REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Introduction to refrigeration
Refrigeration: Refrigeration is defined as the process of extracting heat from a lower
temperature heat source, substance, or cooling medium and transferring it to a higher
temperature heat sink. A refrigeration system is a combination of components and equipment
connected in a sequential order to produce the refrigeration effect.
Refrigeration may also be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature
below that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to the required
temperature.

Necessity and Applications of refrigeration:

o Food processing, preservation and distribution
o Chemical and process industries
o Special Applications such as cold treatment of metals, medical, construction, ice skating
etc.
o Comfort air-conditioning
Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables
Dairy Products
Meat and poultry
Beverages
Candy
Chemical & process industries
Separation of gases
Condensation of Gases
Dehumidification of Air
Storage as liquid at low pressure:
Removal of Heat of Reaction
Cooling for preservation
Industrial applications
Laboratories
Printing
Manufacture of Precision Parts
Textile Industry
Pharmaceutical Industries
Photographic Material
Farm Animals
Vehicular Air-conditioning

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION AND COP

The standard unit of refrigeration is ton of refrigeration or simply ton denoted by TR. It is
defined as the amount of refrigeration effect produced by the uniform melting of one tonne
(1000 kg) of ice from and at 0ºC in 24 hours.
Since latent heat of ice is 335kJ/kg, therefore one tone of refrigeration,
1 TR= 1000335 kJ in 24 hours.

=
In actual practice one tone of refrigeration is taken as equivalent to 210kJ/min or 3.5kW (i.e
3.5kJ/s).
Refrigeration effect is an important term in refrigeration that defines the amount of cooling
produced by a system. This cooling is obtained at the expense of some form of energy.
Therefore, it is customary to define a term called coefficient of performance (COP) as the
ratio of the refrigeration effect to energy input.

While calculating COP, both refrigeration effect and energy input should be in the same unit.

Fundamentals of Mechanical Refrigeration

Systems Introduction

Mechanical refrigeration is a thermodynamic process of removing heat from a

lower temperature heat source or substance and transferring it to a higher
temperature heat sink. This is against the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which
states that heat will not pass from a cold region to a warm one.

According to Clausius Statement of the Second Law of thermodynamics “It is

impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-
temperature body”. Therefore, in order to accomplish the transfer of heat from low
temperature region to high temperature region an “external agent” or energy input
is required and you need a device, like a heat pump or refrigerator, which
consumes work. The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was described
 mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine. A refrigerator or heat
pump is simply a heat engine operating in reverse. Note the direction of arrows:
Heat engine is defined as a device that converts heat energy into mechanical
energy whereas the heat pump or refrigerator is defined as a device that use
mechanical energy to pump heat from cold to hot region. A refrigeration system is
a combination of components and equipment connected in a sequential order to
produce the refrigeration effect. The most common refrigeration system in use
today involves the input of work (from a compressor) and uses the Vapor
Compression Cycle. This course is an overview of vaporcompression refrigeration
cycle, principles of heat generation, transfer and rejection. Since refrigeration deals
entirely with the removal or transfer of heat, some knowledge of the nature and
effects of heat is necessary for a clear understanding of the subject. You may refer
to the basic thermodynamics and glossary of terms at the end (annexture-1) to help
you with this Section first time through.

Air cycle refrigeration systems belong to the general class of gas cycle refrigeration
systems, in which a gas is used as the working fluid. The gas does not undergo any phase
change during the cycle, consequently, all the internal heat transfer processes are sensible
heat transfer processes. Gas cycle refrigeration systems find applications in air craft cabin
cooling and also in the liquefaction of various gases. In the present chapter gas cycle
refrigeration systems based on air are discussed.
Example 1. A refrigeration system produces 40 kg/hr of ice at 00C from water at
250C. Find the refrigeration effect per hour and TR. If it consumes 1 kW of energy
to produce the ice, find the COP. Take latent heat of solidification of water at 00C
as 335 kJ/kg and specific heat of water 4.19 kJ/kg0C.

