

Site selection

Construction of incubation and production shed or house

Spawn preparation or purchasing the spawn

Substrate treatment

Mushroom seeding (spawning)

Mushroom fruiting management

Harvesting

Requirements for mushroom production

o Mushroom Fruiting House

where mushroom production takes place

cheaply constructed from wooden framework covered with a plastic sheet (clear or black) and
thatched with grass or iron sheets optionally.

Page 73 of 143
 can either have a rack if hanging method is to be used or alternatively an “A” Frame with two
shelves at the bottom, one of which side can be use

should provide enough light

However colonisation of mycelia does not require light but it is necessary for the fruiting
house.*

o Incubation Room

where spawning bags are incubated for substrate colonisation; covered with lack sheet

o Steriliser

for pasteurisation of the substrate

Thermometer and Hygrometer

to monitor the environment condition (right temperature and humidity in the house)

o Sprayer and Watering can

for water application onto fruiting bags during cropping

to control humidity, water can be applied on the floor by a bucket or watering can

o Substrate

Can be made from the following:

Maize stalks, rice straws or banana leaves with supplementation

Shredded maize cobs with or without supplementation

Page 74 of 143
Saw dust with supplementation The most common supplements include:

Rice or wheat bran (15% to 20%)

Water hyacinth (10% to 20%)

Calcium carbonates (1% to 2%)

o Plastic bags

Use transparent plastic bags for

(i) easy visualisation of mycelin colonisation

(ii) easy detecting of any contamination

Autoclave bags can also be used in case they are found (treated bags)

Spawning

Mushroom seeds are technically referred to as spawn

Spawning is the sowing of mushroom seeds

Preparation of different materials to be used as substrates for mushroom production

Maize stalks, rice straws and banana leaves

(i) finely chop the stalks, straws or leaves

(ii) pre-wet the chopped material by soaking them in water overnight

(iii) drain them or incubate them on a cemented platform or a plastic overnight

Page 75 of 143
(iv) supplement them with rice or wheat bran, water hyacinth or calcitic lime to improve mushroom
yield (mass)

(v) then pasteurise the content

2. Cotton wastes

(i) cotton waste is soaked or wetted for a few hours in water to which a detergent has been added as a
softener and a detergent

(ii) the water is squeezed out and the cotton waste loosened

(iii) supplement with lime and other materials

-to improve pH and aeration

(iv) then pasteurise the content

3 Saw dust

Saw dust must be obtained from hardwood, e.g., M’bawa, Muwanga or other broad-leaved trees.

(i) saw dust is wetted

(ii) incubate the wetted saw dust overnight

(iii) supplement with different materials

(iv) then pasteurise the content

4 Corn (Maize) cobs

(i) cobs are shredded into 1 to 2 cm pieces

(ii) cobs can be moisturised and incubated for 1 to 2 days

(iii) then pasteurise the content Sometimes the immersion in hot water method can be used

done to leach the readily available nutrients in order to reduce the risk of contamination

Stages for pasteurisation and spawning in mushroom production

Pack the substrate into a home-made sterilizer

Page 76 of 143
 can be made from an open drum with a platform and holes-after loading, it is tightly covered with
a plastic sheet or a sealable cover with an opening. This is a semi-bulk pasteurisation

2. Pasteurise for an hour and then empty the pasteurised substrate onto a plastic sheet for it to cool
down to about 40 degrees Celsius

In case where hot water immersion is used, immerse the substrate for 30 to 40 minutes

3. Pack the substrate into bags while adding planting spawn and then tie the mouth of the bags

This should be done in an enclosed place where there is no air current

4. Incubate the spawned bags in the dark or alternatively cover with a plastic until the bags are fully
colonised

5. When the bags are fully colonised, transfer them into fruiting house

the fruiting house should provide enough light for the mushroom to start forming

the bags should be opened after for exposure to light for one day

6. Maintain the temperature in the fruiting house between 18 to 25 degrees Celsius and relative
humidity of 80% to 90%

air freshness in the mushroom house should be maintained-relative humidity is maintained by

applying water several times a day on the floor and walls

routine opening of the vents

*Poor fresh air (carbon dioxide concentration) leads to poor fruiting or deformity of mushroom.*

Conditions necessary for a Mushroom House

Siting of the mushroom house

the house should be free from obstruction and oriented in the direction of the wind such
thatventilators and doors face the direction of wind for free air movent

the house should be constructed away from the rubbish pits, livestock kraals (kholas) and latrines
to avoid attraction of flies to mushroom

2. Framework

a wooden framework with a heavy plastic sheet to control humidity

Page 77 of 143
 thatched with grass outside for insulation. Examples of materials for mushroom house
construction include:

(i) wooden poles

(ii) 500 or 600 gauge plastic sheets

(iii) bamboos

(iv) timber nails

(v) thatching grass

(vi) wire or plastic gauze

3. Dimensions

small house should be 5m x 3m x 2m

large house should be 7m x 5m x 3m

mushrooms that are grown on shelves inside the house shelves should be 0.5m x 1m

4. Composting

The process whereby organic materials are connected into a satisfactory and stable medium for the
growth of the mushroom

The recommended quantities of ingredients based on one tonne (1000kg) of well dried cut maize
stover or rice straw are:

-20kg of sulphate of ammonia

-20kg soya bean powder or cotton seed cake

-20kg white wash lime

-20kg molasses

-30kg single superphosphate

-30kg rice bran

Page 78 of 143
-150kg chicken manure

-10kg calcitic lime

5. Spawning

The term ‘‘spawn’’ means mushroom seed.

Spawning is the planting of mushroom seeds.

Spawning should be done when moisture content of the compost is about 70%.

-squeeze a handful of the compost and planting should be done if it gives 4 to 6 drops of water.

Ensure that there is no ammonia odour and the temperature of the compost should be about 25

The recommended spawning rate is 400ml/m2

The actual spawning is done by broadcasting

¾ of the required spawn quantity unto the compost and mixing it thoroughly with the compost right
down to the bottom

The remaining 1 is broadcasted on top and is

incorporated into the remaining very top layer of the compost (about 1cm deep)

NB:

o Make sure that the doors and ventilators are closed on the day of spawning and 3 days after
spawning

o From day 4 after spawning, introduce ventilation in the morning and evening for 30minutes at each
time

o Colonisation of mushroom takes about 12 to 14 days after spawning

Page 79 of 143
6. Casing

This is the addition of the moist pasteurised soil into the compost

The casing soil must be clay loam subsoil, low in organic matter and must have a pH of

7.0 to 7.5

The casing soil is obtained after removal of the top soil layer

Casing soil must be pasteurised by steaming at 70 to 80 for 15 minutes

Casing is done at the end, about 14 days after spawning when the compost is completely colonised
by white mycelia

Importance of casing soil

It stimulates and promotes the formation of fruiting bodies

It retains the needed moisture for mushroom growth

The casing soil is part on the top of the compost to a thickness of 3cm to 4cm.

