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 UNIT 4- INFORMATION PROCESSING, MEMORY, AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

• it is a cognitive theoretical framework

that focuses on how knowledge enters,
stored, and is retrieved from our
memory.
• it’s like how a computer work.
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 UNIT 4- INFORMATION PROCESSING, MEMORY, AND PROBLEM-SOLVING

Information Processing Theory

• they consider learning as largely an internal process, not
an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorist
thought)
• they look into how we receive, perceive, store, and
receive information
• they believe that how a person thinks about and
interprets what he/ she receives, shapes what he/ she
will learn
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 Types of Knowledge that the Learner may Received
1. General vs Specific- this involves whether the
knowledge is useful in many tasks or only in
one.
Ex. General knowledge is associated with verbal ability.
2. Declarative- refers to factual knowledge. They
relate to the nature of how things are.
Ex. your name, address, definition of terms.
3. Procedural- this includes knowledge on how to do
things.
Ex. making a lesson plan, baking a cake, paint a wall, etc.
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 Types of Knowledge that the Learner may Received

4. Episodic- this includes memories of life events.

Ex. High school graduation, debut or 18th birthday

5. Conditional- this is about” knowing when and

why” to apply declarative or procedural
strategies
Ex. When and why you apply metacognitive
strategies in your studies?
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 Stages in the Information Processing Theory (IPT)
The stages of IPT involve the :
functioning of the senses, sensory register, short term
memory (STM), and the long term memory (LTM).

THE THREE (3) STAGES IN IPT:

1. Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended to.
2. Storage- it is where the information is stored for a brief or
extended period of time depending upon the process following
encoding.
3. Retrieval – the information is brought back at the appropriate
time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of
effective memory.
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 IPT REVOLVE AROUND THE 3 MAIN STAGES IN THE MEMORY PROCESS:
1. Sensory Register- the first step in the IP model , and
holds all sensory information for a very brief time.
 Capacity- the mind receives a great amount of
information but it is more than what our minds can
hold or perceive.
 Duration- the sensory register only holds the
information for an extremely brief period- in the
order of 1 to 3 seconds.
There is a difference in duration based on modality:
Auditory is more persistent than Visual.
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 Sensory Register
The Role of Attention
 To bring information into CONSCIOUSNESS, it is necessary that
we give ATTENTION to it.
Such that we can only perceive and remember later those
things that pass through our attention “gate”.
 Getting through this attention filter is done:
when the learner is interested in the material, when there is
conscious control over attention, or when information involves
novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.

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 Sensory Register
 Before information is perceived, it is known as “pre
categorical” information.
This means that until that point, the learner has not
established a determination of the categorical membership
of the information.
To this point, the information is coming in as
uninterpreted patterns of stimuli.
Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge,
interpret, and place the meaning to the stimuli.

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 2. Short Term Memory (STM) or the Working Memory
 Capacity – can only hold 5-9 “ chunks” of information.
It is called working memory because it is where new
information is temporarily placed while it is mentally processed.
It maintains information for a limited time.

 Duration- around 18 seconds or less.

***To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds or less,

you need to do maintenance rehearsal.

Ex. Repeat a phone/ mobile number just given to you over

and over in order not to loss the information
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 3. Long Term Memory (LTM)
The LTM is the final or permanent storing
house for memory information.
It holds the stored information until needed
again.

 Capacity- LTM has unlimited capacity

 Duration- duration in the LTM is indefinite.

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 Graphic organizer: The information Processing Model

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 The information Processing Model
Information is received through the senses and goes
to the sensory memory for a very brief amount of time.
If not found relevant , information may decay.
It goes to the STM and if given attention and is
perceived and found to be relevant, it is sent to the LTM.
If not properly encoded, forgetting occurs.

Different cognitive processes applied to the

information will determine if information can be
retrieved when needed later.
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 Executive Control Processes
It involves the executive processor or what is
referred to as metacognitive skills.
These processes guide the flow of information through
the system, help the learner informed decisions about how
to categorize, organize, or interpret information.

Examples of processes are:

ATTENTION, REHEARSALS, and ORGANIZATION.
 Forgetting- it is the inability to retrieve or access
information when needed.
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 Executive Control Processes
TWO Main Ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

1. Decay- information is not attended to, and

eventually fades away. Very prevalent in STM
or working memory.

1. Interference- new or old information blocks

access to the information in question.
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 Methods for Increasing Retrieval Information

1.Rehearsal- this is repeating information

verbatim, either mentally or aloud.

