Table of Contents

1. Preface
2. Organization of Government
3. Understanding the Concept of Government
4. Basic Components, Roles and modes of Establishing Government
5. Organs of Government
6. Principles of Government; Separation of Powers; Checks and
Balances; Rule of Law; Sovereignty
7. Classification of Government
8. Leadership in Government & Political Parties
9. Pressure Groups & Civil Society
10. Past Questions Drive Links Obj and Theory
11. past Questions Compiled
 Preface
Poltitical Science 113 1st Semester Recap, 2023

This book is a free and qualitative reference book for all Pos 113
students to pick up and study for the incoming exams. The book has paid
close attention to the lecturing and questioning patterns of lecturers and has
hence focused primarily on lecture notes, further explanations and details
are complemented carefully with books in the FATSSSA regulated and
recommended library, so rest assured on the quality of each lecture as they
are the product of screening and processing of many trusted notebooks and
even lecture recordings.
This book, though fully documented on each lecture, is a speedy
response to the bosses out there without complete or... Rather misleading
notes. Myself included. If you have any questions, comments or corrections
and additions, text this number 08025264600 and all constructive criticisms
will be warmly welcomed.
Finally, to the bosses of Economics department, and Sociology

🙂
department, of which I am a proud student of, I say a huge thank you for
making this publication possible. Happy studying
 Organization of Government
From birth to death, there has been an existence of government.
Government is one of the key concepts of politics. A state is an abstract
entity. A state always has a government. The three main structures of
government are executive, legislature, and judiciary. At the end of the
course, you should be able to
1. Explain the meaning and usage of government as well as how
modern-day governments are structured and organized.
2. Highlight the basic components, functions, and roles of government.
3. Classify major types/forms of government and how it is structured
with examples of government.
4. Analyze the qualities of good leaders and governments.
5. Discuss the influence of other political organizations' (political
parties, civil societies, and pressure groups) operations.
 Understanding the Concept of
Government
UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF GOVERNMENT

Key to understanding the concept of Government is grasping the 5

usages and identifiable meanings of Government. These are;

Government as the activities, art or process of governing; Exercising

a measure of control over others for example through policies, laws or
programmes.
Government as an institution of the state; E.g The Nigerian
government, the American government, e.t.c.
As a set of persons charged with the duty of governing; For example,
Biden, Tinubu, e.t.c

The manner, method or system with which a state is governed; E.g

Parliamentary system of government (a.k.a Cabinet system)

And finally, as an academic discipline.

These meanings and usages will be explained further in this lecture.

In the fairly lit lecture hall, Professor Lafenwa stands at the front, a
character forged by years of navigating the intricate web of politics. His
bold, sharp and witty disposition lend him an air of intellectual authority.
 Professor Lafenwa is a paradox, a political science guru who revels in
challenging conventional wisdom. His cheeky demeanor is a weapon in his
arsenal, often used to punctuate his rather pessimistic views on world
politics. He's the type who'll deliver a biting critique of global affairs with a
wry twist of humor, leaving students simultaneously amused and
disheartened.
He is a master of words, his lectures laced with eloquence and wit.
Behind his cynicism lies a deep well of truth and experience, garnered from
years of navigating the treacherous waters of international diplomacy. It's
this blend of skepticism and seasoned wisdom that makes him a captivating
figure in the world of academia, leaving his students both intrigued and
challenged by the complex tapestry of global politics.
In the beginning of the lecture, he made great emphasis on course
registration and attendance, saying that attendance was crucial to deeply
understanding the subject matter. This is to say that distributed course
outlines and Recaps like these should not be used as a substitute for
attending lectures.
That said, let's dive into the lecture hall and relive the lecture.

Government As a Set of Activities

Government is used to denote those activities that lead to authoritative

decisions on rules, regulations, resource distribution and conflict resolution
that are binding on all members of society. In this sense, government
activities are carried out by the three arms of government; The executive
who implements and enforced laws, the legislature who make laws
(amongst a plethora of other major responsibilities), and the judiciary who
is charged with the responsibility of interpreting the law and settling
disputes.
He went on to explain that to understand the true functions and limits of
these bodies, the Nigerian government should not be observed as a model to
avoid confusion. In his skeptical mannerism, he explains that in most cases,
the Nigerian government's executive arm controls the legislature itself.
Delving into the intricacies of each body's jurisdiction and powers.

"Whoever holds the purse holds the power."

Government As an Institution of The State

Government as an institution of the state is a fundamental and organized

system responsible for exercising authority and control over a specific
geographic territory and its inhabitants. It serves as the primary entity
through which a state carries out its functions, enforces its laws, and
manages its affairs. Here's a more detailed explanation: government as an
institution of the state is the core organization responsible for maintaining
order, providing governance, and managing the affairs of a defined territory.
Its functions are critical to the stability, security, and development of a
nation, and the specific form and structure of government can vary widely
from one country to another based on historical, cultural, and political
factors. Here are a few ways government serves as an institution of the
state;
Monopoly on the Use of Force: Governments have a monopoly on the
legitimate use of force within their territory. This means they maintain
military and law enforcement agencies to ensure the security and protection
of their citizens.
Legislative Function: Governments create and enact laws and
regulations that govern the behavior and conduct of individuals and
organizations within their jurisdiction. This legislative function is carried
out by various branches of government, such as parliaments or legislatures.
Executive Function: Governments implement and enforce these laws.
The executive branch, typically led by a head of state (such as a president or
monarch) and a head of government (such as a prime minister), is
responsible for executing and administering government policies and
decisions.
Judicial Function: Governments establish and maintain a system of
courts and judges responsible for interpreting and applying the law. The
judiciary ensures that laws are upheld and justice is served. It often has the
authority to settle disputes and make legal rulings.

The People Charged With The Duties of Administration

Government, as a body of people administering the state, refers to the

individuals and institutions responsible for making and implementing
decisions, policies, and laws on behalf of a specific political entity, often
referred to as the state. This body of people carries out various functions to
ensure the governance and management of the state. Here's a breakdown of
this concept;
Government as a body of people administering the state is responsible
for the governance and management of a political entity. It carries out
functions that range from law-making and policy implementation to the
provision of public services and the maintenance of security and order. The
specific structure and roles of government bodies vary depending on the
form of government, whether it's a democracy, monarchy, republic, or
another system. Examples are appointed officials, civil service, law
enforcement, revenue collection, public services, e.t.c.

As the manner or method of governing society Academic Discipline

The manner, methods or system with which a state is governed. In this

sense, government is defined as those forms and methods used to
administer a state. Examples are Parliamentary system, totalitarian,
communist, democratic, confederal, theocratic systems, e.t.c.

Government as an academic discipline

As a subject of study, government is the discipline that examines how

any of all these operate in society and to what effect.

It is clear from the clarifications that none of these 5 meanings can stand
on its own. They're interwoven. Because government properly defined is
not only a set of institutions but also a number of persons that make
such institutions work to produce certain activities that are
indispensable to the proper running of society.

Relationship Between The State, Government and other Human

Associations
 • A state includes both the government and human associations.
• Membership of a state is obligatory, but that of associations is
voluntary.
• The State is permanent, while other associations and government
aren't.
• Rules made by the state are binding on all, but the rules binding other
associations are applicable to members only.
• A state has constitutional rights to use force to ensure obedience,
while other institutions cannot.
• A state can issue a death penalty for offence. While other institutions
simply cannot.
• Government, the state and other socicties depend on each other for the
activities designed to realise the needs and aspirations of the people

Characteristics of a state are

• Human Population
• Functional Government
• Defined Territory
°Air Space
°Land Mass
°Territorial Water
• Sovereignty

General Notes
 "Government is very crucial to the study of politics. The major
framework upon which government is built is the state."

Hence, which came first, the government or the state? As thought

provoking as this question seems to be, the answer is quite simple. There
was no government at first during the times of the early humans; times
when primal instincts ruled human nature.
Anthropologists, he said, claims that governmental organizations in
early societies was weak and crudely unorganized. Since then, the system
and structure of the state has grown. It was when the state came into being
that government became necessary.

"The State Is An Abstract Entity."

To emphasize the relevance of a government to a state, he alluded to the

removal of the fuel subsidy. As a way of showing the almost immediate
impact of politics and government on the state.

"Where order is maintained, there's government."

"The primary goal of any government is to ensure order."

Government as an institution of the state

To Professor Lafenwa, government as an institution of the state is

steeped in his natural pessimism and cynicism. He sees it as a necessary
evil, a bureaucratic behemoth riddled with inefficiencies and prone to
corruption. In his lectures, he's quick to highlight the flaws and
shortcomings of governments, using biting humor and a sharp tongue to
dissect their actions.
His idealistic notions of government as a force for good often fall prey
to the messy realities of power politics. He argues that beneath the veneer of
noble intentions, governments are driven by self-interest, and the pursuit of
power and control often trumps the well-being of their citizens.
His views, though laden with skepticism, are not without merit.
Through years of observing the political landscape, Professor Lafenwa has
gathered a wealth of evidence to support his perspective, making his
definition of government a reflection of his hard-earned wisdom and stark
realism.
In this manner, he explains that when speaking of the major
characteristic of a state, it is not just a government. But a functional
government. Using various examples like Niger, Gabon, Sudan and the
bitter genocide in Rwanda.
In his profound and realistic views, he expressed the truth about a
popular misconception that Nigeria is a nation.

"Nigeria is a Nation-state, not a nation, but aspiring to be a state."

Nothing holds truer than this aphorism. A nation and a state are two
distinct concepts in political science.
A nation refers to a group of people who share common cultural, ethnic,
linguistic, or historical characteristics and often have a sense of shared
identity and belonging.
While a state is a sovereign political entity with defined geographical
borders, a government, and the capacity to make and enforce laws within its
territory. States are recognized as independent entities in the international
system and have the authority to conduct diplomacy, enter into treaties, and
engage in international relations.
Moreso, states can consist of one or more nations or ethnic groups
living within their borders. In summary, a nation is a group of people with
shared cultural or historical ties, while a state is a political entity with
defined borders and governing institutions. Not all nations have their own
state, and not all states are comprised of a single nation. The relationship
between nations and states can vary significantly around the world. As it
applies to Nigeria, Nigeria is a group of people with different cultures and
backgrounds. And so the idea that we are a nation stems from the
colonialists' thinking.