Solution: Heat removal rate to form 40 kg of ice at 00C from water at 250C

Qc = sensible cooling from 250C to 00C + latent heat of solidification of water

= 40 kg/hr  (25 – 0)0 C  4.19 kJ/kg.0 C + 40 kg/hr  335 kJ/kg

= 4190 kJ/hr + 13400 kJ/hr = 17590 kJ/hr

Refrigeration effect (QC) = 17590 kJ/hr

We know that 1 TR = 210 kJ/min = 12600 kJ/hr

Therefore, TR equivalent to 17590 kJ/hr = = 1.396

= = 4.886.

Example 2. 200 kg of ice at – 100C is placed in a bunker to cool some vegetables.

24 hours later the ice has melted into water at 50C. What is the average rate of
cooling in kJ/hr and TR provided by the ice? Assume

Specific heat of ice, CP,ice = 1.94 kJ/kg0C

Specific heat of water, CP,W = 4.1868 kJ/kg0C

Latent heat of fusion of ice at 00C, L = 335 kJ/kg.

Solution: Rate of heat addition to 200 kg ice at – 100C to form water at 50C

QC = (sensible heat gain of ice from – 100C to 00C + latent heat of melting of ice +
sensible heat gain of water from 00C to 50C)/time

= (200 kg  (0 – (– 10)) oC  1.94 kJ/kg0C + 200 kg  335 kJ/kg + 200 kg  (5 –

0) oC  4.1868 kJ/kg0C)/24 hr

= 3127.78 kJ/hr

Capacity = = 0.248 TR
Methods of Refrigeration

There are number of methods by which the refrigeration can be achieved. They are broadly
classified into two categories: Non-Cyclic and Cyclic methods of Refrigeration. Firstly, let us
see non-cyclic methods.

In the non-cyclic method of refrigeration there is no thermodynamic cycle followed for

creating the cooling effect. There are two methods of non-cyclic refrigeration process as
described below:

1) Ice Refrigeration: In this method the ordinary ice is used for keeping the space at
temperature below the surrounding temperature. The temperature of ice is considered
to be 0 degree Celsius hence it can be used to maintain the temperatures of about 5 to
10 degree Celsius. To use the ice for refrigerating effect a closed and insulated
chamber is required. On one side of the chamber ice is kept while on the other side
there is a space which is to be cooled where some material to be cooled can be placed.
If the temperature below 0 degree Celsius is required, then the mixture of ice and salt
is used. This method of cooling is still being used for cooling the cold drinks, keeping
the water chilled in thermos, etc.
2) Dry ice refrigeration: Dry ice is the solid carbon dioxide having the temperature of -
78 degree Celsius. Dry ice converts directly from solid state to gaseous; this process is
called as sublimation. Dry ice can be pressed into various sizes and shapes as blocks
or slabs. Dry ice is usually packed in the frozen food cartons along with the food that
has to be kept frozen for long intervals of time. When the dry ice gets converted into
vapor state it keeps the food frozen. The process of dry ice refrigeration is now-a-days
being used for freezing the food in aircraft transportation.
The non-cyclic methods of refrigeration can be used only in places where small
amount of refrigeration is required in places like laboratories, workshops, water
coolers, small old drink shops, small hotels etc.