–about 30litres of soil will be required per m2

From casing to formation of fruiting bodies the casing should be moist at all the time and the
temperature should be between 16 and 22

Mushroom pinheads start forming from day 16 after casing

Pest and Disease Control for Mushroom

A. Pests

i. Insect pests

a) Mushroom Flies (Megaselia agarici)

They feed on the mushroom fruiting body and mycelia

Page 80 of 143
 They also cause indirect damage since they carry mites, eelworms and spores of other moulds

Control

Sanitation on and around the farm

Remove the left over compost

Burying of stems and pieces of mushrooms after harvesting

b) Phorid and Scarid Flies

The larvae feed on the mushroom mycelia and eventually on the mushroom fruiting bodies

They also act as carriers of mites and other fungal mushroom contamination

They are less of a problem during spawn run in sterilised mushroom bag production system since
the bags are sealed

c) Beetles

They actually chew the mushroom from the inside (gill side) and tend to tunnel holes and hide in
there when disturbed

They have a red or orange head and dark wings

Control

Handpicking the beetles

Page 81 of 143
Mites

They feed on mushroom mycelia and the developed mushroom causing surface discolouration

Control

Keep mushroom house and surrounding clean

Use malathione

Sprinkle lime

iii. Rodents (Rattus spp)

They feed on the mushroom fruiting body and mycelia

They are very destructive as they make unwanted holes in casing and compost

Control

Physically killing or using traps

iv. Molluscs or Snails

Appear in different forms and eat the mushroom during the night

Control

In the early days when their populations are low, they can be controlled by hand-picking,use of
baits and traps

B. Diseases

a) Cob web

It is caused by Cladobotyum dendroides

Page 82 of 143
Sign

Soft rot or decay of fruiting body

Control

Sterilisation

Sanitation and hygiene (regular cleaning and removal off dead mushrooms

Spraying fungicides such as chlorinated lime

b) Wet bubble

It is caused by Mycogone pernicious

Sign

Mushrooms are deformed

Control

Use of bacteria and actinommycetes as biological control measure

Steaming at 54.4˚C for 15 minutes

Benomyl spray

c) Dry Bubble (Verticillium fungirola)

It is most severe in summer months (September to December) especially when fly populations are
high

Signs

Pale brown spots on the cap

Page 83 of 143
 Mushroom stripes (stems)n with tilted cap

Mushrooms are deformed

Control

Practise farm hygiene to reduce fly population

Reduce air temperature and humidity

Sterilisation of substrate (heat treatment)

d) Olive (Trichodema) Green Mould (Chaetomium spp)

The mould appears on the compost surface soon after pasteurisation and can also lead to complete
failure of mushroom growth

Green grit-like projections on the compost

Control

Proper pasteurisation of compost

Avoid over wetness, compactness and over pasteurisation of compost

e) Mat (Chrysosponun spp)

The disease is characterised by a creamy to yellow mycelia fungal growth on both the compost
and casing soil, coating it completely

Prevention or Control

Ensure that casing is not shallow

Observe farm hygiene

Harvesting Mushroom

Mushroom are ready for harvesting 14 to 20 days after casing

They come quickly in flushes

Page 84 of 143
Procedure for Harvesting Mushroom

Hold the cap, twist the mushroom and pull it together with the roots

Cut off the roots and dispose them by burying

The holes left behind by the harvested mushrooms should be filled with fresh casing soil

Water the beds soon after harvesting and leave all the vents opened for one to two hours to dry the
surface

Factors that affect Yield Quantity of Mushroom

Variety

Compost type

Management

NB

Under smallholder farming the yield ranges from 5kg to 10kg per m2

A cropping period of 8 to 10 weeks is normal

After the cropping period, the soil and the compost should be removed in preparation for new
season

It is possible to grow two crops in a year.

Marketing Mushroom

Mushrooms ready for the market are divided into various grades depending on the:

size

degree of maturity Grades of Mushroom Mushrooms may be graded as:

i. Buttons

These are closed mushrooms

They would be small or big

They fetch the highest market price

Page 85 of 143
ii. Caps

These are mushrooms whose veils have opened or likely to open

They still have rounded cap

They have a medium value

iii. Flats

These are mushrooms whose veils have opened and the caps are flat and gills are exposed fully

They normally fetch low prices

Page 86 of 143
TOPIC 8: AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES AND THEIR
SERVICES
There are many agricultural services available in Malawi. These include:

Land husbandry.

Irrigation

Farm settlement

Farm mechanisation

Seed technology

Crop protection

Provision of farm inputs

Soil testing

Agricultural credit to smallholder farmers

Farm management

Food nutrition

Extension and training

Marketing

1. Land husbandry

These are agricultural services that deals with land resources

These services have come into existence due to the increasing demand for land resources as a
result of rapid population increase in Malawi

Aim

Land husbandry services aim at promoting the sustainable use of land resources for agricultural
production.

Page 87 of 143
Examples of land husbandry services in Malawi:

Guiding and creating awareness among farmers and the general public about the scarcity and
availability of land resources in the country

Providing relevant information, knowledge and skills in all aspects of land use and environmental
conservation

Encouraging and helping farmers to construct and establish physical and biological soil
conservation structures

Agencies that provide land husbandry services in Malawi:

Land Resources and Conservation Unit

Agricultural extension staff in all Agricultural Development Divisions (ADDs)

Land Husbandry Training Centre in Zomba

Environmental Education Unit in Lilongwe

2. Irrigation

This is the service that rectifies the problem of erratic and inadequate rainfall experienced in
Malawi

Irrigation helps to reduce the risk of crop failure so that enough can still be produced to support
the population

Agencies that provide irrigation services

Department of Irrigation

The Department emphasises self- help, small-scale and community ownership of the schemes

Page 88 of 143
Ways of irrigation instituted

Sprinkler irrigation

Treadle pumps irrigation

Motorised pumps irrigation

Boreholes/shallow wells irrigation

3. Farm settlement

This service is concerned with the availability of land for agricultural production.

Some people settle in areas where there is fertile arable land with a favourable agricultural climate
(especially rainfall) exists

Aims of farm settlement

Promote special crops such as cotton and tobacco , maize and groundnuts

Promote the participation of women in agricultural development

Encourage handicapped people, especially the blind, to contribute toward agricultural

development

Give farmers who have very few land holdings the opportunity to participate in farming

Improve the spreading of improved agricultural practices to neighbouring rural community

Agencies that provide Farm settlement in Malawi

The government’s Rainfall Settlements Schemes

In these schemes farmers are helped by:

Advice from extension workers

Assistance from other facilities available, e.g, credit

Page 89 of 143
Examples of Rainfall Settlement Rainfall Settlement Schemes
Schemes in Malawi by ADD ADD

Karonga Kasama

Mzuzu Kabwafu and Mjinge

Kasungu Kafulu and Sopani

Salima Chinguluwe

Machinga Rivirivi

Blantyre Mlomba

Farm mechanization

Use of animal-drawn farm implements or motorise farm machinery

This helps to complete farm operations in time, so that high yields can be obtained.

Examples of farm mechanisation services in Malawi

Training farmers in the selection, care and management of draught animals and the maintenance of
implements

Training draught animals in ploughing, ridging and cultivating

Introducing and supplying alternative sources of draught animals such as donkeys

Improving the availability of both hand-operated and animal-powered machinery for farmers to
buy through credit

Testing and releasing small scale machines such as grain dehullers, oil extraction machines and
water pumps

Agencies that provide mechanisation services in Malawi

Ox-training Units in each ADD

Page 90 of 143
5. Seed technology

This is the provision of good quality seed for improved crop varieties to smallholder farmers for
increased crop production

Roles of Agencies for seed technology services in Malawi

Certified seed for hybrid maize, sunflower and tobacco can be obtained from:

The Agricultural Development and Marketing Corporation (ADMARC)

The National Seed Company of Malawi (NSCM)

Lever Brothers (Malawi) Limited

The seed section of the Department of Agricultural Research (DAR) is responsible for:

i. Testing

ii. Certifying

iii. Monitoring the production, processing, storage and marketing of seed

6. Crop protection

Objective

To minimise losses due to pests, diseases or weeds

Examples of crop protection services in Malawi

Breeding and releasing resistant crop varieties by the Department of Agricultural Research

Establishing plant quarantines and other government control measures

Plant pest diagnostic advisory services by the Department of Agricultural Research (includes
advising farmers on Integrated Pest Management)