Differences between Government as an institution of the state and

Government as an act of governing

Government as an Institution of The State

Government as an institution of the state views government as a

machinery established by the state to organise the state, manage its affairs
and administer its functions and duties. It is also seen as a machinery
through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and realised.
(Extracted from https://ijmbwebsite.com.ng/blog/course/government-
101-introduction-to-government/)
It includes the branches of government (executive, legislative, and
judicial), government agencies, and officials who have the legal authority to
make and enforce laws, policies, and regulations.

Government as an act of Governing

 This focuses on the actions, decisions, and processes involved in the
day-to-day administration and management of a state or its affairs. It
encompasses the practical activities carried out by government officials to
implement laws and policies, maintain order, provide services, and address
the needs of the population.
Government as an institution of the state is the formal structure, while
government as an act of governing pertains to the actions and functions
performed within that structure to run the state effectively.

Final Notes

Catch 22 of the day

"Happiness, or success?"

"Any success that does not give happiness is no success at all"

"Power rests on a tripod stand; Military, Economic, and Political.

None of which Nigeria posseses."

"Can there be a government without a state?"

OR
"Can there be a state without government."

Another Catch
 "Anarchy is the lack of formal government. It is self rule. But
again, the best government is self-government. Is anarchy then the best
government?"

"For a government to operate functionally, there are three required

forces; Market forces, State forces, and Civil society forces."

Quote of the Day

"If you want to see beyond yourself, remove yourself from

yourself."

Q&A Section

1(a). In not more than two paragraphs, differentiate between

government as a process and as an institution.

(b) Mention and give examples of three non-democratic modes of

establishing government.

(c) State three basic components of government that distinguish it from

other associations.
 (d) Explain in not more than two sentences, the relationship between the
government and the state.

Summary and Key Take-aways

Key Points on Understanding the Concept of Government:

Five Usages and Meanings:

Activities, art, or process of governing.
Institution of the state (e.g., Nigerian government).
Set of persons charged with governing (e.g., Biden, Tinubu).
Manner, method, or system of state governance.
Academic discipline.
Government as Set of Activities: Involves authoritative decisions on
rules, regulations, resource distribution, and conflict resolution.
Three arms: Executive, Legislature, Judiciary.
Government as an Institution of The State: Fundamental, organized
system exercising authority over a specific territory.
Monopoly on the legitimate use of force.Legislative, executive, and
judicial functions critical for stability and development.
People Charged with Duties of Administration: Individuals and
institutions responsible for decision-making and policy
implementation.Varied functions, structure, and roles based on the form of
government.
Manner or Method of Governing Society: Encompasses forms and
methods used to administer a state.Examples: Parliamentary, totalitarian,
democratic systems.
 Government as an Academic Discipline: Examines how government
operates in society and its effects. Interconnected with the five meanings,
involving both institutions and individuals.
Relationship Between State, Government, and Human Associations:
State includes both government and human associations.
State membership obligatory, associations voluntary.
State is permanent; others and government aren't.
State's rules binding on all, associations' rules on members only.
State has constitutional rights to use force and issue death penalty;
others cannot.
In summary, to define government in a question, one should
systematically combine the 5 usages of government, or the three major
usages (As a set of activities, as a set of institutions, and as a set of
persons).

Government is the coordinated actions (set of activities) undertaken

by a group of individuals (body of persons) within organized
institutions to make decisions, enforce laws, and maintain order in a
specific territory. (This text was generated using ChatGpt)
 Basic Components, Roles and modes
of Establishing Government

In the last chapter, a functional government is said to be one of the

major characteristics of the state; which is the contemporary, formal
framework for conducting politics. This chapter explains and describes the
organisation and various ways of classifying systems or forms of
government. It is well established that modern states have two primary
purposes- maintenance of order and
protection of citizens' welfare within the context stipulated by national
and international prescriptions. In order to perform these basic and other
important functions, govermment, which is the
institution and one of the essential characteristics of the state, employs
its instrumentalities. This is because the state is an abstract construct
whose impact is only felt through an established
government.

There are structures established to perform government's basic

responsibilities of rule making or law making, rule application (involving
implementation of policies and programmes and
enforcement of rules and regulations) and rule adjudication (involving
interpretation of laws and legal settlement of disputes).
These structures are known as arms or branches or organs of
government. The way the institutional arrangements are organised varies
across countries and political systems. One of the variations
 is determined by the extent to which the organs are separated or fused to
one another. In other words, the application of doctrine of separation of
powers affects the organisation and performance of
government.
The essence of this chapter is to discuss the main roles of the organs of
government and how they are organised in modern times. Moreover, the
various forms or systems of government are identified and explained. To
effectively achieve this, the basic components of government which
distinguish governnent from other associations as well as the roles
generated for government to perform, are discussed.

Basic Components of Government

The conceptualisation of government as the decision making and

enforcing agency in a state that controls a monopoly of legitimate use of
force, highlights three crucial components of government:

1). Government exists to make and enforce decision: All human

society need to make a collective decision as to the ends (wants) of the
society and the best means of achieving them. Government is the highest
and the most formal level at which such decisions are taken or
implemented. For example, the decision on what type of economic strategy
Nigeria should adopt to wipe off armed robbery, to reduce poverty and
eliminate corruption.

2). Governmnent is the ultimate source of coercion in social affairs:

If collective decisions must be implemented or enforced, there must be
some form of collective agency with a monopoly over the use of force. This
agency is the government. While the use of force or the threat of the use of
force is not always advisable, it may be unavoidable in instances where
groups or individuals resist or violate collective decisions.

3). Government's conduct is normally seen as legitimate: Legitimacy

refers to an acceptance by the people that it is right for govermment to seek
and receive the obedience of the citizens. In other words, the government is
popularly accepted and authorised to govern, compared with other
institutions in the society, the conduct of govenmental institutions is usually
seen as legitimate.

Significance/Indispensability of Government

1). According to Finer (1956:5), government is man's unending

adventure because it is his heaviest collective and individual burden. He
also opined that government is man's supreme hope of liberation from
individual feebleness. It is an unending adventure because man is
considered deficient in wisdom, virtue, strength and material resources-
deficient compared with his expanding capacity to imagine, to wish,
and to want. Every discovery or invention that carries him nearer to the
fulfilment of his desires still leaves him unsatisfied, for he at once spots
new horizons and criticises his past imperfections.
Government, also, requires endless effort because the rich depths and
complexities of human nature have not been fully comprehended, in spite of
thousands of years of conscious speculation. Tomorrow always springs
some unexpected variation of human circumstance and environment. In
short, man needs govemment. In other words government matters to the
people.
 2). A complete act of government consists of the conversion of the
desires or will of some individuals or groups into the behaviour of few or
all in the society in which they dwell, the desire or will may be related to
morals, as in the prohibition of abortion or divorce, or it may be concern for
religion, requiring that a particular creed be taught in the public schools or
be given privileges by the state, or the prime object may be economic, for
example, that monopolies, be suppressed or left free or that mass
unemployment be prevented. The purpose of government is to convert all
such desire or will into authorised and command behaviour of those who
live in that area of settlement we call the "state," The desire or will may
emanate from one mind or spring spontaneously from many, or be
developed by a minority. Thus, government falls roughly into two general
parts: the process of politics and the process of administration (Finer
1956:5-7).

3). Governmnent falls roughly into two general parts;

- The process of politics
- The process of administration

Michael Laver, in (Rowe 1969) opined that contract, collective action

and a desire to maximise social well-being all generate possible roles for
government. The roles are examined below.

Contract Enforcement

We must all deal or enter into contract with people. However, only very
few deals can be contracted that do not involve enforcement. These few
deals are those that depend on mutual trust or involve individuals in a small
or closely integrated community. In other words, the enforcement of
contract may not be necessary among individuals who trust each other or
live in a small community, where members are no strangers to each other
and are expected to deal with each other from time to time. In this situation,
deals may not need to be enforced. However, most deals or contracts
involve a collection of individuals who are not in continuous interaction or
do not share a sense of community. The temptation to double-cross or, be
dishonest is therefore very high. In this context, contracts need to be
enforced and a role for the government emerges.

Collective Action

When there is a need for a project that would benefit all, but no
individual is prepared to contribute towards it, there is a problem of
collective action which creates a role for the government. Basic elements of
problem of collective action are:

i). Almost all private actions have public consequences either in the
form of social benefit or social cost.
ii). Some private actions may not produce private benefits only but also
social cost, while other private actions may entail private cost but produce
social benefits.
iii). Social cost and benefit produced by private action may have an
indiscriminate influence on society. In other words, the cost cannot be
suffered by one and the benefit as enjoyed by another.
(iv). Any attempt to exclude anyone from the cost or benefit will almost
invariably exclude everyone.
(v). Except in very special circumstances, individuals will not
voluntarily continue to incur private cost to produce social benefit or forgo
private benefit to reduce social cost.
(vi). The effect of all these is that social cost will tend to increase and
social benefits tend to decrease.
Thus, government can solve collective action problem by encouraging,
supporting, or even assuming responsibility for private actions which
produce social benefits.

Social Well-being or Welfare

In order to make the society a better one, it may be necessary to help

some individuals or groups at the expense of others. For example, it may be
necessary to help the poor at the expense of the rich in order to increase the
overall social welfare. In the absence of government action however, the
distribution of resources from the rich to the poor may be resisted by the
rich. Indeed the privileged members of the society usually argue that social
inequality is necessary for economic efficiency and productivity, and that
any attempt to redistribute wealth is bad because it suppresses competition
and creativity.
Redistribution that increases social welfare will tend therefore to depend
on the use of authoritative sanction or legitimate coercion by government.

Modes of Establishing Government

Basically, there are two recognised ways of establishing a government,

namely
(a) Democratic method of forming
government and
(b)non-democratic methods of forming
 government. In other words, other than democracies, there are a variety
of ways in which government systems are organised.

