UNIT-IV: INNOVATIONS IN TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS

- PROGRAMMED LEARNING – CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES

Meaning and concept of programmed learning

Programmed Learning is a self-instructional material which can be presented in a

book form or through Teaching Machine. Programmed Learning has been stated as a method
of giving individualized instructions in which the student is active and proceeds at his own
pace and is provided with immediate knowledge of results. The physical presence of teacher
is not essential in the strategy. It is a new strategy of teaching and is highly individualized
instructional strategy for the modification of behaviour. It is used for instructional purpose
but it can also be employed as a mechanism of feedback device for improving teaching
efficiency.

Generally, the learning performed or instruction provided by a teaching machine or

programmed textbook is referred to as Programmed Learning or Instruction. Let us seek some
help from the definitions put forward by various scholars regarding the meaning of the term
Programmed Learning.

1. Smith and Moore (1962) - Programmed Learning or Instruction is the process of

arranging the material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the
students from a familiar background into a complex and new set of concepts, principles
and understanding.
2. Jacobs and others (1996) – Self instructional programmes are educational materials from
which the students learn. These programmes can be used with many types of students
and subject-matter,either by themselves,hence the name “Self-instruction” or in
combination with other instructional techniques.
3. Espich and Williams (1967) – Programmed Instruction is a planned sequence of
experience, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus responses relationship, which has
proven to be effective.
4. GOM Leith (1966) – Programme is a sequence of small steps of instructional material
(called Frames), most of which require a respond to be made by completing a blank
space in a sentence. To ensure that expected responses are given a system of cueing is
applied, and each response is verified by the provision of immediate knowledge of
results. Such a sequence is intended to be worked at the learners’ own pace as
individualized self-instruction.
5. Susan Markle (1969) – It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of
instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviour of
each and every acceptable student.
6. NS Mavi (1984) - Programmed Instruction is a technique of converting the life
instructional process into self-learning or auto instructional readable material in the form
of micro sequences (the segments of subject matter) which learners are required to read,

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 make some right or wrong responses or confirmed the right response and attain complete
mastery of the concepts explained in the micro sequences.
Hence, Programmed Learning is a systematically planned, empirically
establish an effectively controlled self-instructional technique for providing
individualized instruction to the learner through logically sequenced small segments of
the subject matter by using the principles of operant conditioning and schedules of
reinforcement.

Nature of Programmed Learning

1. It is related with the law of effect.

2. Here learning experience is logically sequenced into small segments.
3. It follows the sequential step by step procedure naming each step as frame.
4. Every frame requires immediate response depending on which next item of information
is to be presented.
5. It an individualized instructional method with small step of instruction.
6. It requires active participation in the learning situation and self evaluation of the learner.

Characteristics of Programmed Learning

1. Programmed Learning is a self-instructional device which can be used by the individual

himself for giving or receiving instructions from a variety of sources like programmed
textbook, teaching machine, computers etc, without the help of the teacher.
2. The instructional material is broken down into small steps called frames by maintaining a
logical sequence among the frames
3. For sequential presentation of the programmed material the programmer must know the
entry behaviour of the learner which guides the programmer where to start writing of the
frame, how to proceed throughout the whole programme. The programmer has to know
the terminal behaviour which the student required to achieve for the outlining of the
content properly.
4. In the programmed instructional material one segment of knowledge or frame is given to
the learner at a time. A learner must read the content of the frame and responds the
question given below correctly.
5. The next step of programmed instruction is followed by feedback which is related with
the theory of reinforcement. Reinforcement is a reward. After reading the frame the
learner is expected to answer the question correctly and if the learner can give correct
response he should immediately be rewarded through feedback (reinforcement). If he is
incorrect, he should read the frame again.
6. In learning through programmed instructional material there is an interaction between the
learner and the learning material. This interaction motivates the learner to learn and
respond actively
7. It gives more emphasis on the individual differences of the learner and allow them to
learn individually depending upon his own rate of speed.
8. An essential characteristic of the programme instruction is that the student must make
overt response. Overt response facilitates learning when the response is relevant to the

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 content of the lesson. Overt response of the learner can readily be observed, measured
and effectively controlled.
9. The whole programme material undergoes continuous evaluation which is necessary to
improve the learning material on one hand and student performance on the other.

PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

The studies and researches in the field of Programmed Learning have led to the
establishment of some fundamental principles associated with a good Programmed Learning
strategy. These principles are functional in nature and explain the procedure of Programmed
Learning strategy. A brief description of these principles has been given as under:

1. Principle of Small Step: The subject matter is broken down into a sequence of small
steps. A student can take a step at a time. The basic point of this principle is learning
become more fruitful when the content matter is presented to the learner in a precise
small step. While presenting the content through small steps the programmer should
maintain a meaningful sequence of the whole content. The sequential arrangement of
ideas is called “frames”. One frame is presented to the learner at a time with a question
below covering the content of the frame. The question must be responded by the learner.

2. Principle of Active Responding: This principle rests on the assumption that a learner
learns better by being active. In Programmed Learning, the learner may remain active if
he responds actively to every frame presented to him. Therefore, a good Programmed
should make the learner actively involves in the learning process. To get correct and
active response of the learner in each frame, the programmer should clear the content of
the frame in an easy and suitable manner. This will make the learner curious and busy.

3. Principle of Immediate Reinforcement: The student learns best if he confirms his

response immediately. The confirmation provides the reinforcement to the learner. The
psychological phenomenon of reinforcement is the basis of this principle. A person
learns better when he is motivated to learn by receiving information of the result just
immediately after responding. Therefore, in a good programme, appropriate
consideration is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by
information is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by informing
him about the correctness of his response.

4. Principle of Self-pacing: In Programmed Learning each student can learn each frame as
slowly or as quickly as he can. Programmed learning believes in the principle of
individual differences of the pupil. According to it, learners can learn better when they
are allowed to learn at their own pace or ability. Programmed learning being a self
instructional material allows this facility to the learner. Here, the learner can respond and
proceed from one frame to another keeping his own time without bothering of others.

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5. Principle of Student-testing: Continuous process of evaluation on the part of the learner
is essential for better learning. Here, in this method; the learner has to write the record of
his response for each frame on a response-sheet. This detailed record helps the
programmer in revising and making necessary correction of the programme.

- TYPES/STYLES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING – LINEAR AND

BRANCHING

In Programmed Learning, the presentation of instructional material or subject matter

to the learner in a suitable form is terms as programming. Linear and Branching type/style of
programming have emerged on account of researchers and experimental studies in the field of
Programmed Learning.

Linear or Extrinsic Programming/Styles:

The credit for propagating the Linear programming style goes to Prof. BF Skinner
(1954) of Harvard University who developed this style of Programmed Learning. It is directly
related with his theory of “Operant Conditioning” and is based on the assumption that human
behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step, with suitable reinforcement
for each desired response. Consequently, in this programming, the instructional material is
sequenced into a number of meaningful small steps, called frames. These frames are
presented to the learner in the arranged sequence, one at a time. The learner is required to
respond actively at each step. Immediately after responding, the learner is given information
about the correctness of his response. It reinforces his behaviour and he may be motivated to
learn the next frame in the arranged sequence. By proceeding from one step to another, the
learner may be able to acquire the desired learning experiences.

The sequence of frames and path of learning in this style is systematic and linear. That
is why; the type of programming is referred to as ‘linear’. Here all the learners have to
proceed through the same frames and in the same order. All the students have to read and
respond to the same frame. But the individual student has freedom to complete the
programmed at his own rate of speed. The whole instructional procedure is well controlled.
However, this control is quite extrinsic exercised by the programmer and so, the linear style
is also referred to as extrinsic programming.
The linear programming lays great emphasis on making the sequences of response
errorless. For this purpose, the steps are made so small and sequenced in such a way that the
learner makes only correct responses throughout the instruction process and receives, in
consequences, only positive reinforcement. If the learner does not respond correctly to a
particular frame, he may be required to repeat the frame or be acquainted with the correct
response. In Linear style the chances of correctness are as high as 95%. But in any case, the
learner is not allowed to move to the next frame unless he responds correctly to the present
frame.