Cyclic Process of Refrigeration

1. Reversed Carnot cycle employing a gas

Reversed Carnot cycle is an ideal refrigeration cycle for constant temperature external heat
source and heat sinks. Figure 9.1(a) shows the schematic of a reversed Carnot refrigeration
system using a gas as the working fluid along with the cycle diagram on T-s and P-v
coordinates. As shown, the cycle consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor
Process 2-3: Reversible, isothermal heat rejection in a compressor
Process 3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion in a turbine
Process 4-1: Reversible, isothermal heat absorption in a turbine
 Schematic of a reverse Carnot refrigeration system
Temperature Limitations of Carnot cycle:
Carnot cycle is an idealization and it suffers from several practical limitations. One of the
main difficulties with Carnot cycle employing a gas is the difficulty of achieving
isothermal heat transfer during processes 2-3 and 4-1. For a gas to have heat transfer
isothermally, it is essential to carry out work transfer from or to the system when heat is
transferred to the system (process 4-1) or from the system (process 2-3). This is difficult to
achieve in practice. In addition, the volumetric refrigeration capacity of the Carnot system
is very small leading to large compressor displacement, which gives rise to large frictional
effects. All actual processes are irreversible, hence completely reversible cycles are
idealizations only.

2. Bell-coleman cycle
 Schematic of a closed reverse Brayton cycle
This is an important cycle frequently employed in gas cycle refrigeration systems. This
may be thought of as a modification of reversed Carnot cycle, as the two isothermal
processes of Carnot cycle are replaced by two isobaric heat transfer processes. This cycle is
also called as Joule or Bell-Coleman cycle. Figure 9.2(a) and

(b) shows the schematic of a closed, reverse Brayton cycle and also the cycle on T-s
diagram. As shown in the figure, the ideal cycle consists of the following four processes:

Process 1-2: Reversible, adiabatic compression in a compressor Process

2-3: Reversible, isobaric heat rejection in a heat exchanger Process 3-4:
Reversible, adiabatic expansion in a turbine

Process 4-1: Reversible, isobaric heat absorption in a heat exchanger

Reverse Brayton cycle in T-s plane

Process 1-2: Gas at low pressure is compressed isentropically from state 1 to state 2.
Applying steady flow energy equation and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential
energy, we can write:
Process 2-3: Hot and high pressure gas flows through a heat exchanger and rejects heat
sensibly and isobarically to a heat sink. The enthalpy and temperature of the gas drop
during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the entropy of
the gas decreases. Again applying steady flow energy equation and second T ds equation:

Process 3-4: High pressure gas from the heat exchanger flows through a turbine, undergoes
isentropic expansion and delivers net work output. The temperature of the gas drops during
the process from T3 to T4. From steady flow energy equation:
 . .

Process 4-1: Cold and low pressure gas from turbine flows through the low
temperature heat exchanger and extracts heat sensibly and isobarically from a heat
source, providing a useful refrigeration effect. The enthalpy and temperature of the
gas rise during the process due to heat exchange, no work transfer takes place and the
entropy of the gas increases. Again applying steady flow energy equation and second
T ds equation:

Comparison of reverse Carnot and reverse Brayton cycle in T-s plane

a) COP of Brayton cycle approaches COP of Carnot cycle as T1 approaches T4

(thin cycle), however, the specific refrigeration effect [cp(T1-T4)] also reduces
simultaneously.
b) COP of reverse Brayton cycle decreases as the pressure ratio rp increases

3. Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

A vapour compression refrigeration system is an improved type of air
refrigeration system in which a suitable working substance, termed as refrigerant, is
used. It condenses and evaporates at temperatures and pressures close to the
atmospheric conditions. The refrigerants, usually, used for this purpose are ammonia
(NH3), carbon dioxide (CO2) and sulphur dioxide (SO2). The refrigerant used, does
not leave the system, but is circulated throughout the system alternately condensing
and evaporating. In evaporating, the refrigerant absorbs its latent heat from the brine
(salt water) which is used for circulating it around the cold chamber. While
condensing, it gives out its latent heat to the circulating water of the cooler. The
 vapour compression refrigeration system is, therefore a latent heat pump, as it pumps
its latent heat from the brine and delivers it to the cooler.

The vapour compression refrigeration system is now-a-days used for all

purpose refrigeration. It is generally used for all industrial purposes from a small
domestic refrigerator to a big air conditioning plant.