2. Meaningful learning- this is making

connections between new information and prior
knowledge.
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 Methods for Increasing Retrieval Information
3. Organization- it is making connections among
various pieces of information . Information that
is organized efficiently should be recalled.

4. Elaboration- this is adding additional ideas to

new information based on what one already
knows. It is connecting new information with
old, to gain meaning.
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 Methods…

5. Visual imagery- this means forming a “picture” of

the information.
6. Generation- things we “produce” are easier to
remember than things we hear.
7.Context- remembering the situation helps recover
the information.
8. Personalization- it is making the information
relevant to the individual.
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 Other Memory Methods
1. Serial Position Effect ( recency and primary)- one will
remember the beginning and end of a list most readily.
2. Part learning- break up the list or “chunk” information to
increase memorization.
3. Distributed Practice- break up learning sessions rather than
cramming all the information at once or Massed Practice.
4. Mnemonic aids- these are memory techniques that learners
may employ to help them retain or retrieve information
effectively.
Ex. Acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and
associations techniques
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 Summary of Age Trends in Information Processing
Information Processing Reasoning and Problem Solving
*** Infancy and Toddlerhood
Prenatal – 2 years old

• Processing speed is slow due to limited • Fetuses can remember simple things for * Infants can do rudimentary problem
myelination, knowledge, and language. a few weeks. solving, like trial and error.

• Infants are capable of paying attention • Deferred imitation studies suggest that • Toddlers can induce a simple abstract
and resisting distractions. infants can remember action sequences rule or infer attributes of a thing based
for several weeks and that their memory on subtle language distinctions.
• The A- not B task shows that infants increases steadily.
have some inhibitory control. • They seek to explain and make sense of
• Yet early events are seldom verbally their world.
• Individual differences appear in infancy. recalled due to childhood amnesia.
• Between 3 and 5 years, children learn
• Speed of processing increases. • Long-term memory improves from 3 to 5 more effective problem-solving
tears, but may need to be supported by strategies through experience or
• Executive functions improve cues. instruction.
dramatically from 3-5 years . Children • They understand that interference is a
become able to do the card rule • Children are particularly susceptible to source of knowledge.
switching task. interference.
• Children make source monitoring errors. • They can reason by analogy, and in
• Children are poor at using memory simple tasks, deduce when evidence is
strategies. sufficient to draw conclusions. That is,
preschoolers are logical.
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 Summary of Age Trends in Information Processing

Note: Continuation of this material will be sent to Gc.

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 Summary: Memory ( Applying it at home as a parent or in school as a
teacher)
1. There are two common errors in memory:
a. Forgetting which is due to decay, retrieval
problems, and interference.

b. False memories are intelligent

constructions of things that did not happen.
Source monitoring error- refers to forgetting
the source of information.
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 Summary: Memory

2. Most memory is a fuzzy trace rather than a

verbatim trace. To remember details, learners
must use memory strategies.
3. Memory strategies such as mnemonics are
particularly appropriate material that is not
meaningful yet to the student.
Teachers should teach mnemonics
strategies.
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 Summary: Memory
4.Teachers should help learners connect
pieces of knowledge, provide multiple
exposures to the material, space
practice, and test frequently.
Teachers should converse with learners
about things to be remembered.

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 Summary: Reasoning and Problem Solving

1. Reasoning usually involves some kind of

inference.
Problem-solving is a type of reasoning.
School-based problems tend to be artificial
and well-structured, while real-world
problems are ill-structured.
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 Summary: Reasoning and Problem Solving

2. Antecedents of individual differences

in reasoning include information processing
ability, prior knowledge, and quality of
parenting.
Poor reasoning ability can effect
functioning in all domains of life, including
academic and social domains.
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 Summary: Reasoning and Problem Solving

3. Teachers can promote reasoning skills

by increasing knowledge, requiring
explanations, teaching effective strategies
( through modeling, feedback, and
metacognition), fostering classroom argument,
giving direct training, and guiding inquiry-
based lessons.
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 Putting the Theories to Work: The case of learning Mathematics
1. Behaviorist view:( BF Skinner) Math
learning is hierarchical, with basic skills
learned first through drill and practice and
direct instruction.

2. Piagetian constructivist view: Learners

construct their own arithmetic.
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 Putting the Theories to Work: The case of learning Mathematics
3. The Sociocultural view: ( Vygotsky)
Mathematics is a cultural tool acquired in
interaction with others.

4. Information Processing view: (IPT)

Age trends and individual differences in
math ability are due to prior knowledge,
processing speed, and executive functions.
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