Democratic Method

The democratic method manifests when elections are carried out

democratically. It involves the use of democratic elections to
influence the composition, conduct, and policies of government.
Democracy is a system of government by the whole population or all
the eligible members of a state typically, through elected representatives.
Democratic elections are carried out on the basis of democratic principles
including:
(1). Citizen/popular participation
(2). Political Equality
(3). Political Tolerance
(4). Accountability and Transparency
(5). Political Competition
(6). Free and fair elections
(7). Separation of powers (control of abuse of power)
(8). Respect for Human rights
(9) Rule of Law
(10) Periodic elections
(11) Neutrality of state institutions
(12) Popular sovereignty
(13) Secret balloting
 The following procedures are followed in establishing democratic
governments:

i) Delimitation of constituency areas;

ii) Registration of voters;
iii) Registration of political parties and nomination of candidates;
iv) Balloting-secret or open;
v) Counting of votes and declaration of results;
vi) Going to litigation by those who feel they are being cheated in the
election. Litigations are referred to as legal ways of setting electoral
disputes among competing political parties and/or contestants;
vii) Swearing in of winners;
viii) Formation of cabinet according to constitutional provisions.

Non-democratic modes

Essentially, there are three modes under this method of forming and
carrying out the business of government. These are:

Imperialistic Mode: This is the process by which imperial powers

(impostors) establish quasi governments in their countries of
choice. This is particularly seen in colonial settings. For example, all the
governments established in Nigeria and other colonised
nations prior to independence were undemocratically established.
The colonial governors were unilaterally appointed by the colonial
power, while some powerless councils were formed to help them
in the administration of the colony.
 Military Coups or Coup D'état: Military governments are those where
the armed forces rule the country. This form of govemment is established
through the barrel of gun. It is usually the fastest and shortest route to
power and yet the most dangerous and destructive to the psyche of the
people. Military coups are usually stimulated by several factors such as
poor leadership, societal violence, corruption, and military ambition, among
others. Any military coup is illegal, because it suspends the constitution
which established the armed forces. Government of this type is usually
formed by an individual or group of coup plotters. The current Thailand
government was established through 2014 Thai coup d'état. Recent cases
include, Nigeria, 1998-1999; Burkina-Faso, September 17 to 23, 2015;
Central African Republic, 2013-2014; Egypt, 2011-2012; Mali, 2012; and
Guinea Bissau, 2012.

Election Rigging: This is the process by which government established

through the falsification and manipulation of leadership selection processes.
The main purpose of election is to enable the citizenry choose, freely, those
who will serve as their leaders.
However, for one reason or the other, incumbent governments
(governments in power) are interested in who take over power from them;
as a result, the favoured parties are "helped" to take over the mantle of
political power and form a new government.
Typical examples include 1965 western region election of NNDP and
the 1983 national election of NPN in Nigeria.

Further Study
The American 17th century revolution-
https://www.britannica.com/event/American-
Revolution#:~:text=The%20American%20Revolution%E2%80%94also%2
0called,Declaration%20of%20Independence%20in%201776.

Summary and Key Take-aways

The chapter discusses the significance of a functional government as a

major characteristic of the state, serving as the formal framework for
conducting politics. It explores the organization and classification of
government systems, emphasizing the two primary purposes of modern
states: the maintenance of order and the protection of citizens' welfare.

Key Points:

1. Government's Basic Responsibilities: The chapter outlines the basic

responsibilities of government, including rule-making or law-making,
rule application (implementation and enforcement of policies), and rule
adjudication (interpretation of laws and legal settlement of disputes).

2. Arms or Branches of Government: The structures responsible for

these responsibilities are referred to as arms, branches, or organs of
government. The way these institutional arrangements are organized varies
across countries, influenced by the separation or fusion of powers.

3. Basic Components of Government: The conceptualization of

government highlights three crucial components: decision-making and
enforcement, the ultimate source of coercion in social affairs, and the
conduct seen as legitimate by the people.
 4. Significance/Indispensability of Government: Government is
considered an unending adventure and man's supreme hope of liberation
from individual feebleness. It falls into two general parts: the process of
politics and the process of administration.

5. Roles of Government: The chapter explores government's roles in

contract enforcement, collective action, and social well-being or welfare,
emphasizing the need for authoritative sanction or legitimate coercion in
certain situations.

6. Modes of Establishing Government:

- Democratic Method: Involves elections based on democratic
principles, including citizen participation, political equality, transparency,
and rule of law.
- Non-democratic Modes:
- Imperialistic Mode: Establishment by imperial powers in colonial
settings.
- Military Coups: Armed forces rule established through force,
stimulated by factors like poor leadership or societal violence.
- Election Rigging: Falsification and manipulation of leadership
selection processes, often by incumbent governments.

The lecture provides insights into the diverse ways governments are
established and the crucial role they play in society.

Q&A Section
 1. Contract enforcement, collective actions and ___________ are roles
generating from government according to Michael Laver.
(a) Law and Order
(b) Rule Application
(c) Rule Making
(d) Social Welfare

2. The organ of government that applies the rules and policies of the
society is called the ____________
(a) Legislature
(b) Bureaucracy
(c) Judiciary
(d) Executive

3. Government can be defined as a set of activities, a set of persons, and

as a set of _____________
(a) Individuals
(b) Elected officials
(c) Institutions
(d) Appointed officials

4. Which of the following is not a non-democratic mode of establishing

government.
(a) Election rigging
(b) Coup d'état
(c) Imperialism
(d) Feudalism
 5. Government can solve collective action problem by _____________
responsibility for private actions
(a) Discouraging
(b) Supporting
(c) Emphasizing
(d) Converting
 Organs of Government
Organisation of Modern Government

Regardless of whether the system is centralised or decentralised and

irrespective of ideological, philosophical or political persuasion,
govemment as the agency for formulating and realising the end or will of
the state, is divided into three (3) branches or
organs. These three branches are the totality of legislative, executive
and judicial bodies of most political systems. For example, like many other
govermments of the world, the United States and Nigerian governments are
divided into three separate branches- legislative, judicial, and executive to
prevent abuses of power.

The Executive Branch

The Executive is the organ of government empowered within the

constitutional framework to implement or carryout the policies, laws and
decisions of the government. As in the United States and Nigeria, most
countries rely upon large executive bureaucracies to carry out laws and
enforce rules.
Broadly speaking, the executive organ embraces the aggregate or
totality of all the functionaries and agencies which are concerned with the
execution of the will of the state as that will has been formulated and
expressed in terms of law. Thus, the term
embraces not only the overall head of the government- President, as he
is called in the United States and Nigeria- but also the ministers and the
whole mass of subordinate executives and administrative functionaries who
constitute what, in Great Britain, the United States, Nigeria and other
democratic countries is known as the Civil Service. The President or Head
of government and the
cabinet ministers are regarded as temporary executive and the core
of civil service members are categorised as the permanent executive.
The executive is a very important arm of government which other arms
of government cannot do without. This is because the country always looks
up to it for the execution of policies, orders, rules, decrees and laws and to
maintain government. Apart from legislature and judiciary. all other
institutions and bodies in public service are under the control of the
executive. It is extremely rare, if not impossible, to have a government
without the executive branch. Even in situations where other branches are
less visible, the executive is always visible. This is because of the pivotal
roles it plays in the administration of State. Even in military regimes where
legislature (in the real sense of it) is missing, the executive still exists in
which the leader of the junta is the Head of State and Commander in Chief
of the Armed Forces.

Meanwhile there are two main forms of executive. These are the
cabinet or parliamentary system and presidential system. The
parliamentary system exists in a state where the two main functions of a
head of state and a head of government are shared
between the president or monarch and the prime minister. Great
Britain is a good example of a country practising this system.
Regarding the presidential system, "it tends to separate the chief
executive from the legislature and that the chief executive, if he chooses
may in turn isolate himself from the citizens" (Rodec et al.1983 cited in
Oyekanmi 2013:151).
 It is important to note that the executive's functions cover general
administration of the state, including law enforcement. The responsibilities
of the executive also include conduct of external relations and defence,
legislation, control of the 'purse' and power
to grant reprieve or pardon to the offenders, among others.

The Legislative Branch

The Legislature is the organ of government charged with the

responsibility of making laws as well as policy formulation. In short,
legislative activities of assemblies are important in representative
democracies. This may be the reason why national legislatures, called
Parliaments in Britain (and in most countries), Congress in the United
States of America, Diets in Japan, National Assembly in Nigeria and
Assemblies in other counties, exist in nearly all contemporary political
systems, although they are particularly associated with democracies
(Lafenwa 2006:31-32).
According to Garner (cited in Johari 2012: 299):

"Of the several organs through which the will of the state is expressed
and carried out, the legislature unquestionably occupies the paramount
place... in all states it exercises a large control over the sources of supply
and its power to create public offices and to establish new services. Thus,
the legislature is, in a
sense, the regulator of administration."
 The importance of the legislature is also evident in its ability or power
to change or amend legislation as well as to abolish laws considered not
useful for the 'common good' of the society.
Despite the importance of this governmental institution, it remains the
arm of government that is most vulnerable and undermined by political
instability. The formal rules and informal conventions in the conduct of
legislative business often look similar from country to country but with
little difference(s). The fact is that virtually all the existing legislatures in
the world usually adopt one of the two basic models: the Westminster
model (British model) or Congressional model (American model).

