CHAPTER TWO

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

2.1. History of Hardware
Hardware has been around since the invention of computers. Early hardware components were made of
basic mechanical parts and switches, such as Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine in 1822. In the mid-
twentieth century, hardware was mainly based on vacuum tube technology, which eventually gave way to
transistors in the late 50s and early 60s. Today, hardware is widely used in all kinds of computer systems
and devices, from desktops and laptops to smartphones and smartwatches.

2.1.2. Definition and meaning of hardware

Hardware consists of any machinery (most of which uses digital circuits) that assists in the input,
processing, storage, and output activities of an information system. When making hardware decisions, the
overriding consideration of a business should be how hardware can support the objectives of the information
system and the goals of the organization.

Hardware refers to the external and internal devices and equipment that enable you to perform major
functions such as input, output, storage, communication, processing, and more. There are two types of
computer hardware: external and internal. A computer's hardware consists of its physical parts, including
its internal pieces and connected external devices. Hardware components perform a computer's tasks like
calculating data, storing information, processing input, and providing output. Any part of a computer that
you can physically touch is hardware.

Hardware is the physical components of a computer, such as the motherboard, processor, memory, storage
drives, and other devices. It is the hardware that hosts and supports software or programs that provide
instructions for the computer to complete its tasks. Hardware can also include external input/output devices
such as keyboards, mice, monitors, printers, and speakers.

All hardware devices, whether internal or external, include chips on a circuit board to perform a function.
All hardware also requires a way to interface with the rest of the computer, usually by connecting to a port,
socket, or wireless radio. After that, pieces of hardware will include other parts that help them fulfill their
function, like buttons, sensors, protective cases, or even cooling fans to prevent overheating.

2.1.3. Why Learn About Hardware?

Organizations invest in computer hardware to improve worker productivity, increase revenue, reduce costs,
provide better customer service, speed up time-to-market, and enable collaboration among employees.
Organizations that don’t make wise hardware investments will be stuck with outdated equipment that is

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unreliable and cannot take advantage of the latest software advances. Such obsolete hardware can place an
organization at a competitive disadvantage. Managers, no matter what their career field and educational
background, are expected to help define the business needs that the hardware must support. In addition,
managers must be able to ask good questions and evaluate options when considering hardware investments
for their area of the business. Managers in marketing, sales, and human resources often help IS specialists
assess opportunities to apply computer hardware and evaluate the options and features specified for the
hardware. Managers in finance and accounting especially must keep an eye on the bottom line, guarding
against overspending, yet be willing to invest in computer hardware when and where business conditions
warrant it.

2.1.4. Components of Hardware

Hardware Components of a computer refers to the collection of physical parts of a computer system that
we can touch or feel. This includes the computer case, monitor, keyboard, and mouse. It also includes all
the parts inside the computer case, such as the hard disk drive, motherboard, video card, and many others.
The hardware components of a computer or personal computer is categorized into 4 primary categories: -
This are System Unit, Display Device, Input Devices and External Devices.

a) System Unit: A System Unit is the main component of a personal computer, which houses the
other devices necessary for the computer to function. It is comprised of a chassis and the internal
components of a personal computer such as the system board (mother board), the microprocessor,
memory modules, disk drives, adapter cards, the power supply, a fan or other cooling device and
ports for connecting external components such as monitors, keyboards, mice, and other devices.
There are main components of system unit. This are: -The System Board, Central Processing Unit,
Memory, Power Supplies and Cooling Systems.
b) Display Device: A display device is a personal computer component and is an output device that
enables user to view the text and graphical data associated with a computer program. Display
devices commonly connect to the system unit via a cable, and they have controls to adjust the
settings for the device. They vary in size and shape, as well as the technology used. There are
components of display device. This are:
c) Input Device: An input device is a personal computer component that enables users to enter data
or instructions into a computer. The most common input devices are keyboards and computer mice.
Input devices can connect to the system via a cable or a wireless connection.
d) External Devices: Any peripherals devices that are not housed inside the system unit are inherently
external devices. A personal computer’s functionality can be enhanced by connecting different
types of external devices to the system unit, often called peripherals devices. These devices

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 typically provide alternative input or output methods or additional data storage. External devices
are connected to the system unit via a cable or wireless connection. Some of them have their own
power source and some draw power from the system.
2.2. Anatomy of a Computer
Computer system hardware components include devices that perform input, processing, data storage, and
output, as shown in Figure 2.1. These include the processor, memory, and input/output devices, all of which
are discussed in this section.

A. Processor

Processor: The central processing unit (CPU) or simply processor is the part of a computer that sequences
and executes instructions. Each central processing unit (CPU) consists of three associated elements: the
arithmetic/logic unit, the control unit, and the register areas. The arithmetic/ logic unit (ALU) performs
mathematical calculations and makes logical comparisons. The control unit sequentially accesses program
instructions, decodes them, and coordinates the flow of data in and out of the ALU, registers, primary
storage, and even secondary storage and various output devices. Registers are high-speed storage areas
used to temporarily hold small units of program instructions and data immediately before, during, and after
execution by the CPU.