Recommending the use of specific pesticides supplied by ADMARC

Agencies that provide crop protection services in Malawi

Department of Agricultural Research

Page 91 of 143
 ADMARC

7. Provision of farm inputs

Aim

Encouraging farmers to use recommended inputs (e.g, stock feeds and fertilizers) and to ensure
that they are properly used

Main agencies for the provision of fertilizers in Malawi

Agora

The Agricultural Trading Company (ATC)

ADMARC

Norsk hydro

OPTCHEM

Farmers’ World

Main manufacturers and suppliers of stock feeds in Malawi

Rab processors

Grain and Milling Company

8. Soil testing

This service is concerned with knowing the availability of different plant nutrients in different
soils

Aim

To determine the correct type and amount of fertilizers to be applied for high crop production

Page 92 of 143
Agencies that provide soil testing services in Malawi

Agricultural Research Stations

Examples of Agricultural Research Stations include:

i. Bvumbwe Research Station in Thyolo

ii. Chitedze Research Station in Lilongwe

9. Agricultural credit to smallholder farmers

Credit is a source of capital

It promotes improved agricultural

production

Examples of service providers established by the Malawi government include:

Malawi Rural Finance Company (MRFC) located in every Agricultural Extension Planning Area
(EPA)

MRFC provide credit facilities:

Smallholder farmers who cultivate under customary land tenure and government agricultural
schemes

Small estate farmers owning less than 30 hectares

10. Farm management

This is a service that aims at assisting the smallholder farmers to improving production

This ensures

i. effective use of available resources

ii. appropriate combination of enterprises

iii. proper farm planning

Page 93 of 143
Service provider for farm management

Agriculture extension workers

11. Food and nutrition

Objectives

Helping smallholder farmers in ensuring food security through increased and diversified
production and decreased post-harvest losses

Establishing systems for assessing household food security and early predictions of shortfall areas

Monitoring the food and nutrition situation in Extension Planning Areas, Rural Development
Projects, Agricultural Development Divisions and at national level

Food and nutrition services are provided by:

A food and Nutrition Unit established by the Ministry of Agriculture

12. Extension and training

Aim

To offer technical information, advisory and support services to smallholder

farmers to enable them to increase production to meet their needs

Service provider

Extension Departments in each EPA

Examples of extension services in Malawi

Providing direction and technical agricultural advice and information to smallholder farmers

Providing training to farmers at Farm Training Centres to change attitudes, and improve
knowledge and skills

Strengthening links between researchers and farmers

Page 94 of 143
13. Marketing

Objectives

To ensure agricultural inputs available to the farmer at the right time

To ensure that the farmer is able to sell farm produce at the expected time and price

Examples of marketing agencies in Malawi

Marketing boards, e.g, ADMARC

Co-operatives

Processors

Itinerant traders

Wholesalers

Retailers

Commission agents and brokers

Page 95 of 143
TOPIC 9: BUDGETING
Definitions

A budget is a plan of expenditure and receipts of an enterprise.

Budgeting is a process of planning how income may be realised and expenditures may be incurred.

Farm budgeting refers to the process of farm planning in terms of receipts and expenditures of an
enterprise.

Types of budgets

Partial budgets

Complete budgets

1. Partial budget

Consider the following case study:

Mrs Maya grows beans on the whole of her five hectare land and is a trusted supplier of beans for
three boarding secondary schools in Mzimba district. She wants to expand her business by increasing
the number of hectares to eight to supply beans to all the five boarding secondary schools in the
district. But she doesn’t know if this will still be profitable.

Question: Explain what Mrs Maya would do before implementing the intended change in her
business?

Answer: Mrs Maya would first examine the total benefits/income and total costs/loss to determine
profitability of the enterprise if the proposed change is to be implemented (Critically analyse the
proposed change before implementation). Hence, needs to make a partial budget.

What is “Partial budgeting”?

Partial budgeting is a planning and decision making framework farm business owners can use to
compare the costs and benefits of alternatives they face.

Situations where partial budgeting is required:

Page 96 of 143
 Expanding the existing enterprise or make additions to existing enterprise (eg, the farmer may
want to increase the area for crops or increase the number of livestock for dairy, beef, broiler or egg
production)

Change one enterprise for another (this is referred to as substitution-can be part or whole)

Introduce a new enterprise (the farmer can introduce one enterprise without necessarily changing
other enterprises)

Buy new farm machinery or equipment

Adopt a change in method of production, eg, introducing the use of machine to shell groundnuts or
maize, instead of shelling by hand

In doing partial budgeting, only one alternative or change at time should be looked at. When more
than one alternative is to be examined, each alternative should be looked at separately before a
comparison can be made.

Analysis should base on how the decision will affect the profitability of the business enterprise and
the farm itself.

Why prepare a partial budget?

A quick method of investment analysis

Can show results of projected changes clearly

Isolates the impact of a change rather than considering all costs in the business

What should be included in a partial budget?

Contains only those income and expense items which change if the proposed alteration in the farm
plan is implemented. Those that remain the same are NOT included.

Partial budget answers the question, “what would happen if…?”

What are the components of a partial budget? There are two main parts of a partial budget. These
are “benefits or positives” and “costs or negatives”.

Page 97 of 143
 Benefits column comprises

(i) Additional returns (income) due to change

(ii) Reduced costs due to change

(iii) Total benefits (additional returns + reduced costs)

Costs column consists of

(i) Additional costs due to change

(ii) Reduced returns (income) due to change

(iii) Total costs (additional costs + reduced returns)

The last component of the partial budget is the Net change (Total benefits - Total costs).

When constructing a partial budget think of how “THE CHANGE” will affect each of the
following category:

Additional returns are those income that occur if the change takes place (added income)

Reduced costs are those expenses that are lower under the proposed change

Additional costs are those that are only incurred if the change is implemented (expenses that did not
exist before)

Reduced returns is that income that would no longer be received if the change is initiated (cut off
income)

Net change is the difference between positive and negative economic effects of taking the
proposed change

NOTE: The success of a partial budget depends on prediction accuracy, which depends on accuracy
of the information and estimates it contains. Therefore there is need to collect factual data about a
proposed change and provide reasonable estimates of such items as future prices, yields and gains.

What steps should someone follow when preparing a Partial Budget?

1. Define the reason for the change. This is the objective of the change.

Page 98 of 143
2. List the possible alternatives. This is a list of all alternatives available to obtain the desired
objective.

3. State the proposed change. Write descriptive statement of the proposed adjustment or change to be
made.

4. List the reduced costs. This is a list of discontinued or scaled down variable expense (feed,
supplies, hired labour, etc) and fixed expense (depreciation, interest and unpaid labour) if the change
results in eliminating or reducing the investment in machinery, equipment, buildings, breeding
livestock or land.

5. List the expected additional returns. List of farm income increase when a new enterprise is added,
when an enterprise is expanded or if the change causes production levels to increase.

6. List of additional costs. A new or expanded enterprise might require the purchase of additional or
new inputs as additional cash expense; and new machines, buildings, land, or livestock as additional
fixed costs. Depreciation and interest should be average annual values and classified as non-cash
costs.

7. List of reduced returns. If the proposed change eliminates an enterprise, reduces the size of an
enterprise, or causes a reduction in production levels. Compute the receipts that would be given up
when the proposed change is in effect.

8. Estimate change in net farm income. Subtracting total costs (negatives or disadvantages) from
total benefits (positives or advantages).

9. Calculate flow projection. If net farm income is positive, then it is advisable to do a cash flow
projection on the proposed change to see how the cash position on the farm is affected
yearly. Otherwise the proposed change is not economically viable.
10. List other considerations. These may include acquiring loan, labour, time lag between initial
start and full production, amount of risk for the enterprise and others.
11. Deciding whether to make a change. This is the decision making stage. The decision is based on
economic benefits out lined by the positive total net income for all alternatives of the enterprise.