There are two types of legislature. The first one is known as one-
chamber or unicameral legislature; which is a representative form of
government with a single legislative chamber. In the unicameral legislature,
there is the existence of only one chamber. It has most often been
established in countries with a centralised or unitary structure.
Countries with unicameral systems include
Uganda, Costa Rica, Portugal, and Sweden. The second type is known
as a bicameral legislature. This is the type of legislature where there are two
chambers. This form of legislature can be found in several democracies like
Nigeria (House of Representatives and the Senate), Great Britain (the
House of Lords and the House of Commons), and the United States (the
Upper House and the Lower House). In bicameral legislature, legislative
business takes place in the two chambers that often operate independently
of each other. The constitution defines the power and the boundary of each
of the two chambers as regards the dispensing of their political functions.
By and large, the two chambers often work in harmony to carryout their
functions.
 Generally, the second (lower) chambers are usually weaker and less
powerful than the upper chambers. Moreover, it is important to point out
that although a bicameral legislature is likely to be expensive and may lead
to undue delay in the passage of bills, it allows for checks and balances,
thoroughness and informed input in policy and law making. A unicameral
legislature, on the other hand, is quick, has capacity to meet emergencies
and is less expensive, but it can lead to making of hasty legislation and is
susceptible to manipulation. Thus, the second chamber serves as a check.

Besides the law making and deliberative responsibilities of the

legislature, there are other functions of this organ of government which
cover administrative, financial and judicial spheres as well.
Okunade (2001) opined that "the legislature legitimises policies and
turns political decisions into law.... also acts as the people's representatives
and as conveyor of people's views to the executive." He added that the
legislature provides avenue for influencing the executive and provides a
forum for national debate" (Okunade 2001:105). There are some unique
functions assigned to the Upper House alone in a bicameral system. For
instance, in Nigeria and the United States, the functions of screening and
confirmation of appointment of government officials like Ambassadors,
Ministers, Attorney General/Chief Judge and Advisers are carried out by
the Upper chamber.

The Judiciary

The judiciary is the system of courts that interprets and administers the
law. It provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. Under the
doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary generally does not make
law (in a plenary fashion, which is the responsibility of the legislature) or
enforce law (which is the responsibility of the executive), but rather
interprets law and applies it to the facts of each case. This branch of
government is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under the law. It
usually consists of a court of final appeal (called the "Supreme court")
together with lower courts. Most people consider the judicial branch to
be the least harmful of all the organs of government and regard it as
the arbiter of the last hope of the common man.

In many jurisdictions the judicial branch has the power to change laws
through the process of judicial review. Courts with judicial review power
may annul the laws and rules of the State when it finds them incompatible
with a higher norm, such as primary legislation, the provisions of the
constitution or intenational law. Many times, courts are seen only as
arbitrators in disputes between individuals or private parties. Judiciary
however, performs some key roles in political systems.
Notwithstanding the way the judiciary is composed, this branch of
govermment is supposed to be independent and impartial. Independence of
judiciary is vital in the administration of the State.
The independence of the judiciary is hinged on the freedom of the
administration of justice, wherein court judges are independent enough to
perform their professional functions. There are certain safeguards that some
countries put in place to guarantee the freedom of the judiciary from undue
interference. These include guaranteed tenure, appointment of competent
judges, respect for rule of law and charging of salaries of judges on the
consolidated fund, among others

Further Study
 https://www.history.com/topics/us-government-and-politics/three-
branches-of-government

Summary and Key Take-aways (Actual Lecture Note)

The organs of Government

Before the emergence of the state, and even government itself, we've
had societies without government. Later, we had tribal societies organising
themselves on the base of family ties, and set up elder councils and resolve
disputes and problems- these were of course not formal government.

"Man is a very complex being who applies solutions to his

problems. But because of our interests, most of those natural talents
and gifts that would've been used to solve human problems are being
used to destroy the existing solutions."

-Dr. Lafenwa.

As societies evolve, we have more complex and specialized institutions

to carry out the function of the state. Hence, if we trace from the primitive
to the modern society, we discover that institutions of government have
become more complex, specialized and proliferated that it takes a good
understanding to know how they operate.
For instance, the legislature - a complex organ of government-
particularly in non-democratic societies - in every society, these institutions
exist, but may not be formal.

The Three Organs, Branches, Arms or Institutions of Government.

As we all probably know, we have three organs of government, namely

the Executive, Legislature, and the Judiciary, but while the three traditional
branches of government are the most common, some countries have unique
or additional branches or bodies that serve specific functions. These
variations can exist depending on a country's constitution and political
system. e.g Fourth Estate: Some consider the media as a "fourth
estate", or as the lecturer said, the "fourth realm" because of its influence
on public opinion and government policies. Other organs may include
economic planning bodies, councils and municipalities, e.t.c. Let's look
briefly into the three main organs and their functions.

Legislature

Briefly, the legislative branch is responsible for making and passing

laws. It typically consists of a parliament, congress, or similar legislative
body with elected representatives. In the United States, Congress
(comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate) , in the
United Kingdom, the Parliament, Knesset for Israel, National
Assembly for Nigeria, National Diet for Japan, e.t.c
The functions of the legislature includes, Law making, constitutional
amendments, policy formulation, e.t.c
The composition of the legislature includes
• Unicameral and;
• Bicameral
 Executive

The executive branch is responsible for implementing and enforcing the

laws of a country. It is headed by the president, prime minister, or a similar
executive leader. In the United States for instance, the President is the head
of the executive branch and is responsible for enforcing federal laws,
making executive orders, and managing the federal bureaucracy. In the
United Kingdom, the Prime Minister is the head of government and
oversees the administration, including the civil service and government
agencies.
The modes of establishing executives include
• Hereditary
• Election
° Direct
° Indirect

Judiciary

Commonly known as the hope of the common man, this arm of

government is saddled with the responsibilities of interpretation of the law
and also arbitration. They are key to the smooth operations of the
government because, as the lecturer said,

"No law can be effectively enforced without it being properly

interpreted."
 In Nigeria, the Supreme Court is the highest court and has the
authority to interpret the constitution and make decisions that set legal
precedents.

Finally, these three branches work together to provide checks and

balances within a government. For example, if the legislative branch passes
a law that is challenged as unconstitutional, the judicial branch can review
and potentially strike down the law. Likewise, the executive branch can
veto legislation proposed by the legislative branch, and the legislative
branch can override the veto with a supermajority vote. This system helps
prevent any one branch from accumulating too much power and ensures
that the government operates within the bounds of the law and the
constitution.

Final Notes

In the middle of the class, the lecturer asks some critical questions, the
first being; Which of the organ is the most important ? The majority
yells "Executive", the rest of the minority replies "Legislature" and
"Judiciary" respectively. He goes on to explain that some of us only focus
on what is, and that's why we don't solve our problems-

"Problem identified, is problem half-solved"

What is, must not always be. What ought to be should be taken into
account as well. He then explains why, in truth, the legislature, contrary to
the majority's belief is in fact the most important.
For starters, it is evident during the times of military takeovers that the
first body to be dissolved immediately is the legislature, and parts of the
constitution.
Another reason why the legislature is the most important is rooted deep
down the line of parliament in history. The first institution of government
was the parliament, in Britain (Who is considered to be the mother of
parliamentary democracy).

The next was the question of what organ is the most powerful ?

The answer is quite simple, it's the Executive, the executive holds the
title for the most powerful, most influential and most obvious. It is also one
of the most studied organ of government.

The last question; Which is the most studied ?, is duely awarded to

the Judiciary (and also Executive) organ. In schools and tertiary
institutions, the study of the disciplines of criminal justice, legal studies,
law, international relations, public administration, e.t.c all aim at studying
majorly the Judiciary and Executive arms of government. It's only recently
that the field is gaining recognition as a study, but the legislature still
generally remains the most undeveloped organ of government.
{!} The judiciary also falls into the most vulnerable, in the sense
that, the Executive, in most cases appoints the judiciary, and the
judiciary are in turn directly responsible to them, instead of the people,
for various reasons such as security of office, e.t.c.

"In reality, judges are tied to the apron of the executive."

Thence the need for the independence of the judiciary.

 It is important to note that while we talk about the most this and the
most that, we should remember that all of them are equally important - or
should be. The lecturer made a good example of the human body system,
the digestive system precisely.
The digestive system is made of different organs, the different organs
are made of different tissues, the tissues too are made of different cells. The
parts in this system all work together to achieve one function, a fraction of
it cannot function without the other, and so are the organs of government.

Q&A Section

1. Question 1: What is the primary function of the legislative branch in

a government system?
- A. Enforcing laws
- B. Making and passing laws
- C. Interpreting laws
- D. Implementing laws

2. Question 2: Who is typically the head of the executive branch in the

United States?
- A. Prime Minister
- B. President
- C. Monarch
- D. Chief Justice

3. Question 3: Which branch of government is responsible for

interpreting the law and arbitration?
 - A. Legislature
- B. Executive
- C. Judiciary
- D. Bureaucracy

4. Question 4: In what ways can an executive be established according

to the provided information?
- A. Unicameral and Bicameral
- B. Election (Direct and Indirect) and Hereditary
- C. Democratic and Authoritarian
- D. Unitary and Federal

5. Question 5: What is the term used for the media's influence on public
opinion and government policies?
- A. Fourth Estate
- B. Fifth Branch
- C. Media Monopoly
- D. Public Realm

6. Question 6: According to Aristotle, which of the following is

considered a legitimate form of government?
- A. Democracy
- B. Oligarchy
- C. Tyranny
- D. Aristocracy
 7. Question 7: What concept is emphasized as crucial for the smooth
operation of government according to the lecturer?
- A. Public Opinion
- B. Separation of Powers
- C. Independence of the Judiciary
- D. Checks and Balances

8. Question 8: Why does the lecturer argue that the legislature is the
most important organ of government?
- A. Historical precedence during military takeovers
- B. Influence on public opinion
- C. Appointment of judiciary by the executive
- D. Theoretical importance in parliamentary democracy

9. Question 9: What is identified as the most studied organ of

government in educational institutions?
- A. Judiciary
- B. Legislature
- C. Executive
- D. Bureaucracy

10. Question 10: What is emphasized as crucial for the independence of

the judiciary?
- A. Direct election by the public
- B. Appointment by the executive
- C. Tie to the apron of the legislature
- D. Security of office
Principles of Government; Separation
of Powers; Checks and Balances;
Rule of Law; Sovereignty
Full lecture recap on The 4 principles of government can be
downloaded directly here

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1CdqYHLew-Fiv7YEfle6mEAA-
RHUVhnLX/view?usp=drivesdk
 Classification of Government
Classification of Systems of Government.