Each processor produces a series of electronic pulses at a predetermined rate, called the dock speed, which
governs the speed at which these steps are completed. Clock speed is measured in gigahertz (GHz), which
is a unit of frequency that is equal to one billion cycles per second. Many of today's personal computers
operate in the 1 to 4 GHz range. The higher the clock speed, the shorter the interval between pulses and the
faster the instructions can be completed.

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Multiprocessing: involves the simultaneous execution of two or more instructions at the same time. One
form of multiprocessing uses coprocessors. A coprocessor speeds processing by executing specific types
of instructions while the CPU works on another processing activity. Coprocessors can be internal or external
to the CPU and can have different clock speeds than the CPU. Each type of coprocessor performs a specific
function. For example, a math coprocessor chip speeds mathematical calculations, while a graphics
coprocessor chip decreases the time it takes to manipulate graphics. A multicore processor has two or
more independent processing units, called cores, which are capable of sequencing and executing
instructions. The multiple cores can run multiple instructions at the same time, thereby increasing the
amount of processing that can be completed in a given amount of time.

Parallel Computing: is the simultaneous execution of the same task on multiple processors to obtain
results more quickly. Systems with thousands of such processors are known as massively parallel processing
system, a form of multiprocessing that speeds processing by linking hundreds or even thousands of
processors to operate at the same time, or in parallel, with each processor having its own bus, memory,
disks, copy of the operating system, and applications. The most frequent uses for parallel computing include
modeling, simulation, and analyzing large amounts of data.

Grid computing: is the use of a collection of computers, often owned by multiple individuals or
organizations, that work in a coordinated manner to solve a common problem. Grid computing is a low-
cost approach to parallel computing. The grid can include dozens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers
that run collectively to solve extremely large processing problems. Key to the success of grid computing is
a central server that acts as the grid leader and traffic monitor.

B. Memory

Memory: provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instructions and data. The chief
function of memory is to rapidly provide data and instructions to the CPU. In order for their systems to run
efficiently, organizations must invest in a sufficient amount of main memory. Organizations also need large
amounts of secondary storage to hold the huge quantities of data that cannot fit within the limits of main
memory. Like the CPU, memory devices contain thousands of circuits imprinted on silicon chips. Each
circuit is either conducting electrical current (on) or not conducting current (off), Data is stored in memory
as a combination of on or off circuit states.

Computer memory can take several forms. Instructions or data can be temporarily stored in and read from
random access memory (RAM). As currently designed, RAM chips are volatile storage devices, meaning
they lose their contents if the current is turned off or disrupted, which can be caused by a power surge, a
brownout, or electrical noise generated by lightning or nearby machines. RAM comes in many varieties:

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Static random-access memory (SRAM) is byte-addressable storage used for high-speed registers and
caches; dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) is byte-addressable storage used for the main memory
in a computer; and double data rate synchronous dynamic random-access memory (DDR SDRAM) is an
improved form of DRAM that effectively doubles the rate at which data can be moved in and out of main
memory. DDR has been superseded by second-, third-, and fourth-generation DDR called DDR2, DDR3,
and DDR4, respectively. DDR3 requires 1.5 volts of electrical power to operate, while DDR4 needs just
1.2 volts.
Read-only memory (ROM), another type of memory, is nonvolatile, meaning that its contents are not lost
if the power is turned off or interrupted. ROM provides permanent storage for data and instructions that do
not change, such as programs and data from the computer manufacturer, including the instructions that tell
the computer how to start up when power is turned on. ROM memory also comes in a couple of varieties.
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) is used to hold data and instructions that can never be changed.
TABLE 2.1 Computer storage units

C. Input and Output Devices

Input and output devices are the gateways to the computer system-you use them to provide data and
instructions to the computer and receive results from it. Input and output devices are part of a computer's
user interface, which includes other hardware devices and software that allow you to interact with a
computer system.

Common Personal Computer Input Devices

 A keyboard and a computer mouse are common devices used for entry and input of data, such
as characters, text, and basic commands. Some companies manufacture keyboards that are more
comfortable, more easily adjusted, and faster to use than standard keyboards.

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  Using speech-recognition technology, a computer can interpret human speech as an alternative
means of providing data or instructions. The most basic systems are designed to support a limited
conversation on a fixed topic.
 The major video game makers Microsoft, Nintendo, and Sony all have game controllers based on
motion-sensing input devices.
 Scanning devices capture image and character data. Both page and handheld scanners can convert
monochrome or color pictures, forms, text, and other images into machine-readable digits.
 Optical Data Readers: Individuals and organizations can also use a special scanning device called
an optical data reader to scan documents. The two categories of optical data readers are optical
mark recognition (OMR) and optical character recognition (OCR). OMR readers are used for tasks
such as grading tests and scanning forms.