Activity (in groups)

Use the information below to prepare a Partial Budget. Mr Phiri intends to reduce the acreage under
maize by one hectare to cater for the two extra cows. Each cow requires the purchase of a
replacement heifer each year at MK100000, while the cull price per cow isMK90000. Milk yield for
each cow is 3000kg per year,price of milk is MK200 per kg. Each cow gives birth toa calf worth
MK20000 every year. Veterinary service charge per cow is MK30000 per year, while the cost

Page 99 of 143
ofconcentrates
and minerals per cow is MK7200 per year. The seedbed preparation cost for maize production is
MK50000/ha. Planting and fertilizer cost MK10000/ha and MK90000/ha respectively. Pest control
cost forstalk borer is MK6000/ha, weeding cost is MK24000/ha, while the cost of harvesting maize
is MK24000/ha. Gunny bags for packing maize are purchased at MK300 each. Maize yield is 60
bags per ha, and the maize price is MK12500 per bag.

2. Complete budget
A complete budget is a plan that is done for the whole farm.
Situations for a complete budget
When proposed changes in the farm are major
When planning for a new farm

NOTE: A complete budget considers both variable and fixed inputs

Guidelines to follow when preparing a complete budget

1. Formulate goals and objectives
2. Take inventory of the farm.
Include all assets present in the farm
3. Plan for various resources, e.g,
How land is to be utilised
How labour is to be utilised

Page 100 of 143

 How capital is to be utilised
4. Estimate income and expenditure.
Use current costs and prices
5. Analyse the input to output relationship that may exist in the farm.
6. Draw alternative farm plans.
Choose one of the plans for adoption
7. Implement the chosen plan.
8. Evaluate the plan.
In the course of production
Determine the weakness
Improve on its weakness

Page 101 of 143

Break-Even budget Definition:
A break-even budget is the one that indicates the level of production (or price) at which the business
unit makes neither a PROFIT nor a LOSS.
It is where Total Revenue (TR) is equal to Total Costs (TC).
TR = TC
TR = Price per kg x quantity of produce
TC = Fixed Costs + Variable Costs (FC + VC)
Variable costs are those that change (vary) in proportion to the size of the enterprise, e.g., cost of
seed, fertilizer, pesticides and herbicides
Fixed costs are those that do not vary with the size of enterprise, e.g., depreciation (of farm
buildings and machinery), cost of permanent (regular)

Note: -This is the selling price for dry maize at which the farmer does not make profit or loss
-The farmer can only choose this option if the market price for dry maize is higher than MK750 per
bag

Page 102 of 143

TOPIC 10: LIVESTOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING
Definitions
Feeds are animal foods.

A feed is a mixture of several feedstuffs that will supply the required nutrients to animals.

Feedstuff is food material containing one or more nutrients.

Feeding is the act of giving feed to livestock.

Classes of feed
1. Roughages
Roughages are feedstuffs that have a high crude fibre content and low in protein.
Examples of roughages
Fresh grass or green fodder.
Silage.
Hay.

General characteristics of roughages

Have high crude fibre content (over 20%).

Are low in protein.

Are low in digestibility.

Types of roughages
(i) Succulent roughages
They are bulky, with a high mass matter per unit.

They have high moisture content (20%-50%) with low dry matter content.

They have reasonably high crude fibre content.

They are rich in carbohydrates and low protein.

They contain carotene, which is rich in vitamin A.

Their nutritional value is determined by the type of forage and stage of maturity at the time of feeding.

Ruminants are the ones that have the best potential to digest roughages.

Page 103 of 143

Type of succulent roughages
i. Young pasture grass, e.g., kikuyu grass, star grass.
ii. Fodder crops- these are forages that are harvested and fed to livestock or preserved as silage or hay, e.g.,
Napier grass, maize stalk, Guatemala grass, sorghum and Sudan grass.
iii. Pasture legumes- these are rich in proteins and minerals, e.g., Lucerne, Desmodium spp, Glycine spp.
iv. Browsing trees and shrubs, e.g., Acacia
mainly found in semi-arid.
good feeds for sheep and goats
v. brassica vegetables (cabbages, kale)
Kale is rich in vitamins and minerals.

Other examples of succulent roughages

sweet potatoes vines.
turnips.
groundnut haulms.
Russian comfrey.

(ii) Dry succulent roughages

Contain very little moisture (less than 20%).

They have low energy value.

They are low in feed value.

They are very fibrous.

They are good for bulkiness.

Examples of dry roughages
Straws and stovers.

Sources of dry roughages

Grasses.
Legumes.
Other crop residues.

2. Concentrates
These are feeds whose dry matter is high in carbohydrates and proteins.

They are low in crude fibre and moisture.

Page 104 of 143
 They are main diet of non-ruminant animals.

They supplement grazing in ruminants.

Types of concentrates
a) Carbohydrate concentrates
They are rich in energy.

Examples of carbohydrate concentrates

Cereal grains, e.g., maize, wheat, oats, barley and sorghum.
Processed cereals, e.g., wheat bran, maize bran and barley bran

they are rich in phosphorus but low in calcium.

Molasses.
Brewer’s by-products, e.g., dregs.

b) Protein concentrates
They high protein content in their dry matter.

Examples of protein concentrates

Legumes and oil seeds, e.g., sunflower, beans, peas or cowpeas.
Legumes and oil seed cakes (meals)

-sources are palm oil, sunflower, coconut, groundnuts and cotton.

Non-protein nitrogen source, e.g., urea

-an important protein feed for non- ruminants.

Animal by-products, e.g., bone meal, meat meal, blood meal, fish meal, liver meal, etc.
-they are high digestible.
-they are rich in proteins.
-they are highly palatable.
Whole milk and milk products (including whey and skim milk)
-they are balanced feed for livestock.
Otherlivestock feeds
Mineral and vitamin supplements, e.g., mineral lick (e.g., Macklic salt).

Feed additives, e.g., coccidiostats, stilboestrol

Page 105 of 143

-coccidiostats is used against coccidiosis.
-stilboestrol is used in beef animals to increase meat and muscle.
NOTE:
Feed additives are hormones and antibiotics incorporated in commercial feed.
Feed additives are NOT livestock feeds.

Functions of feed additives

to promote growth.

to promote disease resistance.

to improve feeding efficiency in livestock

Page 106 of 143

Page 107 of 143
Page 108 of 143
Importance of feeding livestock
For maintenance of their bodies
to avoid loss of condition or becoming thin
For reproduction
To produce young ones or off-spring
For production of meat, milk, eggs or wool

For the health of the animals

Vitamins and minerals protect them from diseases

Feed rations
Feed ration is the amount of feed given to livestock at a given time.

Livestock need to be well-fed with balanced rations to grow well and produce.

A balanced ration is an amount of feed that contains all the nutrients needed by the livestock and in the
right proportions.

The ration is calculated according to the amount of feed that the livestock needs per day.

Types of rations
1. Maintenance ration
A maintenance ration is an amount of feed that the livestock needs per day to maintain its bodily
processes, without gaining or losing weight.

Maintenance ration is particularly important for

Young growing livestock.
Livestock in gestation.

2. Production ration
A production ration is an amount of feed that contains all the essential nutrients and in the right
proportions given to livestock over and above the maintenance ration.

Production ration is essential for livestock to produce, e.g.,

Layers to produce eggs.
Broilers or beef cattle and meat goats to produce meat.
Dairy cattle and goats to produce milk.

Formulating feed rations

A well-known method for formulating feed rations is the use of the Pearson’s Square.
Page 109 of 143
Steps to be followed in a Pearson’s Square
1. Draw a square and put the desired percentage protein content of the mixture feed in the centre.
2. Place the percentage of each feed to be mixed at the left corners
3. Subtract the figures diagonally across the square. Remember to subtract the smaller
numbers from the bigger ones. Disregard the negative signs.
4. Place the numbers obtained on the right corners, giving the required parts of each feedstuff.