Many political thinkers and theorists have made numerous attempts to

present the best model or typology for classifying systems or forms of
government. In ancient times, Plato, Aristotle and the Romans (particularly
Polybius and Cicero) made
significant contributions in this regard. For the sake of clarification,
classification of government is used here to mean forms of
govermment. The various forms of government- those that existed in the
past and those that still exist, are classified on the basis of the following
criteria:

(1) The size of the ruling class and degree of public involvement:

(a) Polity (Democracy), Aristocracy, and Monarchy (Good forms).

(B) Democracy (Mobocracy), Oligarchy, and Tyranny (Perverted forms)

(2) Patterns of power distribution:

(a) Unitary
(b) Federal
(c) Confederal

(3) Institutional structure and relationship among organs:

 (a) Limited Presidential System of Government.
(b) Parliamentary or Cabinet Form of Government.
(c) Dual Executive or Mixed Government.

(4) State ideological trust:

(a) Capitalism
(b) Socialism
(c) Communism

(5) Other forms of government:

(a) Fascism: Fascism is a political system that is based on the idea of a
strong and centralized leader who has absolute power and control over the
country and its people. Fascism also promotes nationalism, militarism,
totalitarianism, and the suppression of any opposition or dissent. Fascism
often involves the use of violence, propaganda, censorship, and terror to
achieve its goals. Some examples of fascist regimes in history are Nazi
Germany under Adolf Hitler, Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini, and
Francoist Spain under Francisco Franco.
(b) Feudalism: Feudalism is a social system that existed in medieval
Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the Crown in exchange for
military service, and vassals were in turn tenants of the nobles, while the
peasants were obliged to live on their lord's land and give him homage,
labour, and a share of the produce. Feudalism was based on a hierarchical
relationship between lords and vassals, who owed loyalty and service to
each other. Feudalism also involved the development of chivalry, knightly
code of conduct, castles, manors, and serfdom.
 (c) Theocracy: This is a form of government in which one or more
deities are recognized as supreme ruling authorities, giving divine
guidance to human intermediaries who manage the government's daily
affairs. Theocracy often involves religious laws and institutions that govern
all aspects of public and private life. Theocracy can also refer to a state
governed by a theocracy. Some examples of historical or contemporary
theocracies are ancient Israel under Moses and David, Islamic states such as
Iran or Saudi Arabia under Sharia law or Wahhabism respectively, Vatican
City under Pope Francis, and Taliban-controlled Afghanistan.
(d) Totalitarianism: This is a form of government that attempts to
assert total control over the lives of its citizens. It is characterized by
strong central rule that attempts to control and direct all aspects of
individual life through coercion and repression. Totalitarianism often
involves propaganda, censorship, surveillance, indoctrination, terror, and
mass mobilization.
Totalitarian regimes are usually led by dictators who claim to represent
the will or interests of the nation or ideology . Some examples of
totalitarian regimes in history are Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, Soviet
Union under Joseph Stalin, Maoist China under Mao Zedong, and North
Korea under Kim Jong-un.
(e) Colonialism: Colonialism is the policy or practice of acquiring full
or partial political control over another country, occupying it with
settlers, and exploiting it economically. Colonialism often involves
cultural, racial, linguistic, and religious domination by the colonizing power
over the colonized people. Colonialism can also refer to something (such as
a custom, idea, or idiom) that is characteristic of a colony. Some examples
of colonial powers in history are Britain, France, Spain, Portugal,
Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Japan etc. who colonized various
parts of Africa, Asia, America, Oceania etc. during different periods from
ancient times to modern times.
 (f) Militarism: Militarism is the belief that it is necessary to have
strong armed forces and that they should be used in order to win political or
economic advantages. Militarism often involves nationalism, imperialism,
expansionism aggression war etc., as well as glorification of war heroes
weapons technology etc.

The earliest and most famous classification of governments was the

typology developed by Aristotle in the fourth century (Koskin et al. 2008:
48). The classification was based on two criteria- how many people ruled a
society (who rules) and whether they acted in the public interest or in their
own interest? (in whose interest?).
On the basis of this, Aristotle classified forms of government into six.
He distinguished three legitimate kinds of government- where the ruling
authority acts in the interests of all- and three corrupt or perverted forms
of government- where government acts only in the interest of self or few.

The Size of the Ruling Class and Degree of Public Involvement

Aristotle in his book, Politics, classified the forms of govermment into

six using the size of the ruling authority and the extent to which the people
are involved or their interest promoted. It is important to mention that
this classification constructed by Aristotle lasted for nearly twenty-five
centuries and can be summarised thus:

_________________________________________________________

Who Governs. Legitimate Forms. Corrupt Forms.

(Interest of all)
_______________________________________________________
 One Monarchy Tyranny

A Few Aristocracy Oligarchy

Many Polity Democracy

According to this typology, Monarchy, Aristocracy and Polity were

considered to be good or legitimate forms of government, while Tyranny,
Oligarchy and Democracy were regarded as the perverted or corrupt forms
of govemment.
A monarchy is government of one person ruling in the interest of all. It
is the rule by a king or queen. There are two forms of the monarchical
system of government, namely, absolute monarchy and constitution or
limited monarchy. Monarchy is practised in Jordan, England, Morocco and
most traditional African societies.
Meanwhile, monarchy can degenerate into tyranny, which is the corrupt
form, under which the single ruler exercises power for the benefit of self.
The governments under Idi Amin of Uganda, Sani Abacha of Nigeria,
Mobutu Sese Seko of former Zaire, etc. were dictatorial or tyrannical.
Aristocracy which originated from the Greek word 'Aristos' means
government of the best. It is a good form of government according to
Aristotle because it involves several persons ruling in the interest of all. In
practice, it is a government of the rich who use their wealth for the common
good of the people or community.
 However, this legitimate rule by an elite can decay into oligarchy; the
corrupt form, in which several persons rule in the interest of themselves. It
is a form of government in which a few powerful and privileged people rule
for their selfish interests.

Polity is another word for constitutional democracy. Aristotle saw

this as the rule of many in the interests of all and the best form of
government. All citizens have a voice in selecting leaders and framing the
laws, but formal constitutional procedures protect
rights. According to Aristotle, polity can degenerate into democracy,
which he defined as the rule of many in the interests of themselves; the
worst form of government. It is significant to point out at this juncture that
democracy is in contemporary world the
most desirable form of govenment. The status that democracy now
assumes is different from what it originally was.

Using the Aristotlean criterion of classification, Akindele and others

identify Monarchy, Aristocracy and Democracy as the 'legitimate form
of government' and Tyranny, Oligarchy and Mobocracy as their
degenerates or corrupt forms of government, respectively. Mobocracy is
defined as rule or domination by a mob or 'the mob that rules.'
According to Akindele et al. (1998: 14), it is a system of government
that is characterised by violence, and disorderliness and predicated on
hooliganism. It is important to note that this form of government could
prevail in any political system including democracies especially the
emerging ones in times of crisis and insurgency.
Besides Aristotle's classification, there have been several attempts by
political scientists to develop typology of systems of government using
different criteria. Although, there is no consensus on how best to classify
the various forms of government, some criteria for classification are
apparent in the works of Akindele et al. (1998), and others (see Okunade
(2001).

Conclusion

In this chapter, the significant role of government as the decision

making and enforcing agency in a state that controls a monopoly of
legitimate use of force was discussed. Three crucial roles identified
are- contract enforcement, resolving problems of collective action,
and maximisation of social welfare of the people. It is important to point
out that there are other functions of most modern governments such as
conduct of foreign policy, appointment and promotion of certain public and
civil servants, protection of territorial integrity of the state, etc. that may be
difficult to subsume under any of these universalistic roles of govemment.
These responsibilities are carried out by the three arms or organs or
branches of government namely, the legislature for rule making, the
executive for rule application, and the judiciary for rule interpretation
and adjudication. The structure, composition and membership of these
three organs vary from one political system to the other.

Generally speaking, there are different criteria that we can use to

classify systems or forms of government. In this chapter, we were able to,
discuss some popular typologies on the basis of different criteria including
size of the ruling class and degree of public involvement; patterns of power
sharing and distribution, institutional structure and relationship among the
major organs of government and underpinning political and economic
ideology,
 among others. Discussion under each category should not be seen as
exhaustive or mutually exclusive. In reality, most countries adopt a
combination of the various organisational structures and forms depending
on their peculiarities. For instance, Nigeria, at present, is a federal,
capitalist, presidential democratic political system. It should also be noted
that, some if not most of the forms
of government are antiquated (old-fashioned, out of date) in their
original form. Thus, forms of govermment like aristocracy, oligarchy,
fascism, totalitarianism, polity, mobocracy, feudalism, theocracy,
colonialism are irrelevant to modern trends of governance. They are only
significant to our
understanding of the types or forms of government, which is our
concern in this chapter.

Q&A Section

1. How did ancient thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, and the Romans
contribute to the classification of systems of government, and in what ways
did their classifications influence later political thought?

2. Explain the criteria used for classifying forms of government based

on the size of the ruling class and the degree of public involvement. Provide
examples of each category.

3. What are the patterns of power distribution in different forms of

government, and how do unitary, federal, and confederal systems differ in
their power structures?
 4. Discuss other forms of government, such as fascism, feudalism,
theocracy, totalitarianism, colonialism, and militarism, and analyze their
characteristics and historical contexts.

5. Reflect on Aristotle's classification of governments into legitimate

and corrupt forms based on who rules and in whose interest. Do you agree
with his distinctions?

6. Explain the evolution of Aristotle's classification system and how it

lasted for nearly twenty-five centuries. In what ways has it influenced
modern political thought?

7. Explore contemporary perspectives on democracy and its status in the

world today. How has the perception of democracy changed over time, and
what challenges does it face in the contemporary political landscape?

Further Study

GES103; Introduction to basic concepts in society and economy.