Output Devices: Computer systems provide output to decision makers at all levels of an organization, so
they can solve a business problem or capitalize on a competitive opportunity. In addition, output from one
computer system can provide input into another computer system. Whatever the output's content or form,
output devices are designed to provide the right information to the right person in the right format at the
right time.

Examples of Output Devices

 Display Screens: The display screen is a device used to show the output from the computer. Today
a variety of flat-panel display screens are far lighter and thinner than the traditional cathode-ray
tubes (CRTs) associated with early computers.

TABLE 2.2 Various types of flat-panels display

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  Printers and Plotters: The two main types of printers are laser printers and inkjet printers, and
they are available with different speeds, features, and capabilities. Some can be set up to
accommodate paper forms, such as blank check forms and invoice forms. Newer printers allow
businesses to create full-color, customized, and individualized printed output using standard paper
and data input. Ticket receipt printers, such as those used in restaurants, ATMs, and point-of-sale
systems are in wide-scale use.
 3D Printers: have created a major breakthrough in how many items will be "manufactured." 3D
printing technology takes a three-dimensional model of an object stored on a computer and sends
it to a 3D printer to create the object using strands of a plastic filament or synthetic powder.
2.3. Computer System Types
General-purpose computer systems can be divided into two major groups: systems used by one user at a
time and systems used by multiple concurrent users. Table 2.3 shows the general ranges of capabilities and
costs for various types of computer systems.

TAB l E 2.3 Types of computer systems

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Multiple-user computer systems include servers, mainframes, and supercomputers.

2.4. Server Farms, Data Centers, and Green Computing

A. Server farm: A facility that houses a large number of servers in the same room, where access to
the machines can be controlled and authorized support personnel can more easily manage and
maintain the servers. A virtual server is a method of logically dividing the resources of a single
physical server to create multiple logical servers, each acting as its own dedicated machine.
However, Server manufacturers are competing heavily to reduce the power required to operate their
servers and are making "performance per watt" a key part of their product differentiation strategy.
Low power usage is a critical factor for organizations that run server farms made up of hundreds
or even thousands of servers.
B. Data Center: is a climate-and-access-controlled building or a set of buildings that houses the
computer hardware that delivers an organization's data and information services. Traditional data
centers consist of warehouse-size buildings filled with row upon row of server racks and powerful
air conditioning systems designed to remove dust and humidity from the air and offset the heat
generated by the processors. Such data centers can use as much energy as a small city and run up a
power bill of millions of dollars per year. Indeed, energy costs can amount to 25 percent of the total
cost of operating a data center, with hardware expenses and labor costs the other 75 percent.
C. Green computing: is concerned with the efficient and environmentally responsible design,
manufacture, operation, and disposal of IS-related products, including all types of computing
devices (from smartphones to supercomputers), printers, printer materials such as cartridges and
toner, and storage devices. Many business organizations recognize that going green is in their best
interests in terms of public relations, safety of employees, and the community at large.
2.5. An Overview of Software
Software consists of computer programs that control the workings of computer hardware. Software can be
divided into two types: systems software and application software. System software includes operating
systems, utilities, and middleware that coordinate the activities and functions of the hardware and other
programs throughout the computer system. Application software consists of programs that help users solve

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particular computing problems. Examples include a spreadsheet program or a program that captures and
displays data that enables monitoring of a manufacturing process.
2.6. Systems Software
A system Software set of computer programs that controls the computer hardware and acts as an interface
to application software. The primary role of system software is to control the operations of computer
hardware. System software also supports the problem-solving capabilities of application programs. System
software can be divided into three types: operating systems, utility programs, and middleware.
a) Operating Systems
An operating system (OS) (OS): is a set of programs that controls a computer's hardware and acts as an
interface with application software. An operating system can control one or more computers, or it can allow
multiple users to interact with one computer. The various combinations of OSs, computers, and users
include the following:
 Single computer with a single user. This system is commonly used in personal computers, tablets,
and smartphones that support one user at a time. Examples of OSs for this setup include Microsoft
Windows, Mac OS X, and Google Android.
 Single computer with multiple simultaneous users. This type of system is used in larger server or
mainframe computers that support hundreds or thousands of people, all using the computer at the
same time. Examples of OSs that support this kind of system include UNIX, zjOS, and HP-UX.
 Multiple computers with multiple users. This type of system is used in computer networks,
including home networks with several computers attached as well as large computer networks with
hundreds of computers attached, supporting many users, who may be located around the world.
 Special-purpose computers. This type of system is typical of a number of computers with
specialized functions, such as those that control sophisticated military aircraft, digital cameras, or
home appliances. Examples of OSs designed for these purposes include Windows Embedded,
Symbian, and some distributions of Linux.
Functions Performed by the Operating System