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 In Linear programming there is a provision of ‘Skipping method’ in the path of
learning of the frames. If the learner continuously giving correct response for some
frames (more than half of the total frames), he is given a test item and if he provides
correct response to the test item, he his permitted to jump over to the last frame of the
programme. This is known as skipping method. The reason of the possibility of this
skipping method is that the difficulty level ofsome frames (more than half of the total
frames) is equivalent to the difficulty level of the rest of the other frames (the other half
of the total frames).
Skipping Method

1 2 3 4 5 6 10

(Test given)
Frames
Arrangement of Frames in Linear Programming

Frames

11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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Entry behaviour Terminal behaviour
1
Path of learning

Example : Our Solar System

Frame 1 : The Earth on which we live, is an important member of the family of our solar
system. In the nuclear of this solar system is the Sun. It has eight planets (now a
day’s leaving the Pluto) revolving around it on account of the gravitational
force. The Earth is one of them that revolve ___________ the Sun on account of
___________ force.
Frame 2 : In addition to the eight planets, the satellites of these planets, comets, meteors
and asteroids also are the members of the ___________. All these planets and
the other heavenly bodies revolve around the ___________ in their own.
Response : Solar system; Sun;
Orbit.
In this manner, the learners may proceed on their self-learning path by going from one frame
to another frame arranged in a sequential and systematic way.

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 Chief Features of Characteristics of Linear Programmed/Style

1. In the Linear programming frames are arranged in a single-track programme. Every

learner has to follow the same path.
2. Learning materials are presented in a sequential order in small steps carrying a single
idea.
3. For each frame the learner has to answer, one question. Only one response is enough.
4. By introducing small steps material, it tries to minimize the rate of error response of the
learner.
5. In the Linear style of programming prompts are used as cues in the frame to guide the
learner give correct response.
6. Another characteristic of Linear programming is that self-pacing on the part of the
learner is allowed here. One can learn by taking his own time without any hurry.
Applying the principle of Branching, Skinner has developed Skinner Linear Programme
or ‘Skip Linear’ or Skipping Method. In this type, the learner is given test question at
certain points after giving some teaching frames. If the learner can respond correctly, he
is directed to skip over some part of the programme and can go to another part or other
proceeding frame of the programme.
7. After answering the question given below the frame the learner immediately gets the
feedback about the correctness of the response. It serves as a reinforcement on the part of
the learner. If he gives wrong answer, he is directed to read the frame again.
8. Active response on the part of the learner is another characteristic of the Linear
programming. Reinforcement serves as motivating factor for active response on the part
of the learner.
9. The learner is immediately informed about his performance. The programmer does not
like to reveal the response (which is given on the top of next frame) until the learner has
registered his response.
10. In the linear programming the learner must go through every step and if one cannot
answer the question correctly, he should not proceed to the next frame further. There is
direction to read the frame again and after acquiring the mastery of that frame one can
proceed to the next frame. To give the correct response a critical observation and
comprehension of the frame is necessary on the part of the learner.

Branching or Intrinsic Programming/Style:

Branching style was developed by an American Psychologist Norman A Crowder

(1955). In this style of programming, frames are relatively bigger in size than the Linear
frame and sometimes contain 2 or 3 ideas of related sequence and often appeared as page in
an ordinary text book. After reading the page or (frame) the learner has to choose the correct
answer from the multiple-choice items, asked at the end of the frame. If the learner can
choose the correct answer, he can proceed to the next frame maintaining the main teaching
sequence or line. If the learner gives wrong response, he is directed to a remedial frame
where his mistake is explained.

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 After giving necessary explanation to correct his mistake he is again directed to the
original frame of the main line or teaching sequence so that he can make another attempt or
read the frame again to give the correct response. Each alternative answer is associated with a
page number which directs the learner to go to another frame.
In the Branching style errors of the learner are expected to occur before hand. The errors
made by the learner are diagnosed and necessary remedial instructions are provided to them.
Due to the above-mentioned complicacy in the Branching style all the learners cannot follow
the same path and therefore they are branched. Crowder points out “Branching programme is
like a human tutor and ‘talks back’ to the learner”.
When the frames of a Branching Programme are presented in a book form, the book is
called ‘Scrambled book’. Here, in the Scrambled book correct frames are not arranged in
normal sequence. The alternative frame succeeding to a given frame is put on widely
throughout the book. These alternative frames send the learner to various directions
according to his requirement to follow the main sequential frame. The learner need not go
through all the pages in the Scrambled book. According to the response of the learner the
choice of the page is directed in the book itself.