(Lafenwa Stephen Akinyemi & Jegede Ayodele)
(2) Fascism - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascism.
(3) Fascism | Definition, Meaning, Characteristics, Examples, u&
History .... https://www.britannica.com/topic/fascism.
(4) Fascism Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/fascism.
(5) . https://bing.com/search?q=Feudalism+definition.
(6) Feudalism - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feudalism.
 (7) Feudalism Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feudalism.
(8) Feudalism Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary.
https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/feudalism.
(9) https://bing.com/search?q=Theocracy+definition.
(10) Theocracy - Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracy.
(11) Theocracy Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theocracy.
(12) Theocracy | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica.
https://www.britannica.com/topic/theocracy.
(13) . https://bing.com/search?q=Totalitarianism+definition.
(14) Totalitarianism | Definition, Characteristics, Examples, &
Facts. https://www.britannica.com/topic/totalitarianism.
(15) Totalitarianism - Wikipedia.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totalitarianism.
(16) TOTALITARIANISM | English meaning - Cambridge
Dictionary.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/totalitarianism.
(17) . https://bing.com/search?q=Colonialism+definition.
(18) Colonialism Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/colonialism.
(19) What Is Colonialism? Definition and Examples - ThoughtCo.
https://www.thoughtco.com/colonialism-definition-and-examples-
5112779.
(20) COLONIALISM | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/colonialism.
(21) . https://bing.com/search?q=Militarism+definition.
 (22) MILITARISM | English meaning - Cambridge Dictionary.
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/militarism.
(23) Militarism Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster.
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/militarism.
(24) Militarism Definition & Meaning | Britannica Dictionary.
https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/militarism.
(25) undefined. http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/.
(26) en.wikipedia.org. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theocracy.
 Leadership in Government &
Political Parties
(For characteristics of a state, view the lecture on Understanding the
concept of Government)

Leadership can be defined as the ability to guide, direct, and influence

others towards achieving some set of desirable goals. A leader must have a
vision and the ability to serve.
Are leaders born or made? Behaviouralists, he said, believe leaders are
not born. A closer observation of this issue and it is evident that inherent
elements like genes and traits come to play in the inception of a leader, and
that experiences also play a major role in the charisma of a to-be leader.
Leadership is a situational factor. Persons who are leaders in one
situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations.

Essence of leadership

1). It entails the establishment of the direction of collective locomotion.

This simply means moving towards the direction of your vision.
2). Catalysing the developmental process for the attainment of societal
needs and aspiration.
3). Motivation, energisation, control and coordination of collective
efforts.

Four major characteristics of good leadership

 In all forms of government, whatever the basis of authority, we see the
same qualities of leadership, though the forms and beneficiaries vary... The
four chief marks of statesmanship/leadership are:

Consciousness: It means the sensing of principles and ends; the vision

of the future; diagnosis of the parts in the whole design of the near or
distant objective: clarity regarding the efficacy of the means to ends; equity
which determines the proportionate burden each group should justly bear on
the road to the goal. It requires ability to educate, communicate. enlighten
and to create awareness.

Coherence: It signifies that all the men and the agencies serving
government are brought and held together in concerted pursuit of a common
end, with no gaps, no overlapping, no incongruous public declarations, no
departmental or individual actions obstructive of the common end to be
reached. Leaders must be friendly, open and transparent, efficient and
effective and possess team spirit to demonstrate coherence in government.

Constancy: This connotes steadiness of vision and demeanour, loyalty

to purpose, attachment to rightness of policy from the beginning to the
conclusion, without wavering, hesitancy, self-contradiction or caprice; it
means dynamic dependability. Leaders must be able to demonstrate
commitment, integrity, accountability etc.

Conscientiousness: It means a sense of responsibility for achievement

of consciousness, coherence and constancy in harmony with the will of
the people, an ever-exacting acknowledgement of obligation. It implies
responsibility for initiative.
 The executive is the embodiment of all these qualities found diffused in
all the other organs of government. It does not displace them; it works with
them. But it crystallizes the four qualities we have distinguished, qualities
outstanding in the nature of government itself. It will, therefore, never be a
surprise to the political scientist, though it may be properly disturbing to all
democrats, that when the society is in a crisis of self -preservation against
dangers from within, and especially against dangers from without, there is
temporary vesting of additional and sometimes unlimited power in the
hands of the executive.

Political Parties & Party Systems

Many scholars have attempted to define political parties as institutions

of political interaction. Not unlike other concepts in political science, there
is no consensus on the meaning of political parties. Generally speaking, a
political party is an organised group of like-minded persons seeking to take
control of government through constitutional means. Let us consider
some of the definitions given by scholars.

Definitions

According to Edmund Burke, "a political party is a body of men

united for promoting by their joint endeavour the national interest,
upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed".
Tekena Tamuno sees it as "an organist group that either strives for
self-government or contest election on a conpetitive basis in order to
influence and control the personnel and policy of government".
Richard Rose conceives political party as "an organization (of
voluntary membership with ease of entry/acceptance and
exit/withdrawal) concerned with the expression of popular preferences
and contesting control of chief" policy making offices of government".

Features of a Political Party

Political parties have the following characteristics:

1). Adoption of a Manifesto: Political parties usually have a manifesto,

which is a document listing their intentions, aspirations and objectives.

2). Existence of manifest and permanent organization at the

national and local levels: They usually organize membership to reach all
nooks and crannies of the country by establishing their secretariats at the
national and sub national levels.

3). Self-conscious determination to capture power and hold power

of decision-making alone or in
coalition: The main objectives of political parties are to contest
elections, win and form government through constitutional means.

4). Capacity to strive for political education to elicit popular

support: Political parties usually
attempt to show that they are loyal to the electorate, and would serve
their interest if voted into power. Thus, they seek for the support of the
electorate through political enlightenment.
 5). Alignment to a political ideology: political parties usually tend to
align with a major socio-economic cum political ideology, such as
socialism, capitalism, liberalism, conservatism, which guides their
members' actions, especially when they come to power.

6). Political symbols for identification: For easy identification by their

supporters, political parties usually have party logos, badges, signs and
anthems as political symbols.

Functions of a Political Party

Political parties perform the following functions:

Representation - ability to articulate the views of the electorate and

capture it in campaign
platforms. Political parties help to bring together and represent differing
interests and opinions of a large number of people.

Elite Formation and Recruitment: It is through the parties that leaders

are selected by the
people through election. Parties also provide training ground for
politicians by equipping them with skills, knowledge and experience.

Goal Formation: Party platforms are used to set collective goal that
captures the interest of the
 various groups that make up the electorate.

Interest Articulation and Aggregntion: Parties provides platform for

the various groups in
society to express their interest, as well as aggregate (combine) the
various interests of groups within society.

Socialization and Mobilization: In their bid to elicit popular support,

parties engage in
political education and socialization of the people as issues they bring
up sets political agenda that make profound impression on the citizen, thus
shaping their political culture. They help to disseminate information on
government policies to the people, especially when they are in power.
Through effective mobilization, political parties help to arouse the interest
of the electorate towards participation in political activities such as
elections.

Organization of Government: Parties makes it easy to constitute a

government, they give
government stability, fosters cooperation among the arms of
government and help to create an environment of competition for political
positions.

Forum for National Unity and Integration: Political parties serve as a

forum for national
unity and integration by bringing together people from different
cultural, ethnic, religious and professional groups.
 Policy Formulation: It is important for you to note that the manifestoes
of political parties
serve as a ready source from which government policies can be
formulated.

Checking Government Excesses: Members of political parties outside

the government usually
serve as the opposition and often act as checks of government excesses.

It is important to point out at this juncture that there are different types
of political parties. They include;
Mass parties
Elite parties
Personality parties
Religious parties.
The mass parties are those whose membership is drawn from all
segments of society, for example, People's party. Labour party etc. An elite
party is also referred to as cadre party, often comprises only the wealthy,
well educated. professional and the influential. A party is described as
personality party if the guiding spirit and leadership are motivated by a
charismatic man or woman. Religious parties are mainly formed by
members of a particular religion.

Party System

This is a network of relationship through which parties interact and

influence the political process. Also, party system denotes the pattern of
political parties in a particular country. This may vary according to the
number of political parties in the country. Generally speaking, there are
three types of party system, namely, one party system, two-party system
and multi or multiple party systems. Each category has its advantages and
disadvantages. Let us examine these party systems one after the other.

One Party System

This is where only a single party is allowed to exist in a country often

through legislation. Advocates of single party contend that it promotes unity
by bringing together all the varying tendencies under one umbrella for
mutual understanding. Therefore, in single party system, multiple
candidates contest election in constituencies. Single party system is cheap
and inexpensive to operate. However, a single party system can lead to
regimentation of opinion. It is a system that provides no choice of
alternative political platform. Most times, single party system leads to
totalitarian regime or dictatorship.

Two Party System

These are found in political systems (countries) where two main or

dominant parties exist i.e. USA, Britain (before Tony Blair was elected as
the prime-minister), and Nigeria (under the Third republic). Though two
main political parties exist, other political parties are not denied
participation in the political process. However, those parties remain
insignificant to make any meaningful impact in the political landscape of
those countries (i.e. Britain - Liberal and Socialist parties). In two party
system, independent candidates are allowed to participate after they
satisfied a stipulated criteria set by the electoral law. Two party system help
to bring about stability in the polity by stirring and bringing about vibrant
opposition and alternative to the ruling parly. However, two party system
can make politics a bipolar affair (ruling - opposition) which can become
dangerous at times. It can as well degenerate into a destructive opposition
politics when the opposition group stays out of power over a long period of
time.

Multi-Party System

Multi- party system exist in political systems where more than two
political parties are allowed to exist i.e. France, India, Nigeria. South
Africa, Ethiopia etc.. It caters for plurality of interest more so in a
heterogeneous polity. It encourages diversity of opinion and constructive
opposition. It allows for freedom of association and self- expression. Multi-
party system gives greater opportunity for the electorate to identify with a
political party that reflects their views accurately. Nevertheless. it is prone
to instability and ineffective (it is very difficult for one party to win). It
makes parliamentary work to drag because of difficulty to reach
compromise,
thus it can weaken a government. Again a multiple party system
weakens the fused executive of the parliamentary system and increases the
chances of governmental instability of the parliamentary regime.