Example:
Question:
Using a Pearson’s Square, formulate a 20% protein feed using maize meal containing 12% crude protein
and bean meal containing 36% crude protein.

Meaning:
When making a mixture, measure 16 parts of maize meal and 8 parts of bean meal. The implication is that
a 50kg
mixture will have:16/24 x 50kg = 33.3 kg maize meal and 8/24
x 50kg = 16.7 kg bean meal

Page 110 of 143

Factors to consider when feeding livestock
Age of the animal
Young animals require less feed than older animals.
Young animals require feed that is richer in protein than older animals
Size of the animal.
The larger the animal, the greater the amount of feed required
The type of animal.
Ruminants can digest roughages while most non-ruminants cannot.
Exotic breeds require good quality feed to produce high yield.
The purpose for which the livestock are kept.
Draught animals require high-energy feed.

Animals that produce milk, meat and eggs need concentrates.

The condition of the animal.

Livestock should not starve.
Also, feed should not be wasted.
The quality of the feed.
The feed should be easy to ingest and digest.
Palatability of the feed.
Feed should be appetising to animals.
Digestibility.
Digestibility is the degree to which the animal is able to digest the feed.
It depends on the type of animal.
The amount of feed.
Although animals are advised to be fed on ad lib, they should just eat enough of the feed.

The amount of feed depends on its quality and type.

Texture of feed.
Texture of feed refers to the coarseness or fineness of the feed.
Chickens, for example, prefer coarse feed.
Cost of the feed.
It determines the number of each livestock type to be kept.
Animals should be given the right feed at the right period of production to avoid waste of
resources.
 This determines profitability of the business.
Ad lib means that livestock should eat when, and as much as, they like.

SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

Importance of sheep and goats
Both provide meat, i.e., goat meat and mutton/ lamb (meat from sheep). Lamb is meat from
young lambs up to nine months old.

Both provide skins.

Sheep provide wool.

Goats provide milk. Goat milk is easily digestible and suitable for babies and children.

Both a source of prestige.

Both are a source of income.

Both provide valuable manure for vegetable and field crop production.

Goats, e.g., Angora, provide mohair.

Types and breeds of sheep and goats

Page 112 of 143

Characteristics of local sheep and goats
They are small.

They grow slowly.

Their yield is low.

NOTE: The yields of local sheep and goats can be improved by cross-breeding them with
exotic breeds

Page 113 of 143

Page 114 of 143
Sheep
Criteria for selecting a breed of sheep
The primary use or product. Mutton sheep

Should have good mothering ability of ewes.

Should be fast growing and mature.

Should have a blocky or rectangular body shape.

Should have a good body weight.

Should have a good body weight.

Should produce good quality mutton.

Adaptation to climatic and local environment.

Efficiency in converting feed

Good mothering ability

Page 115 of 143

The management of sheep
The following are the four activities involved in livestock management.
Breeding

Housing.

Feeding.

Disease and parasite control.

Breeding sheep
This is where the farmer makes a decision on the type of sheep to keep.
Methods of improving breeds of sheep
i. Selection method

Guidelines
Select the ewe (young female sheep) and rams (male sheep) from mothers that have reared
healthy lambs.

Select lambs that gave birth to the best lambs during the previous years.
Sheep
Criteria for selecting a breed of sheep
The primary use or product. Mutton sheep

Should have good mothering ability of ewes.

Should be fast growing and mature.

Should have a blocky or rectangular body shape.

Should have a good body weight.

Page 116 of 143

 Should produce good quality mutton.

Adaptation to climatic and local environment.

Efficiency in converting feed

Good mothering ability

The management of sheep

The following are the four activities involved in livestock management.
Breeding

Housing.

Feeding.

Disease and parasite control.

Breeding sheep
This is where the farmer makes a decision on the type of sheep to keep.
Methods of improving breeds of sheep
i. Selection method

Guidelines
Select the ewe (young female sheep) and rams (male sheep) from mothers that have reared
healthy lambs.

ii. Cross-breeding
This is where local sheep are allowed to mate with exotic breeds. This depends on the use of
the sheep to be kept.
Age for breeding sheep
The recommended age to serve (mate) ewes is when they are two years old. Nevertheless,
they can be initially be served at the age of 18 months.

Page 117 of 143

 Ram lambs can be used for breeding at the age of about 8 months.

Rams are allowed to moved together with ewes only during mating times. This is to avoid
in-breeding.

The recommended ratio of ram to ewes is 1:10-20. However, one ram can service up to 60
ewes.

NOTE:
Ewes that are not required for breeding should be fattened and sold for meat while ram lambs
should be castrated.
Castration
This is the act of removing the testicles of a male animal.

Reasons for castration

Castrated animals fatten up quickly and produce quality meat.

Castration prevents the animals from mating and passing on less desirable characteristics

Castration makes the animals move docile, and, therefore easier to handle

Methods of castration

1. Using a burdizzo.
• It crushes the spermatic chords above the testicles.
• This prevents the testicles from developing.
Page 118 of 143
 • It is done when the animals are about 2 to 3 months old.
2. Using a sharp knife
• It cuts the scrotum or sac containing testicles open.
• He testicles are then removed.
• The cut is then treated with a disinfectant to prevent infection.
3. Using a strong rubber band or elastor
• It is placed on the scrotum and above the testicles.
• It cuts off the blood supply to the testicles.
• The scrotum and testicles drop off after few weeks.
• This method is used when the animals are up to one week old.

Time for breeding sheep

• It is important to time breeding so that lambing takes place when there is plenty of
green grass.
• In Malawi ewes should be mated sometime in November, so that lambing is in
April or early May.
• Farmers should therefore follow the oestrus cycle of their sheep.
Oestrus cycle in sheep
• Oestrus refers to the occurring period of sexual receptivity in female mammals.
• Oestrus is also called heat.
• The onset of oestrus is a sign of maturity and the ability to reproduce.
• In ewes, the first oestrus can occur at about six to ten months of age.
• Oestrus cycle is the period between consecutive oestrus.
• The oestrus cycle in sheep is between fifteen and nineteen days.
• Oestrus cycle lasts for 18 to 24 hours.
Flushing in sheep
• Flushing is when ewes are given someconcentrates two weeks before they are mated.
Reasons for flushing
• To improve health of the ewes.
• To improve fertility of the ewes.
Gestation period in sheep
• The gestation period in sheep lasts for five months (150 days)

Page 119 of 143

 • To ensure that they are in good health and of successful lambing, at this stage ewes
should be:
✓ Regularly dosed or drenched against internal parasites
✓ Vaccinated against diseases
✓ Given quality pasture, silage or hay
✓ Given some concentrates one to two months before lambing (steaming up)

Lambing
Lambing refers to giving birth of an offspring in sheep
Signs for lambing
• Ewes tend to be restless
• Ewes tend to leave the rest of the flock and search for a quieter place
• The vulva of the ewe becomes red
• There is frequent bleating
NOTE:
✓ At this time the ewe should be moved to a lambing paddock or pen
✓ Ewes rarely need help during parturition (giving birth) normal birth is head
and fore legs in front
✓ Breech birth is the case of abnormal birth
✓ In case of breech birth, the ewe will needto be assisted
✓ As soon as the lambs are born, they should be assisted to suckle their mothers

Caring for lambs

Page 120 of 143

Lambs should be allowed to suckle up to the age of six months
• Supplementary feeds should be given to the lambs as soon as the yield of milk has
started to decline (this is applicable even before the age of six years)
• Vaccinate and drench the lambs against diseases and parasites
• Castrate the lambs after one or two months.
• Castrated lambs should be fattened and slaughtered after six months
• Docking and trimming should be done before the lamb is too old
• Docking is done about 5 cm from the body
✓ Docking means cutting of the tails
✓ Trimming is the cutting back overgrowing hooves using clippers