An example of Simple form of Branching

R R

1 2 3

R R
In the above diagram the main sequential frames are 1, 2 and 3 (if the learner makes no
error). If the learner makes any error in the multiple-choice items given under each frame, he
has to go along with various paths as directed in the frames. Frame 1 has two branches of Rs
(Remedial frames) and so on and so forth.

The example of Complex Branching Programmed is given below

R
R
R

1 2 3

R
R
R

= Represents main frame in the sequence

R = Represents remedial frames

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Content Frame :(a)Repeating student/learner response
(b)Positive Confirmation
(c)New Information
(d)Question

Remedial Frame :(a)Repeating the learner response

(b)Negative Confirmation
(c)Reason as to why he is wrong
(d)Further explanation in simple language

Technique in Branching Styles or Programmed

Branching style or programme can be arranged in two different techniques. They

are named as:
(i) Backward Branching, and
(ii) Forward Branching

(i) Backward Branching: If the learner can give a correct response, he can proceed
from first frame to the second sequentially. If the learner gives wrong response he is
directed to a remedial frame where more help is given to make the learner
understand the concept more clearly, so that he can apply better logic to solve the
problem and can give correct response. After reading the remedial frame carefully,
the learner is again directed to the original frame of the main line. On the basis of the
knowledge derived from the remedial material he will then be able to give the
correct response to the original frame. Here the learner goes to the same frame twice,
once before the remedial frame and secondly after the remedial material.

Example Of Backward Branching

Correct response

Main/Original Main/Original
Frame 1 Frame 2
Wrong response

Returning to

Main frame no.1

Remedial frame

Forward Branching: In this type of Branching, whether the learner can make correct
response or wrong response he must go progressing new pages of Parallel frame where

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 additional information or detailed information in the form of remedial frame is given. Here
the learner is test again and the explanation is followed by another parallel questions. After
answering the question correctly, the learner can proceed to the next frame of the main line.
(frame no 2). Here, the reason why Parallel frame is given to the learners is just to make them
feel that they are not going back to the main line frame but proceed to the next frame of the
main line.

Diagram of Forward Branching

Main line
Main / Original frame Main / Original frame
No. 1 No. 2

Correct response wrong response

Parallel Frame
All proceed to next frame of main line

Characteristic of Branching style of programming

1. In the Branching style, learning takes place through the traditional tutorial method.
Here the student can get help of a responsive good tutor without his physical
presence.
2. As the frames of the Branching style are relatively bigger in size the programmer here
gets the chance to expand his ideas and to introduce more materials related to the
main content in a better way.
3. In the Branching programme provision of more freedom on the part of the learner is
allowed. They are given chance to choose the answer according to their own choice
and for wrong response they are to read the remedial frame.
4. Branching programme makes intelligent use of errors of the learners. It leads the
learner to see for himself where he committed error and gives him the opportunity to
correct his own error by learning the things correctly.
5. In the Branching style of programming there are branches of frames catering to the
diversified responses of the learner. Here, the learner cannot follow the single-track
sequence where only correct frames are given. Therefore, in the Branching style the
programmed material takes the form of a programmed text or teaching machines.
When it is presented in a book form it is called Scrambled Book.
6. Branching style of programming develops in student the power of discrimination, the
sense of creativity, problem solving attitude and integrative and judgmental learning.
7. Branching programme gives more detail information rather than facts, definitions and
basic skill in same areas.

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 Example of Branching style or programme:

Programme Page:1:-The Earth has been evolved out of the Sun. Like the Earth, many of its
constituents got separated from it, but remained attached to it on account of its gravitational
power. They still may be seen to revolve around their parent body, i.e Sun. These are known
as planets. There are eight such planets including our Earth. There are some heavenly bodies
named as satellites in the solar system. They can be observed to revolve around their
respective planets. The Moon is one of such satellites. It revolves around the Earth.

Question : What is Solar System?

(a) The Sun and the illuminated space around it is known as the solar system.
(b) The Solar system consists of the Sun and our Earth.
(c) The Solar system consists of the Sun and its eight planets.
(d) The Solar system consists of the Sun, its eight main planets, dwarf planets,
satellites of the planets and other heavenly bodies like asteroids, comets and
meteors.