General Notes

Two institutions in the state include;

1. Formal; They are Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary. Bureaucracy
are also formal institutions.
2. Informal; They are powerful and influence the formal institutions.
e.g Family
 In any society, there are three forces;
Market Forces
State Forces
Civil Society Organizations

Q&A Section

1. How does the concept of leadership being a situational factor align

with the idea that leaders may not be effective in all situations?
2. In the context of leadership characteristics, how do consciousness and
coherence contribute to effective governance and decision-making?

3. Considering the four major characteristics of good leadership, how

might a leader balance constancy and the need for adaptability in a dynamic
political environment?

4. How does the temporary vesting of additional power in the executive

during a crisis impact democratic principles, and what safeguards can be
implemented to prevent abuse?

5. What role do political parties play in shaping and representing the

diverse interests and opinions of a society, as mentioned in the functions of
a political party?

6. How does the alignment to a political ideology influence the

decision-making process of a political party when in power?
 7. In the context of party systems, what advantages and disadvantages
are associated with a one-party system, especially in terms of promoting
unity and potential drawbacks?

8. How do multi-party systems contribute to the diversity of opinions in

a heterogeneous polity, and what challenges might arise in terms of
governance and decision-making?

9. What impact can informal institutions, such as family, have on the

formal institutions like the Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary in a state?

10. In the interplay between market forces, state forces, and civil society
organizations, how do these forces influence and shape the political
landscape of a society?

Summary and Key Take-aways

Leadership:
- Defined as the ability to guide, direct, and influence others toward
achieving desirable goals.
- Explores the debate on whether leaders are born or made, highlighting
the role of both inherent elements and experiences in shaping leadership.
- Emphasizes leadership as a situational factor, where individuals may
lead in one situation but not necessarily in others.

Essence of Leadership:
 1. Establishment of the direction of collective locomotion.
2. Catalyzing the developmental process for societal needs.
3. Motivation, energization, control, and coordination of collective
efforts.

Four Major Characteristics of Good Leadership:

1. Consciousness: Sensing principles, envisioning the future, and clarity
regarding means to ends.
2. Coherence: Bringing individuals and agencies together in concerted
pursuit of a common end.
3. Constancy: Steadiness of vision and demeanor, loyalty to purpose
without wavering.
4. Conscientiousness: Sense of responsibility for achieving
consciousness, coherence, and constancy in harmony with the will of the
people.

Executive and Leadership Qualities:

- The executive embodies qualities of consciousness, coherence,
constancy, and conscientiousness.
- During a crisis, additional power may be temporarily vested in the
executive for self-preservation.

Political Parties & Party Systems:

- Political parties are organized groups seeking control of government
through constitutional means.
- Characteristics of political parties include the adoption of a manifesto,
a national and local organization, alignment to political ideologies, and the
existence of political symbols.
 - Functions of political parties include representation, elite formation,
goal formation, interest articulation and aggregation, socialization and
mobilization, organization of government, forum for national unity and
integration, policy formulation, and checking government excesses.

Party System:
- Three types of party systems: one party, two-party, and multi-party
systems.
- One Party System: Single party allowed, can lead to regimentation
and lack of choice.
- Two Party System: Two dominant parties, allows for stability, can
lead to bipolar politics.
- Multi-Party System: More than two parties allowed, encourages
diversity and constructive opposition, but prone to instability.

General Notes:
- Two institutions in the state: Formal (Executive, Legislature, Judiciary,
Bureaucracy) and Informal (e.g., Family).
- Three forces in society: Market Forces, State Forces, Civil Society
Organizations.
 Pressure Groups & Civil Society
PRESSURE GROUPS

Definitions

These are groups of organized sections of the community promoting

their own (parochial)
interest by regularly putting pressures on the authorities (government)
or public opinion. This
is usually with the objective of securing favourable changes and
preventing detrimental policies
or decisions of government.

Pressure groups are association of individuals united by a common

interest, belief, activity, purpose that seek to achieve its objectives, further
its interest and enhance its status. Existence of pressure group is based on
the gradual enthronement of individualism and atmosphere of freedom.
This environment of freedom enabled individuals to band into groups in
furtherance of such interests. Pressure groups do not seek power, but they
influence government to make
favourable policies and decisions.

Types of Pressure Groups

Communal Groups: These are pressure groups where membership is

based on birth rather than recruitment. lt is rather embedded in the social
fabric. Examples are Ohaneze Ndi-lgbo, Arewa Peoples Congress, Odua
Peoples Congress, Afenifere, and Movement for the Survival of Ogoni
Peoples (MOSOP) etc.
Institutional groups: These are groups that are part of the machinery of
government. Their
influence is exerted through the machinery of government. They differ
from the others because they do not enjoy autonomy or independence.
Examples include bureaucracies, military etc.
Associational Groups: Consist of individuals banded together to
pursue shared but narrow
goals. This type is characterized by voluntary action and existence of
common interest. Examples are Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), Nigeia
Medical Association (NMA), Nigeria Union of Teachers (NUT),
NACCIMA etc.

Anoemic Groups: Consist of pressure groups that emerge

spontaneously in response to issues and usually extinct after the issue
became resolved. Examples are National Actualization of Sovereign State
of Biafra (MASSOB) etc.

Channels of Exerting Influence

Pressure groups exert their influence through the following institutions

and mediums:

The Bureaucracy
The Legislature
The Courts
 Political Parties
The Mass Media

Pressure Groups and Political Parties Compared

1. Pressure groups seek influence from outside, whereas political parties

seek to capture power.

2. Pressure groups have narrow issues that are particular to their

members, whereas political parties articulate broader interest in order to win
election.

3. Political parties sponsor candidate for election but pressure groups

use other means like aligning with a political party (i.e. Labour Party - TUC
in Britain)

4. While political parties strive to mobilize a majority of the voters to

gain power, pressure group serves to give special representation to
minorities.

5. They both contribute to political education but differ in approach.

CIVIL SOCIETY AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE

The Concept of Civil Society

In recent times, the concept of civil society has come to occupy a

central position in the
 contemporary discourse on African development in particular. Most
scholars perceive civil society as a "space" whose function is to mediate
between the individual and the State. In the words of Idumange:
"Civil society has been widely recognized as an essential 'third' sector.
Its strength can have a positive influence on the state and the market.
Civil society is therefore seen as an increasingly important agent for
promoting good govenance like transparency, effectiveness, openness,
responsiveness and accountability."
Over the last two decades, the idea of civil society and building
stronger, wider participation in governance has been, like good governance,
a foremost component of global political and developmnent fora. In Africa,
it has been observed that individual does not stand alone in his/her
relationship to the state. In his attempt to illustrate this, Osaghae argues:

As a student he presses his demands on, performs his duties through

student bodies and other organized groups; as a worker, he uses trade
unions, worker or professional groups as instruments; as an artisan, he
relates through the guild; as a market woman, through the formal or
informal market associations and groups; as a farmer, through several
formal and informal groups and so on. Somelimes, several groups
combine to make demands on government, especially at those times when
the levels of immiseration (poverty) and deprivation have become
unbearable.

To him, what this adds up to constitutes the basis for which civil society
becomes significant, especially in democratic governance. This is because
civil society suitably summarizes the intervening groups between the
individual and the state. Although the role of civil society was not clearly
articulated or emphasised in the initial packages of good governance, it was
later
 endorsed in the re-conceptualised definitions of the concept. In practice,
the concept of civil society has various origins, forms and denominations,
notwithstanding the various definitions.

It is basically understood as:

The realm of organised social life that is voluntary, selfgenerating,

self-supporting, autonomous from the State, and bound by a legal
order or set of shared rules. It is distinct from society in general in that it
involves citizens acting collectively in a public sphere to express their
interests, passions and ideas, exchange information, achieve mutual goals,
make demands on the State and hold State officials accountable.

Some other understandings take the notion of civil society from a

developmental perspective.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) for example,
advocates that, "a viable,
strong and informed civil society is central to good governance...
and should be [an] effective
partner in the process of development"

Civil society is considered as a "space" whose function is to mediate

between the individual
and the State. While there may not be a clear cut definition of civil
society, it is widely agreed
that it comprises institutions such as religious organizations, labour
unions, charities,
 community groups, non-profits. and the media. In advanced and
matured democratic systems
these institutions supplement formal processes such as voting and help
citizens shape the culture, politics, and economies of their nation. Practical
experiences have shown that civil society is not synonymous with Non-
Governmental Organizations (NGOS). Generally speaking and for this
paper, civil society refers to the sum total of those organizations and
networks which lie outside the formal state apparatus. It includes, but is not
limited to, the following:

(1) Social organizations including those representing the children, the

women, the youth,
the elderly or aged and people with disability and special needs;

(2) Professional organizations for example. association of artists,

engineers, health
practitioners, social workers, media, teachers, sports associations, legal
practitioners,
academia, business organizations, national chamber of commerce,
workers, employers,
industry and agriculture, as well as other private sector groups;

(3) Non-govermmental organizations (NGOS). community-based

organizations (CBO),
religious or faith organizations and other faith based organizations;

(4) Others including cultural, student, sports and other informal

organizations.
Q&A Section

1. What defines pressure groups according to the given options?

a) Organized sections of the community
b) Kitchen utensils
c) Rain protection gear
d) A type of pastry

2. How are communal groups characterized?

a) Based on birth, embedded in social fabric
b) Associated with cooking
c) Related to weather conditions
d) A type of musical ensemble

3. What are institutional groups part of?

a) Government machinery
b) Sports activities
c) Baking equipment
d) Celestial bodies

4. What describes associational groups?

a) Individuals pursuing shared narrow goals voluntarily
b) A type of dance
c) Scientific experiments
d) A method of cooking
 5. How do anoemic groups emerge?
a) Spontaneously in response to issues
b) In the kitchen
c) During weather changes
d) In musical performances

6. Through which channels do pressure groups exert influence?

a) Bureaucracy, legislature, courts, political parties, and mass media
b) Cooking utensils, musical instruments, and sports equipment
c) Natural phenomena
d) Celestial bodies and celestial events

7. What distinguishes pressure groups from political parties in terms of

primary objectives?
a) Pressure groups seek influence from outside
b) Political parties aim to bake pies
c) Both a and b
d) None of the above

8. Which components fall under civil society?

a) Social organizations, professional organizations, NGOs, CBOs, faith
organizations, and others
b) Celestial bodies and astronomical phenomena
c) Kitchen appliances and utensils
d) Sports equipment and musical instruments
 9. Why is civil society considered significant in democratic
governance?
a) Acts as a crucial intervening group between individuals and the state
b) Enhances good governance and accountability
c) All of the above
d) None of the above

10. How is civil society defined in the given options?

a) A space mediating between the individual and the state
b) A type of dance
c) An astronomical event
d) A cooking technique
Summary and Key Take-aways

Pressure Groups:

Definition:
Pressure groups are organized sections of the community that promote
their interests by regularly exerting pressure on authorities or public
opinion. They aim to secure favorable changes and prevent detrimental
government policies.