Reasons for docking and trimming

• Docking lambs prevents dirt and dung from collecting under the tail, which could
otherwise be a source of infections
• Docking lambs helps in parasite control
• Docking helps to improve the quality of the carcass in fat-tailed sheep
• Docking helps the animals to mate easily
• Trimming helps to prevent the lambs from lameness
Housing sheep
• Houses for sheep vary depending on the type of management system being followed,
i.e.,
• A simple pole and thatch house for extensive system
• An elaborate house for intensive system
Characteristics of a good house for sheep
• It must be strongly built because sheep are prone to predators
• It must be spacious
• It must be well-ventilated and well-lit
• It must be dry and warm
• It must be easy to clean
• It must be easy and cheap to construct
• It should be properly thatched
• It should have feed or water troughs

Page 121 of 143

 Feeding sheep
• Ewes must be put on flushing (given some concentrates two weeks before mating),
e.g., maize meal, madeya, bean or pea meal
o -flushing helps to induce the heat period
o -flushing ensures that the ewe’s bodies are ready to conceive
• Ewes need steaming up (putting ewes onto good nutritious grass or pasture about two
months before lambing)
o steaming up allows the embryo to develop properly in the womb
• Fattening lambs should be given high-energy concentrates
• Lambs should suckle their mothers’ milk during the first three weeks or so
o this milk is innutritious
o the milk contains antibodies which protect the lambs from diseases
• Lambs should be helped to learn to eat grass after three weeks.

Disease and parasite control for sheep

Disease Causal organism Signs and symptoms Treatment/control

Foot and Virus • blisters/sores in the mouth and on vaccination every six
the feet months and restricting
mouth
• animals become lame and cannot movement
walk long distances
(quarantine)
• become weak and lose weight since
they cannot eat

• high fever

• salivation and lameness

Anthrax Bacterium • high fever • treat with

antibiotics, e.g.,
• bowel inflammation
penicillin during
• sudden death early stages

Page 122 of 143

 • destroy and bury
any animal which
dies suddenly

Brucellosis Bacterium • abortion- after 6 months of • isolate and cull

(contagious pregnancy sick animals
abortion)
• scrotum and testes become enlarged • slaughter
and painful in rams and burn

• high fever infected animals

• vaccination

Heart water Protozoa parasite • rise in body temperature • Treating the

(transmitted by animal with
• muscle twitching
ticks) sulphonamides or
• animal walks in circles or bangs tetracycline early
against objects
• Controlling ticks
• animal paddles its legs before dying prevents spread of
the disease

Tuberculosis Bacteria • Loss of body weight • Treat with

antibiotics
• Persistent coughing
• Cull diseased
animals

Lump skin Virus • Loss of appetite Vaccination

• Rise in body temperature

• Salivation and clear discharge from

the nose

• Lumps in the skin

Page 123 of 143

Sheep pox Virus • High fever Vaccination

• Diarrhoea

• Small red pimples around mouth

and under

tai

• Blotched skin

Pulpy Bacterium Sudden death Treat with anti-

kidney Softening of the kidney biotics early

Vaccination

Page 124 of 143

Lamb Bacterium Sudden death Vaccinate ewes
dysentery Diarrhoea during the last month
Fever of pregnancy

Black Bacterium Loss of appetite Vaccinate the animal

quarter Rise of body temperature regularly
Lameness Restrict movement
Swelling of shoulder or hips (quarantine)

Safe disposal of dead

animals (carcasses)
Rinderpest Virus Lesions in the vulva, vagina and mouth Vaccination
Discharge from eyes and nose
Severe diarrhoea resulting in
dehydration and eventual death Rise
in body temperature
Dry coat

Pneumonia Bacterium fever nasal isolate sick animals

discharge keeping house warm
loss o appetite treat with anti-
coughing biotics, e.g.,
tetracycline
Mastitis Bacterium swollen udder treat with anti-biotics

Bloat Giving animal distended stomach due to accumulation piercing through the
large quantities of off gases in the rumen difficult breathing stomach with a
forage, e.g., profuse salivation clean knife for gas
cabbage leaves animals tend to lie down and have to escape physical
and grass difficulties in rising exercises help to
death may occur within hours if not mix up the contents
attended to quickly in the stomach and
allows the gases to
escape

Page 125 of 143

Milk fever Nutritional the animal staggers and fails to stand suitable vaccination
disorder due to paralysis 2- 3 days before
low calcium level twitching of the muscles lambing provide feed
in the blood rich in calcium
especially
during gestation
period

Parasites of sheep
Type of Parasite Damage caused/signs Control measures
parasite
External Ticks • carry tick-borne diseases • dipping or spraying
(heartwater disease) • hand-dressing
• suck blood • rotational grazing
• skin, ear, tail and udder are • burning infected
attacked pasture
Blowfly • lays eggs on lining sheep • dipping or spraying
• maggots barrow into tissues • remove any decomposing
• maggots cause irritation, remains of animals and
resulting in continuous keep the surrounding
wagging of tail clean
• maggots are found in moist,
soft body parts, e.g., between
the hind limb
• attack any open wound
Tsetsefly • suck blood on the body • dipping
• causes body pains • spraying the bush with
insecticides
• trapping the flies in
heavily infected areas
Mites cause sheep scab dipping
pierce the skin and suck fluid

Page 126 of 143

 Sheep lice cause skin dipping
irritation
restless loss
of weight
Roundworms cause digestive disorders, deworming or
Internal diarrhoea, constipation, drenching with
anaemia pot belly albendazole
keep the pasture clean

Tapeworms cause deworming/drenching

diarrhoea pot rotational grazing
belly
Wireworms cause blood loss, resulting in deworming/drenching
anaemia results into bottle jaw
(an accumulation of fluid under
the sheep’s jaw)
Liver flukes damage the killing intermediate
liver host snails with
anaemia copper sulphate
swollen deworming/drenching
abdomen
weight loss

The management of goats

Criteria for selecting an appropriate breed of goat
✓ Select the Billy (male goat) and nanny) from mothers that have reared healthy
kids.
✓ Select kids that gave birth to the best kids during the previous years.
Other factors to consider
• Purpose of keeping the goats
• Goats kept meat production should:
✓ Grow fast and mature early

Page 127 of 143

 ✓ Be from nannies with good mothering abilities
✓ Have a good body shape (blocky or rectangular)
• Milk goats should have large-well developed udders
• Suitability of breed to local and economic environment
o Billies and nannies must be suited to climatic and local conditions of the area,
e.g., Malawi goat is hardy and disease resistant
• Personal preference
o based on opinions, Malawians consider the local goat meat to be tender and
tasty and its milk easy to digest
Breeding goats
Age for breeding goats
• Does or nannies are generally served at the age of 15 to 18 months -so that they can
give birth at two years of age
• It is recommended that billies be used when they are two years old
o however, billies can be used when they are nine months old
• The recommended ratio of billy to nannies is 1:25-30
o however, one billy can serve up to 60 does
• The rest of billies should be castrated
The oestrus cycle for goats
• The length of the oestrus cycle in goats is 18 to 21 days
• The oestrus lasts for one to three days
o This is the period when the doe or nanny is served
Signs of oestrus (heat) in goats
• The does or nannies frequently wags or twitches her tail
• The doe shows signs of excitement
• The nanny sometimes mounts other nannies
• The vulva becomes red and thick
• Mucous is discharged from the vulva.