Answer :

(a) Your answer is not correct. For the correct answer, you are required to study
the given subject material on page 1. For knowing about the illuminated space
around the Sun, you should read the subject material given on page 15.
(b) Your answer is not correct. For the correct answer try to read carefully the
content material provided on page 1. For knowing the position of the Earth in
the solar system and the relationship between the Sun and the Earth, you may
read the content material given on page 9.
(c) Your answer is not fully correct. You have to once again glance on the page 1
for the correct understanding. However, for knowing well about the
relationship of the Sun with its eight planets and the necessary description
about these planets you should try to read material provided in page 4, 10 and
14.
(d) Your answer is correct. You can now proceed on page 2 for your further
learning.

*** (Note : Here all the above cited pages belong to the pages of the programmed test for
illustration.)

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 Comparison of Linear and Branching Programming

Components for
Linear Programming Branching Programming
Comparison

1. Originator/ B.F. Skinner Norman A Crowder

Propagator

2. Basic or
Operant Conditioning Electric
Background
concept

The size of the frame is small, Large, one or two ideas or

3. Size of step or
frame 15 – 25 words paragraphs or even page

Large Small
4. Number of Step

Logical sequence or Logical

5. Rule for Logical subject matter analysis
sequencing subject matter analysis

(a) In scrambled book, the pages

(a) The usual textbook
6. Presentation do not follow the normal
(a) The Type of containing page, in normal
sequence.
text-book sequence
(b)Teaching (b) Complicated involving high
machine (b) Simple, involving less cost
cost

Constructed responses
Selection from the multiple
occasionally through multiple
7. Response Mode choice
choice.

8. Purpose of Fixing of Learning Measure of Learning

response

Correctness of the responses. Correctness of the response.

No remedy is suggested for Remedial instruction follows the
9. Reinforcement
incorrect responses. incorrect responses.

About 5% 20% in general

10. Error rate

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 Higher Classes.

Lower Classes. Higher order teaching objectives.

Knowledge & Understanding
Objectives Remedial teaching in
Correspondence education correspondence education.
11. Utility and Normal & Less Intelligent Talented and creative pupils.
appropriateness More useful in concept
formation More useful in concept
Best used in teaching facts, comparison.
definitions and basic skills.
Best used in the area beyond
facts, definition or basic skill.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Programmed Learning may prove quite useful to the students, teachers and the
educational administrators from various angles. Its advantages and disadvantages may be
summarized as under

Advantages.

1. Programmed Learning may help in individualizing the instructional process. The scope
of self-pacing gives opportunity to the students for learning with their own speed without
obstructing the path of others.
2. It provides feeding material to the self-instructional devices such as computer, teaching
machine, and programmed text such devices help the students in the task of self-learning
and solve problem of dearth of trained and effective teachers.
3. It may free the teachers from the hard labour and complexities of routine class activities.
It may help them bear a larger load of the students and devote their time to more creative
activities.
4. The social setting of the classroom may be properly improved and the problem of
discipline gets solved automatically with the help of programmed instruction.
5. It proves an effective teaching strategy on account of-
a) The content may be thoroughly analysed and presented in a suitable steps and logical
sequences.
b) The instructional objectives are properly set.
c) Reinforcement and feedback are properly provided.
d) Learner gets opportunity for self-learning and initiating his response.
e) The learner is actively involved in the task of learning
f) The learner gets proper opportunity for self-assessment of his performance.
6. It may prove useful in the enrichment of curriculum and thereby, in the education of the
exceptional children.

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7. It may be effectively used in providing guidance and remedial instruction.
8. It helps in the development of interrogative, judgmental and creative learning. The power
of discrimination and making immediate and effective response is developed through
such instruction.
9. There are various areas of the curriculum, and many complex behaviour and skill that
can be effectively improved and mastered through the programmed learning technique.
For example – drill and practice work in various school subjects etc.