Types of Pressure Groups:

1. Communal Groups: Membership based on birth, embedded in the
social fabric.
2. Institutional Groups: Part of the government machinery, exert
influence through government structures.
 3. Associational Groups: Individuals band together to pursue shared
narrow goals voluntarily.
4. Anoemic Groups: Spontaneously emerge in response to issues and
often disappear after issue resolution.

Channels of Exerting Influence:

Pressure groups influence through bureaucracy, legislature, courts,
political parties, and mass media.

Comparison with Political Parties:

1. Pressure groups seek influence from outside, while political parties
aim to capture power.
2. Pressure groups have narrow issues for their members, while political
parties articulate broader interests.
3. Political parties sponsor candidates, pressure groups use other means
like aligning with a party.
4. Political parties mobilize a majority for power, pressure groups
provide special representation to minorities.
5. Both contribute to political education but differ in approach.

Civil Society and Its Significance:

Concept of Civil Society:

Civil society is seen as a space mediating between the individual and
the state, promoting good governance. It encompasses voluntary, self-
supporting, autonomous social life bound by shared rules.

Civil Society Components:

 1. Social organizations: Representing children, women, youth, elderly,
and people with disabilities.
2. Professional organizations: Associations of artists, engineers, health
practitioners, media, teachers, etc.
3. NGOs, CBOs, Faith Organizations: Non-governmental,
community-based, religious or faith-based groups.
4. Others: Cultural, student, sports, and informal organizations.

Significance of Civil Society:

Civil society acts as a crucial intervening group between individuals and
the state in democratic governance. It enhances good governance,
transparency, effectiveness, openness, responsiveness, and accountability.

Note: The concept of civil society has gained prominence in African

development discussions, emphasizing its role in promoting good
governance and citizen participation. The term encompasses a diverse range
of organizations and networks outside the formal state apparatus,
contributing to the cultural, political, and economic shaping of a nation.
 Past Questions Drive Links Obj and
Theory
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1HAflckPe77XNIeilBGL_uW9jlgGpJbJ
q/view?usp=drivesdk

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1GlnLV72HymlDXtguSE7BFS9Y
bbYKdtWC/edit?
usp=drivesdk&ouid=109885311890547306783&rtpof=true&sd=true

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1GlhCjD5223DQ0tgsav_zS6ulIpJM8rbq
/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Gv2B9k7lDDkxjINbSiGr_Ab9cbGNT
FuP/view?usp=drivesdk

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1H4FwnPopdwADjjF8fLEAsKK7VtKE
q0Ue/view?usp=drivesdk
 past Questions Compiled
Question 1:
In a parliamentary system, cabinet members can be removed from office
through:
A. Vote of Dismissal
B. Vote of No Trust
C. Vote of Disbandment
D. Vote of No Confidence

Question 2:
In a Westminster parliamentary model, more prominence is given to:
A. Committee Session
B. Third Reading Session
C. Report Session
D. Plenary Session

Question 3:
Under the Act of 1919, a constitutional political arrangement in India
was known as:
A. Gerontocracy
B. Monarchy
C. Diarchy
D. Theocracy

Question 4:
 Queen Elizabeth of Britain possesses:
A. Absolute Power
B. De Facto Authority
C. De Facto Power
D. De Jure Authority

Question 5:
The statement "Independent judiciary is a condition for good
governance and peaceful coexistence of the various groups and people of
any country" is credited to:
A. Kenneth Robertsway
B. Austin Ranny
C.Robert lasswell
D.Auguste Comte

Question 6:
In a parliamentary system of government, the Ministers are answerable
to:
A. President
B. Prime Minister
C. Legislature
D. Monarch

Question 7:
“Constant experience shows us that every man invested with power is
apt to abuse it, and to carry his authority until he is confronted with limits”
is an argument made by:
A. Jeremy Bentham
B. Baron de Montesquieu
C. Vilfredo Pareto
D. Karl Marx

Question 8:
A presidential system of government can also be called:
A. Parliamentary Presidentialism
B. Monarchical Presidentialism
C. Presidential Democracy
D. Congressional System

Question 9:
In the West German model, more prominence is given to:
A. Plenary Session
B. Report Session
C. Committee Session
D. 1st Reading Session

Question 10:
In Britain, it is believed that "the Queen does not err" because:
A. The Queen is the sovereign
B. The queen is the rule of law personified
C. The Queen does not participate in government deliberations
D. The Queen is above the law

Question 11:
 In a parliamentary system, there is the principle of:
A. Individual Responsibility
B. Single Responsibility
C. Consensual Responsibility
D. Collective Responsibility

Question 12:
POS 113's course title is:
A. Government and Politics
B. Nigerian Government and Politics
C. The Study of Politics and Government
D. Organization of Government

Question 13:
Fusion of power has been criticized by several scholars in the field of
politics, basically for its tendency towards:
A. Promoting wide concentration of power in an organ of government
B. Promoting mutual suspicion
C. Promoting mutual cooperation among the organs of government
D. Promoting equality of power among the organs of government

Question 14:
A system of government where a clear distinction is made between the
head of the state and the head of government is known as:
A. Monarchy
B. Parliamentarianism
C. Fascism
 D. Nazism

Question 15:
Who posited that "the principle of complete independence of the
judiciary from the Executive is the foundation of many things in our island
life."
A. Alex Tocqueville
B. Thomas Hobbes
C. Plato
D. Winston Churchill

Question 16:
The two distinct ways through which governmental power can be
divided:
A. Territorial and Functional
B. Structural and Functional
C. Organizational and Territorial
D. Functional and Divisional

Question 17:
In a presidential system of government, the cabinet is accountable to:
A. Parliament
B. Monarch
C. President
D. Legislature

Question 18:
 In a democratic form of government, the ultimate political power dwells
with:
A. Nobles
B. Aristocrats
C. People
D. Oligarchs

Question 19:
A head of state can dissolve the legislative house in a:
A. Presidential System
B. Federal System
C. Monarchical System
D. Parliamentary System

Question 20:
For Aristotle, government originated from:
A. Treaty of Europe
B. Patriarchy
C. Concert of Africa
D. League of Nations

Question 21:
The term Federation emanated from the Latin word:
A. Feudus
B. Fodues
C. Feidus
D. Foedus
 Question 22:
The raison d'etre of separation of power is:
A. To prevent despotism
B. To prevent theocracy
C. To denounce aristocracy
D. To promote Democracy

Question 23:
The two main types of democracy are:
A. Monarchical and Indirect Democracy
B. Direct and Congressional Democracy
C. Organizational and Indirect Democracy
D. Direct and Representative Democracy

Question 24:
A system of government in which two or three levels of government are
constitutionally administered under a single authority:
A. Confederal System
B. Unitary System
C. regional system
D. federal system

Question 25:
... is a form of government in which political offices are only given to
the nobles.
A. Democracy
 B. Aristocracy
C. Fascism
D. Feudalism

Question 26:
In India, the head of state is currently known as:
A. Prime Minister
B. Czar
C. King
D. President

Question 27:
The incumbent US President Barrack Obama belongs to the:
A. Republican Party
B. Labour Party
C. Democratic Party
D. Conservative Party

Question 28:
In a parliamentary system of government, the Chief Executive is
elected/appointed by the:
A. People
B. Masses
C. Ministers
D. Legislature

Question 29:
In a presidential system, there is the principle of:
A. Collective Responsibility
B. Collative Responsibility
C.consensual responsibility
D.individual Responsibility

Question 30:
In parliamentarianism, the head of government has a/an:
A. Absolute Power
B. De Jure Power
C. De Facto Authority
D. De Jure Authority

Part B
Question 1:
In the words of Aristotle, oligarchy is a deviant form of:
A. Aristocracy
B. Plutocracy
C. Gerontocracy
D. Democracy

Question 2:
In the cabinet system, the executive head is elected/appointed by the:
A. People
B. Masses
C. Ministers
D. Legislature
 Question 3:
In the words of _________ "constant experience shows us that every
man invested with power is apt to abuse it, and to carry his authority until
he is confronted with limits
A. Jeremy Bentham
B. Baron de Montesquieu
C. Vilfredo Pareto
D. Karl Marx

Question 4:
The point of departure of Socialism is:
A. Establishment of a market economy
B. Creation of communalism
C. Dethronement of capitalism
D. Establishment of feudalism

Question 5:
The major statutorily role of the judiciary is:
A. Interpretation of the law
B. Law enforcement
C. oversight duties
D. law making

Question 6:
In the options below, identify the two types of democracy:
A. Monarchical and timocratic democracy
B. Direct and congressional democracy
C. Organisational and indirect democracy
D. Direct and representative democracy

Question 7:
In a cabinet system, the Ministers are answerable to the:
A. President
B. Prime Minister
C. Legislature
D. Monarch

Question 8:
Montesquieu is often associated with the idea of:
A. Separation of powers
B. Realpolitik
C. Democracy

Question 9:
In a presidential system of government, the cabinet is accountable to:
A. Parliament
B. Monarch
C. President
D. Legislature