Advantages and Disadvantages of vapour Compression

Refrigeration System over Air Refrigeration System

Following are the advantages and disadvantages of the vapour compression refrigeration
system over air refrigeration system:

Advantages
1. It has smaller size for the given capacity of refrigeration.
2. It has less running cost.

3. It can be employed over a large range of temperatures.

4. The coefficient of performance is quite high.

Disadvantages
1. The initial cost is high
2. The prevention of leakage of the refrigerant is the major problem in vapour
compression system
Mechanism of a Simple Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
Fig. shows the achematic diagram of a simple vapour compression refrigeration
system. It consists of the following five essential parts:

1. Compressor. The low pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from

evaporator are drawn into the compressor through the inlet or suction valve A, where
it is compresses to a high pressure and temperature. This high pressure and
temperature vapour refrigerant are discharge the condenser through the delivery or
discharge valve B.
2. Condenser. The condenser or cooler consists of coils of pipe in which the
high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant is cooled and condensed. The
refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, gives up its latent heat to the
surrounding condensing medium which is normally air or water.

3. Receiver. The condensed liquid refrigerant from the condenser is stored in

a vessel known as receiver from where it is supplied to the evaporator through the
expansion valve or refrigerant control valve.
4. Expansion valve. It is also called throttle valve or refrigerant control
valve. The function of the expansion valve is to allow the liquid refrigerant under
high pressure and temperature to pass at a controlled rate after reducing its pressure
and temperature. Some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the
expansion valve, but the greater portion is vaporised in the evaporator at the low
pressure and temperature.
5. Evaporator. An evaporator consists of coils of pipe in which the liquid-
vapour refrigerant at low pressure and temperature is evaporated and changed into
vapour refrigerant at low pressure and temperature. In evaporating, the liquid vapour
refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of vaporisation from the medium (air, water or
brine) which is to be cooled.

Note : In any compression refrigeration system, there are two different

pressure conditions. One is called the high pressure side and other is known as low
pressure side. The high pressure side includes the discharge line (i.e. piping from the
evaporator to the suction valve A).
 Types of Vapour Compression Cycles

We have already discussed that vapour compression cycle essentially

consists of compression, condensation, throttling and evaporation. Many scientists
have focussed their attention to increase the coefficient of performance of the cycle.
Through there are many cycles, yet the following are important from the subject
point of view :

1. Cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression,

2. Cycle with wet vapour after compression,
3. Cycle with superheated vapour after compression,
4. Cycle with superheated vapour before compression, and
5. Cycle with undercooling or subcooling of refrigerant.

Theoretical Vapour Compression Cycle with

Dry Saturated Vapour after Compression
A vapour compression cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression is

shown on T-s and p-h diagrams. At point 1, letT1,p1 and s1 be the temperature,
pressure and entropy of the vapour refrigerant respectively. The four process of the
cycle are as follows :
Theoretical vapour compression cycle with dry saturated vapour after compression

1. Compression process. The vapour refrigerent at low pressure p1 and

temperature T1 is compressed isentropically to dry saturated vapour as shown by the

vertical line 1-2 on T-s diagram and by the curve 1-2 on p-h diagram. The pressure
and temperature rise from P1 to P2 and T1 to T2 respectively.
The work done during isentropic compression per kg of refrigerant is given

By w = h2 - h1

where h1 = Enthalpy of vapour refrigerant at temperature T1, i.e. at

suction of the compressor, and

h2 = Enthalpy of the vapour refrigerant at temperature T2, i.e. at

discharge of the compressor.

Condensing process. The high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant from the
compressor are passed through the condenser where it is completely condensed at
constant pressure P2 and temperature T2, as shown by the horizontal line 2-3 on T-s and
p-h diagrams. The vapour refrigerant is changed into liquid refrigerant. The
refrigerant, while passing through the condenser, gives its latent heat to the
surrounding condensing medium.