❖ The best time to mate the goats is five months before the rain starts so that the goats
kid when there is plenty of grass

Page 128 of 143

Gestation period in goats
• The gestation period in goats is about 150 days
o Nannies can give birth twice in a year
o three kiddings in two years is common
• Similar to sheep, goats need flushing and steaming up
o steaming up is done one month before kidding
o examples of concentrates for steaming up include crushed maize, maize bran
or madeya and groundnut cake, if available
Kidding
Kidding is the process of giving birth to young ones in goats
Signs for kidding
• The udder swells
• The animal is restless and nervous
• The animal bleats
• There is discharge from the vulva
•  Once these signs have been observed, the nanny must be isolated in a quiet place
o Normal birth takes a few hours without difficulties
o In case of multiple kids or breech birth, a veterinary officer or
experienced goat farmer should assist the animal
Caring for kids
• The nanny usually licks the mucous from the kid and clean it once the kid is born
• The kid must suckle the mother for at least three to four days to get colostrum
• Colostrum is the first yellow milk and it is rich in:
o Vitamins
o Proteins
o Antibodies
• If goats are reared for meat, kids are left with nannies until they are weaned, from
three to six months
• If goats are reared for milk production, kids are removed from nannies after three
months and then fed milk from a bottle or bucket
• Observe hygiene rules when feeding kids from bottle or bucket, i.e., wash the bottle or
bucket in warm water thoroughly to avoid infection and diarrhoea

Page 129 of 143

 • Milk should be warm or at body temperature when it is fed to the kids
• The kids are introduced to some pasture and feed supplements about three weeks after
birth
o to help them develop their digestive systems
• Kids are weaned at between three and six months of age
Housing goats
• The type of house for goats depends on the type of management system the farmer
uses
Systems of management in goats
• Extensive system
• Semi-intensive system
• Intensive system
Types of housing for goats

Type of goat Description

house
Local khola or Made of either wooden poles and mud or mud on the wooden frame or air-dried
Round kholas bricks
Rectangular Made of wooden poles, mud or
kholas air dried bricks
Stilted kholas • Made of timber and nails.
• Sides are covered with mats to protect animals from draughts
• Expensive to construct
• Maintenance is costly
Brick kholas • Made from baked bricks
• Expensive because they require a lot of firewood

Reasons for housing goats

• To protect goats from rain

• To protect goats from draught
• To protect goats from heat

Page 130 of 143

Characteristics of a good goat house
• It should be properly sited (on a high ground)
• It is cheap to construct
• It is strongly built
• It is roomy
o It has a floor space of about 1.0m2 per animal
• It is well lit
• It is well ventilated, draught-free and dry
• It has a hard floor made up of concrete or hardened/rammed earth or clay
• It has a well-thatched roof
• It is well-drained and easy to clean
o Similar to sheep, extensive system uses a simple pole-and-thatch house
o Under intensive system, goats may be kept in a shed and fed in
paddocks
o Kids and nannies usually have separate pens
Feeding goats
• Goats feed on a variety of feed stuffs, e.g., pastures, herbs and shrubs, and crop refuse
• Goats are more browsers than grazers
o They like eating tree leaves, barks, shoots and twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs
• Goats need supplementary feed in the form of concentrates, e.g.,
• Energy concentrates
• (ii) Protein concentrates
• Goats should be given plenty fresh, clean water
o They do not eat soiled feed or drink dirty water
Methods of feeding goats
(i) Browsing: Feeding on leaves of trees and/or tender twigs of shrubs

Page 131 of 143

(ii) Grazing: Feeding on grass and feed stuffs that are neither trees nor shrubs

(iii) Tethering: Feeding the animal where it is allowed to graze in a restricted area.
✓ The animal is tied to a rope/string
Ways of tethering:
a. Picket tether: An animal is tied to a peg
b. Running tether: An animal is tied to a long wire or rod.

Disease and parasite control in goats

• Goats are quiet hardy and resistant to diseases
• However, goats act as carriers of internal and external parasites for other animals
• Goats need to be dipped or dusted and drenched to control external and internal
parasites
• Rotational grazing helps to reduce worm infestation in goats
• In general, good nutrition and management tend to increase resistance to diseases in
goats and other animals.

Page 132 of 143

 Diseases of goats

Disease Causal Symptoms Treatment/control

organism
Diarrhoea Bacterium • High fever • Treat with drugs, e.g., tetracycline
• Watery foul smelling • Separate kids from old stock
yellow faeces • Clean kholas
Pneumonia Bacterium or • Fever • Treat with anti-biotics, e.g.,
virus • Cough and rapid tetracycline
breathing • Avoid overcrowding in khola
• Ensure proper khola ventilation
• Separate kids from adults
• Close open sides of the shelter
with sacks to avoid cold draughts
coming in
Pink eye Bacterium Eyes become red Treat with antibiotic eye-powder
and swollen or ointment
Contagious Bacterium • Still birth • Vaccination
abortion or • Abortions • Culling infected animals
brucellosis • Retained placenta • Dispose of the aborted foetus
Mastitis Bacterium • Udder becomes • Inject anti-biotics, e.g., tetracycline
swollen and hot • Strip out as much as possible
• Watery milk with blood • Clean teats with disinfectant
clots • Practise cleanliness when milking
• Fever (if severe) • Clean and disinfect milking
utensils
Heartwater Rickettsia • Fever • Control ticks by dipping
transmitted • Convulsions • Treat with anti-biotics, e.g.,
by bont tick • Uncontrolled animal tetracycline
movement
• Eventual death

Page 133 of 143

Bloat Overfeeding • Swelling of rumen • Administer 3 to 444 cups of
the animal due to accumulation of cooking oil for adult and about 2 cups
with young, gases for a kid that has just be weaned
green or wet • Distress and difficult • Stop feeding the animal
forage, or breathing • Pierce the stomach with a sharp
maize meal knife to release gases
• Facilitate exercise by walking the
animals around

Page 134 of 143

TOPIC 11: AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVES
• An agricultural cooperative is a group of farmers who have come together on
voluntary basis for the purpose of achieving a common goal for mutual economic
benefit.
• Thus, members of an agricultural cooperative
✓ Share common interests.
✓ Are willing to pool their resources together.
Reasons for making farmers’ cooperatives
• To facilitate agricultural production
• To facilitate marketing functions.

Importance of agricultural cooperatives

• Carry out all marketing functions on behalf of the farmers.
• Provide short-term credit facilities to their members. These are in terms of inputs or
cash loans payable by the end of the production period.
• Negotiate for fair prices for both input purchase and sale of farmers produce.
• Distribute farm inputs to their members.
• Provide extension services and machinery hire services to their members.
• Advise their members on new and better methods of production.
• Keep records on all activities of the co-operative and inform the members accordingly
during annual general meetings.
• Pay dividends to their members.
• Some provide banking services to their members.
• Some invest money on behalf of their farmers.
• Easy for farmers to secure or obtain loans from commercial banks
Type of agricultural cooperatives
1. Farm production cooperatives
• These deal mainly with the actual production of particular crops or livestock keeping.
• Members usually on the farm as a group.
• The main objective is to exploit the economics of scale through large-scale
production.
2. Marketing cooperatives

Page 135 of 143

 • These undertake the responsibilities of collection, processing and selling farm
produce, e.g., National Smallholder Farmers Association of Malawi (NASFAM).
3. Consumer cooperatives
• These deal primarily with farm inputs.
• They buy inputs in bulk and then sell to members at subsidised prices.
• They may also offer marketing services to their members.
4. Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCO)
• These encourage their members to save their earnings and later provide them with
loan facilities.
Structure of cooperatives movement
There is a hierarchy of cooperatives movement from local to international level.
a) Primary cooperatives
• These are formed by individuals who join the co-operative on individual capacity.
• They are usually referred to as co-operative societies.
b) Secondary cooperatives
• These are formed by individual cooperative societies, e.g., District Farmers’ Co-
operative Unions.
c) National cooperatives
• They are formed by individual cooperative unions found countrywide.
d) International cooperatives
• They are formed by national cooperatives of various individual countries.
• They are normally trade blocs dealing with particular products.
Formation of cooperatives
The legal procedure for forming and registering a cooperative is as follows:
a. Minimum number of eligible persons is ten.
b. Elect an interim committee.
c. Draft the co-operatives rules and by-laws (cooperative constitution).
d. Articulate the objectives of the cooperative.
e. Suggest a name for the cooperative.
f. Apply for registration to relevant agriculture authorities.