The programs that make up the as perform a variety of activities, including the following:

• Control common computer hardware functions

• Provide a user interface and manage input/output

• Provide a degree of hardware independence

• Manage system memory

• Manage processing tasks

• Provide networking capability

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 b) Utility Programs

A utility program performs a variety of tasks typically related to system maintenance or problem correction.
For example, there are utility programs designed to merge and sort sets of data, keep track of computer jobs
being run, compress data files before they are stored or transmitted over a network (thus saving space and
time), and perform other important tasks.

c) Middleware

Middleware is software that provides messaging services that allow different applications to communicate
and exchange data. This systematic tying together of disparate applications, often through the use of
middleware, is known as enterprise application integration (EAI). The use of middleware to connect
disparate systems has evolved into an approach for developing software and systems called SOA. Service-
oriented architecture (SOA) is a software design approach based on the use of discrete pieces of software
(modules) to provide specific functions (such as displaying a customer's bill statement) as services to other
applications.

2.7. Application Software

The primary function of application software is to apply the power of a computer system to enable people,
workgroups, and entire organizations to solve problems and perform specific tasks. Millions of software
applications have been created to perform a variety of functions on a wide range of operating systems and
device types. The following are some of the dozens of categories

of applications:

In almost any category of software, you will find many options from which to choose. For example,
Microsoft Internet Explorer and Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Apple Safari, and Opera are all
popular Web browsers that enable users to surf the Web. The availability of many software options enables
users to select the software that best meets the needs of the individual, workgroup, or enterprise. Proprietary
software and off-the-shelf software are two important types of application software. Proprietary software is
one-of-a-kind software designed for a specific application and owned by the company, organization, or

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person that uses it. Proprietary software can give a company a competitive advantage by providing services
or solving problems in a unique manner better than methods used by a competitor. Off-the-shelf software
is produced by software vendors to address needs that are common across businesses, organizations, or
individuals. For example, Amazon.com uses the same off-the-shelf payroll software as many businesses,
but on its Web site, the company uses custom-designed proprietary software, which allows visitors to more
easily find items to purchase. The relative advantages and disadvantages of proprietary software and off-
the-shelf software are summarized in Table 2.7.

2.8. Software Issues and Trends

Software is such an important part of today's computer systems, issues such as software bugs, copyrights
and licensing, freeware and opensource software, upgrades, and global software support are receiving
increased attention. These topics are covered in the following sections.

A. Software Bugs:

Software Bugs: is a defect in a computer program that keeps it from performing as its users expect it to
perform. While some bugs are subtle-allowing errors to creep into your work undetected-other bugs are
very obvious, causing programs to terminate unexpectedly. For example, not all goes smoothly when users
upgrade to a new operating system. Most computer and software vendors say that as long as people design
and program hardware and software, bugs are inevitable. The following list summarizes tips for reducing
the impact of software bugs:

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  Register all software so that you receive bug alerts, fixes, and patches.
 Check the manual or read-me files for solutions to known problems.
 Access the support area of the manufacturer's Web site for patches.
 Install the latest software updates.
 Before reporting a bug, make sure that you can recreate the circumstances under which it occurs.
 After you can recreate the bug, call the manufacturer's tech support line.
 Consider waiting before buying the latest release of software to give the vendor a chance to discover
and remove bugs. Many schools and businesses don't purchase software until the first major
revision with patches is released.
B. Software Bugs

Most companies aggressively guard and protect the source code of their software from competitors as well
as customers. As a result, most software products are protected by law using copyright or licensing
provisions. Those provisions can vary, however. In some cases, users are given unlimited use of software
on one or two computers. This stipulation is typical for applications developed for personal computers. In
other cases, users pay based on usage: If you use the software more, you pay more. This approach is
becoming popular, with software placed on networks or larger computers. Most of these protections prevent
you from copying software and giving it to others. Some software now requires that you register or activate
it before it can be fully used. This requirement is another way software companies prevent illegal
distribution of their products.

Open-Source Software: Some software developers are not concerned about profiting from their
intellectual property, which has given rise to alternative copyrights and licensing agreements. Open-source
software is distributed, typically for free, with the source code also available so that it can be studied,
changed, and improved by its users.

Software Upgrades: Software companies revise their programs periodically. Software upgrades, which
are an important source of increased revenue for software manufacturers, vary widely in the benefits that
they provide, and what some people call a benefit, others might call a drawback.

Global Software Support: Large global companies have little trouble persuading vendors to sell them
software licenses for even the most far-flung outposts of their company. But can those same vendors provide
adequate support for their software customers in all locations? Supporting local operations is one of the
biggest challenges IS teams face when putting together standardized companywide systems.

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