3. Expansion process. the liquid refrigerant at pressure P3 = P2 and

temperature T3 = T2 is expanded by *throttling process through the expansion valve

to a low pressure p4 = p1 and temperature T4 = T1, as shown by the curve 3-4 on T-

s diagram and by the vertical line 3-4 on p-h diagram. We have already discussed that
some of the liquid refrigerant evaporates as it passes through the expansion valve, but
the greater portion is vaporised in the evaporator. We know that during the throttling
process, no heat is absorbed or rejected by the liquid refrigerant.

Notes : (a) In case an expansion cylinder is used in place of throttle or

expansion valve to expand the liquid refrigerant, then the refrigerant will expand
isentropically as shown by dotted vertical line on T-s diagram in Fig. 2.3 (a). The
isentropic expansion reduces the external work being expanded in running the
compressor and increases the refrigerating effect. Thus, the net result of using the
expansion cylinder is to increase the coefficient of performance.

Since the expansion cylinder system of expanding the liquid refrigerant is

quite complicated and involves greater initial cost, therefore its use is not justified for
small gain in cooling capacity. Moreover, the flow rate of the refrigerant can be
controlled with throttle valve which is not possible in case of expansion cylinder
which has a fixed cylinder volume.

(b) In modern domestic refrigerators, a capillary (small bore tube) is used

in place of an expansion valve.

4. Vaporising process. The liquid-vapour mixture of the refrigerant at pressure

P4 = P1 and temperature T4 = T1 is evaporated and changed into vapour refrigerant
at constant pressure and temperature, as shown by the horizontal line 4-1 on T-s
and p-h diagrams. During evaporation, the liquid-vapour refrigerant absorbs its
latent heat of vaporisation from the medium (air, water or brine) which is to be
cooled. This heat which is absorbed by the refrigerant is called refrigerating effect

and it is briefly written as RE. The process of vaporisation continues upto point 1
which is the starting point and thus the cycle is completed.

We know that the refrigerating effect or the heat absorbed or extracted by

the liquid-vapour refrigerant during evaporation per kg of refrigerant is given by

RE  h1  h4  h1  hf3 ... (hf3= h4)

where hf3 = Sensible heat at temperature T3, i.e. enthalpy of liquid

refrigerant leaving the condenser.

It may be noticed from the cycle that the liquid-vapour refrigerant has
extracted heat during evaporation and the work will be done by the compressor for
isentropic compression of the high pressure and temperature vapour refrigerant.

 Coefficient of performance,
 Example In an ammonia vapour compression system, the pressure in the
evaporator is 2 bar. Ammonia at exit is 0.85 dry and at entry its dryness fraction is
0.19. During compression, the work done per kg of ammonia is 150 kJ. Calculate the
C.O.P. and the volume of vapour entering the compressor per minute, if the rate of
ammonia circulation is 4.5 kg/min. The latent heat and specific volume at 2 bar are

1325 kJ/kg and 0.58 m3 /kg respectively.

Solution. Given : p1 = p4 = 2 bar ; x1 = 0.85 ; x4 = 0.19 ; w = 150 kJ/kg ;

ma = 4.5 kg/min; hfg = 1325 kJ/kg ; vg = 0.58 m3 /kg C.O.P.

The T-s and p-h diagrams are shown in Fig.4.3 (a) and (b) respectively.

Since the ammonia vapour at entry to the evaporator (i.e. at point 4)

has dryness fraction (x4) equal to 0.19, therefore enthalpy at point 4,

h4  x4  hfg  0.19  1325  251.75 kJ/kg

Similarly, enthaipy of ammonia vapour at exit i.e. at point

1, h1  x1  hfg  0.85  1325 1126.25 kJ/kg

 Heat extracted from the evaporator or refrigerating effect,

RE  h1  h4 1126.25 -251.75 = 874.5 kJ/kg

We know that work done during compression,

w = 150 kJ/kg

 C.O.P. = RE/w = 874.5/150 = 5.83 Ans.