NOTE: A cooperative society is basically made up of:

• Members who pay a membership fee.
Page 136 of 143
 • Committee: elected members to run the cooperative.
• Executive staff: employees who implement decisions of the committee.
Principles for formation of cooperatives
• Open membership: There is free entry and exit.
• Run on democratic principles: One member one vote.
• Does not allow voting by proxy.
• There is a share limit that cannot be exceeded.
• Have a non-profit motive.
• Members should remain loyal.
• Members sell their produce through the co-operative.
• Neutrality in religion and politics.
• Should continuously educate its members.
• Should join from local to national level.
Challenges in running agricultural cooperatives
• Inadequate financial capital
• Lack of infrastructure, equipment, transport
• Poor leadership and management
• Lack of equity and equality among members
• Lack of social responsibility and self-help spirit
• Lack of motivation and expertise among managers and staff
• Limited experience and knowledge
Possible solutions to challenges faced by agricultural cooperatives
• Raising enough funds through membership fees and getting loans from banks
• Constructing necessary infrastructure and purchasing equipment and vehicle
• Choosing reliable, honest, trustworthy and transparent leaders
• Proper supervision of the employed managers and other staff
• Employing staff with skills and expertise in accounting, book-keeping and business
management
• Cultivating and encouraging the spirit of self-help and social responsibility among
members
• Training members, board members and management teams on cooperative
management, principles, values, business management and planning
Page 137 of 143
 • Ensuring that there is equal employment and participation among male and female
members
Factors that make agricultural cooperatives successful
• The staff and committee members running and controlling the organisation have the
necessary expertise and are trustworthy and motivated
• The cooperative has enough capital/funds
• The cooperative is efficiently and effectively organised
• The organisation should have adequate infrastructure (staff houses, offices, storage
facilities), personal transport, equipment and supplies
• Members of the cooperative receive on-going and relevant training to improve their
productivity and marketing skills.

Page 138 of 143

TOPIC 12: ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES FOR DECISION MAKING IN
AGRICULTURE
• Farmers need to make decisions in order to resolve agricultural problems.
• In order to come up with suitable decisions, farmers apply specific economic theories.
Economic theories for decision making in agriculture
A. Opportunity cost
• Opportunity cost is the next best alternative that has been forgone or the value of the
best alternative action that is given up (what you would have done or got if you had
not made the choice that you did.
• This is the return that is given up.
• It is not always a number or a monetary figure.
Example A farmer is growing two hectares of tobacco and one hectare of maize. Due to
falling price in a particular year, the farmer wants to increase maize production by one
hectare and reduce the hectares of tobacco by the same amount.

QUESTION: What is the opportunity cost in this case?

ANSWER: It is the income from the yield that would have been obtained from the one
hectare of tobacco that has been given up.

Alternative definitions of opportunity cost

The alternative surrendered

value of the choice missed
The next option that skipped
benefit chance was forgone
The possibility given up
worth of the selection left out
The second activity sacrificed
yield enterprise passed by

Determination of opportunity cost

Think of the answers to the following questions:

Page 139 of 143

 1. What alternative opportunities are there?
 The farmer has to make a list of different possible opportunities available to him.
2. What is the best of these alternative opportunities?
 The farmer has to draw a priority list or scale of preference
3. What benefit would I get if I select the next-best opportunity instead of the choice
I am setting on?
 The answer to the third question is the opportunity cost of the choice
Importance of the theory of opportunity cost in decision making
a) Evaluating options
✓ The principle of opportunity cost encourages the farmer to seriously consider
or examine alternative activities in order to judge their value, quality or
importance
b) Choosing wisely
✓ The farmer prepares a priority list which guides him/her to make a rational
choice on the best activity
c) Efficient use of scarce resources
✓ Whatever resources the farmer has should be used well
d) Maximising satisfaction
✓ Economic decision making requires the selection of the alternative that can
give the maximum benefit
Principle of comparative advantage
• This principle states that farmers, districts, regions or countries should concentrates
on products in which they have greater relative advantage compared to others
• It brings about specialisation
• Relative advantage is based on favourable:
o soils
o climate
o expertise
o nearness to a market
• For example, One Village One Product programme.

Principle of substitution of inputs Substitution means replacement.

Page 140 of 143

 • Substitution of inputs means replacement of a resource, e.g., inorganic fertilizers with
organic manure in maize production.
• Substitution of inputs depends on increasing prices of the inputs the farmer might use.
o The economic principle of substitution of inputs states that it is beneficial for a
farmer to substitute an input, resource, technology for another if it :
• Reduces costs (is cheaper), but produces the same level of yield or
• Has the same cost, but increases yield
o Examples include,
▪ Weeding by hoeing out the weeds or spraying herbicides
▪ Feeding layers on a commercial ration or a home mix
Importance of the principle of substitution of inputs
• It guides the farmer in choosing the cheaper or more profitable input, resource or
technology of production
• It helps the farmer to answer the farm management question on how to produce.
Principle of diminishing marginal returns
• Diminishing means decreasing
• The term marginal return refers to the additional output resulting from the use of an
additional unit of input (assuming all factors are held constant).
As equal when other production rises, incremental produce decreases
increments of one resources are held but a point is product lessens
input are used constant reached beyond
when other factors which the resulting additional returns shrinks
As equal quantities remain fixed output declines
of an input are when other inputs extra yield dwindles
added are unchanged harvest shrivels

Stages of the law of diminishing marginal returns

Amount of seed (kg/ha) Marginal yield (kg/ha) Stage of marginal returns

0 0 Increasing marginal returns
1 11
2 20

Page 141 of 143

 3 22 Diminishing marginal
4 19 returns
5 13
6 7 Negative marginal returns
7 -1
8 -8

Stage of increasing marginal returns

• The addition in input causes the marginal output to rise
• There is availability of other productive resources held constant but relatively
abundant for the amount of seed used
1. Stage of diminishing marginal returns
o The additional input causes the marginal output to lessen (but still positive)
o The plant population is becoming greater and greater
o The competition between plants for fixed resources becomes higher and higher
2. Stage of negative returns
o The additional input (seed) becomes too excessive (too much) compared to the
fixed resources
o This causes the marginal output to negative (less than zero)the plant
population becomes too much for the available fixed resources
o Leading to severe competition for soil nutrients, water, space, oxygen and light
o Plants develop deficiency diseases, shade one another or even suffocate
▪ Due to poor air circulation or insufficient oxygen

Page 142 of 143

 o The optimum for the farmer to stop increasing the input is where the marginal
return reaches zero
▪ Each quantity of additional input brings an extra return up to this point
Importance of the principle of diminishing marginal returns in decision making
• It helps the farmer to understand the relationship between level of input and level of
production
• It helps the farmer to identify the point (stage) when diminishing returns set-in
• It helps the farmer to deal with increasing marginal costs that would otherwise arise
from increasing levels of inputs
• It helps the farmer to avoid waste of farming resources
• It helps the farmer to understand that there is a point or stage where benefits of doing
something will slowly decrease
• It helps the farmer to understand that spending and investing more and more in a
product where other factors remain the same mean that the returns will eventually
begin to diminish in the long run.

Page 143 of 143