Volume of vapour entering the compressor per minute

We know that volume of vapour entering the compressor per minute
 = Mass of refrigerant / min × Specific volume

3
= ma  vg  4.5  0.58  2.61 m / min Ans.

Heat Pump: A heat pump is basically a heat engine run in the reverse direction. A heat
pump is a device which maintain higher temperature as compared to surrounding by
absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one. A heat pump uses external
power to accomplish the work of transferring energy from the heat source to the heat
sink. The most common design of a heat pump involves four main components –
a condenser, an expansion valve, an evaporator and a compressor. The heat transfer medium
circulated through these components is called refrigerant.

HP)reversible =
 Introduction to Air Conditioning

Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every type of air conditioning
system. Hence a thorough understanding of the properties of atmospheric air and the ability
to analyze various processes involving air is fundamental to air conditioning design.

Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water vapour.

Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapour and a number of
pollutants. The amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from place to place. The
concentration of water vapour and pollutants decrease with altitude, and above an altitude of
about 10 km, atmospheric air consists of only dry air. The pollutants have to be filtered out
before processing the air. Hence, what we process is essentially a mixture of various gases
that constitute air and water vapour. This mixture is known as moist air.

The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture. For all practical
purposes, the composition of dry air can be considered as constant. In 1949, a standard
composition of dry air was fixed by the International Joint Committee on Psychrometric
data. It is given in Table 4.1.

Constituent Molecular weight Mol fraction

Oxygen 32.000 0.2095
Nitrogen 28.016 0.7809
Argon 39.944 0.0093
Carbon dioxide 44.010 0.0003

Table 4.1: Composition of standard air

Based on the above composition the molecular weight of dry air is found to
be 28.966 and the gas constant R is 287.035 J/kg.K.
As mentioned before the air to be processed in air conditioning systems is a mixture
of dry air and water vapour. While the composition of dry air is constant, the amount of
water vapour present in the air may vary from zero to a maximum depending upon the
temperature and pressure of the mixture (dry air + water vapour).
At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain maximum
amount of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum, then the air is known as
saturated air, which is established by a neutral equilibrium between the moist air and the
liquid or solid phases of water.
For calculation purposes, the molecular weight of water vapour is taken as 18.015 and its
gas constant is 461.52 J/kg.K
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a standard
thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.
Specific Humidity of Humidity ratio (w): It is defined as the ratio of mass of vapour to the
mass of dry air.

Pt = total atmospheric pressure

Pa = partial pressure of dry air
Pv = partial pressure of vapour
According to dalton’s law, P t = Pa + Pv
Also for dry air, PaV = maRaT (1)
For water vapour, PvV = mvRvT (2)
Divide eq. (2) / (1)
mv/ ma = Ra Pv / Rv Pa
( )

Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water vapour at the dry
bulb temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and charts. ASHRAE
suggests the following regression equation for saturated vapour pressure of water, which is
o
valid for 0 to 100 C.
 Relative humidity(ᶲ) is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapour
in moist air to mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same
temperature and pressure.

ᶲ=

Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When is 100

percent, the air is saturated.
Humidity ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) W is the mass of
1
water associated with each kilogram of dry air . Assuming both water vapour and
2
dry air to be perfect gases .
For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated
vapour pressure psat from the thermodynamic property tables on steam. Then using
the above equation, we can find the humidity ratio at saturated conditions, Wsat.
It is to be noted that, W is a function of both total barometric pressure
and vapor pressure of water.
Dew-point temperature: If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure,
then the temperature at which the moisture in the air begins to condense is known
as dew-point temperature (DPT) of air.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT) is the lowest temperature to which air can be
cooled by the evaporation of water into the air at a constant pressure. The wet-
bulb temperature is the temperature read by a thermometer covered in water-soaked
cloth over which air is passed. At 100% relative humidity, the wet-bulb temperature is
equal to the air temperature.

Degree of saturation (µ): The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio w
to the humidity ratio of a saturated mixture ws at the same temperature and pressure,

( )

( )

( )

( )

Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and
the enthalpy of the water vapour. Enthalpy values are always based on some
o
reference value. For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0 C,
o
and for water vapour the enthalpy of saturated water is taken as zero at 0 C.
H = Ha + Hv = ma ha + mv hv
h = ha + w hv = Cpa t + w [2500 + 1.88 t]
 Enthalpy of moist air, ha = Cpa t
Enthalpy of water vapour, hv = LH + Cpv t
LH = 2500 kJ/kg, Cpv = 1.88 kJ/kgK
hv = 2500 + 1.88 t where t = DBT in 0C
Since the second term in the above equation (w.cpw) is very small
compared to the first term, for all practical purposes, the humid specific heat of
moist air, cpm can be taken as 1.0216 kJ/kg dry air.K

Specific volume: The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters of moist air
per kilogram of dry air. From perfect gas equation since the volumes occupied by the
individual substances are the same, the specific volume is also equal to the number of cubic
meters of dry air per kilogram of dry air.

Psychrometric chart

A Psychometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic properties of

moist air. Standard psychometric charts are bounded by the dry-bulb temperature line
(abscissa) and the vapour pressure or humidity ratio (ordinate). The Left Hand Side of
the psychometric chart is bounded by the saturation line. Figure 27.2 shows the
schematic of a psychometric chart. Psychometric charts are readily available for
standard barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa at sea level and for normal temperatures
(0-50oC). ASHRAE has also developed psychometric charts for other temperaturesLines and of
barometric pressures (for low temperatures: - 40 to 10oC, high temperatures 10 to 120 o
C
constant
o
and very high temperatures 100 to 120 C) sp.volume
Saturation curve (RH =
100%)

Lines of
constant
enthalpy
 Ques. On a particular day the weather forecast states that the dry bulb
temperature is 37oC, while the relative humidity is 50% and the
barometric pressure is 101.325 kPa. Find the humidity ratio, dew point
temperature and enthalpy of moist air on this day.

Ans.: At 37oC the saturation pressure (ps) of water vapour is obtained from steam
tables as 6.2795 kPa.

Since the relative humidity is 50%, the vapour pressure of water in air (pv) is:
pv = 0.5 x ps = 0.5 x 6.2795 = 3.13975 kPa
the humidity ratio W is given by:
W = 0.622 x pv/(pt - pv) = 0.622 x 3.13975/(101.325 - 3.13975) = 0.01989 kgw/kg

The enthalpy of air (h) is given by the equation:

h = 1.005t+W(2501+1.88t) = 1.005 x 37+0.01989(2501+1.88 x 37)
= 88.31 kJ/kg Ans.

REQUIREMENTS OF HUMAN COMFORT AND CONCEPT OF

EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE

The Comfort Chart

The comfort chart (see Figure 8-8) is an empirically determined effective temperature
index that has been published by the ASHRAE since 1950.
The purpose of the comfort chart is to indicate the percentage of people feeling
comfortable at various effective temperatures in the winter and summer. This serves
only as an approximate standard of comfort, because individual reactions to warmth
and cold are much too variable, but it is the most precise and scientific form of
measurement available.
 From the chart, one can obtain an approximate idea of the various effective
temperatures at which a majority of people will feel comfortable (that is, the summer
and winter comfort zones).
Most air-conditioning systems are designed with a recommended indoor design relative
humidity of about 50 percent or slightly lower. Budget jobs will range as high as 60 percent
relative humid- ity. The indoor dry-bulb temperature will range from 75°F or slightly below
to about 80°F, depending on the degree of occupancy and whether it is a budget job or not. In
any event, the indoor design conditions should fall within the comfort zone.

More information about the use of the comfort chart is included in Appendix E
(“Psychrometric Charts”).