Disadvantages:

1. The students cannot learn the entire subject through programmed text unless the expert
programmers programme the lessons expertly.
2. The multiple choice question sometimes stimulated learner to guess the answer without
the proper knowledge of the subject-matter.
3. The setting up of multiple choice questions may not yield reliability and validity of the
test items.
4. As Branching programme caters to the needs of individual differences of the learner, it
requires infinite Branching. But infinite Branching is not feasible after a limit.
5. Branching programme, as it takes the form of a ‘scramble book’ becomes costly in
preparation. Sometimes it requires revision which is quite high in expenditure.
6. It is difficult to write objectives of subjects which lay emphasis on skills, attitude,
interest and appreciation.
7. As it is highly technical in nature and therefore much skill, training and labour on the
part of the programmer is demanded

Example of Programmed Learning Material

Or Programme for Illustration

Civics: Class – X

Introduction : This Programme meant for you for the study of ‘Silent features of the
Constitution of Indian’

In this programme you will find paragraphs which are called frames. Study each frame
carefully and write down what is required. Answer are given at the end. After stating your
answers, check them. If your answer is wrong or you do not understand anything, you can
again go back to the frame. It is not a test but instead it is a self-study programme.

Frame 1 : The Constituent Assembly of Indian was set up under the provision of the
Cabinet Mission Plan to frame the Constitution of India which was formally
adapted on 26th Nov 1949 and came into force on 26th January 1950. It took
nearly three years to complete the work.

(i) What was the work assigned to Constituent Assembly?

(ii) Under whose provision was it formed?

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 (iii)When did our constitution come into force?
(iv) When was it adopted?
(v) How much time did Constituent Assembly takes to complete its work?

Frame 2 : The Preamble of the Constitution has a great significance but it is not a part of
the Constitution. The Constitution was framed by the people of india through
their representations. It stresses the fact that the reign of the land lies with the
people of India.

(i) Is the Preamble a part of the Constitution?

(ii) By whom was the Constitution framed?
(iii)In whose hands does the reign of law of India lie?

Answer

1. (i) To frame the Constitution of India

(ii) Provision of the Cabinet Mission Plan
(iii) 26th January 1950
(iv) 26th November 1949
(v) Nearly 3 years.

2. (i) No
(ii) People of India through their representatives
(iii) People of India

PERSONALISED SYSTEM OF INSTRUCTION (PSI)

Introduction:
The Personalised System of Instruction (PSI) owes its origin to Professor Fred S.
Keller who, along with some of his associates such as J. G. Sherman, put forward the idea of
this new system of instruction in March 1963 and applied it initially in the teaching of a new
psychology programme in the University of Colombia. In honor of its main inventor, the
Personalized System of Instruction is also sometimes named as Keller Plan.

Concept:

The Personalized System of Instruction, as the name suggests, stands for a system of
instruction totally personalized or individualized. Here the person or individual who receives
instruction is a key figure. He dominates the entire scene of the teaching-learning process.
The decision on what should exist in a piece of instruction and how it is to be carried out, is
made according to the needs, interests and abilities of a person i.e., the individual learner. In
this way, instructions are carried out and received by the individual learner in his own way by
making him a central figure of the teaching learning process

Green (1974): "The personalized system of instruction gets its name from the fact that each
student is served as an individual by another person, face-to-face and toe-to-toe, in spite of
the fact that the class may number 100 students, it is suitable for a course for which the

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students is expected to acquire a well-defined body of knowledge or skill-the majority of
college courses. The PSI teacher expects almost all of his students to learn his material well
and to prepare to award high grades to those who do regardless of their relative standing in
the class. He accepts the responsibility of meeting this goal within the normal limits of
manpower space and equipment."

The PSI is mainly designed to reduce the needs of the individual learner. it
means a system of instruction which is person oriented. It lays more emphasis on the
individualized instruction than other methods in higher education. The PSI is based on a fixed
standard or mystery of the content in variable of time. The time varies from individual to
individual to master the acceptable level of performance.

The PSI is designed to realize the following objectives in teaching-learning process: -

1. To establish better personal-social relationship in the educational process.

2. To provide frequent reinforcement for the learners.
3. To provide increased frequency and quantity of feedback to the designers, with
benefit of a basis for meaningful revisions in programmed content structure and
instruction procedures.
4. To reduce the reliance in the lecture for presentation of critical information by
employing different devices in the instruction procedure
5. To evaluate the students’ performance as compared with other students.

Nature of Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

The natures of PSI are as follows:

1. Introduction of personal element: PSI gives a total personal through the process of
instruction. The learners are served in their personal capacities face-to-face and one-on-one
by the teacher and proctors. There is more emphasis on personal-social relationship between
the teacher and the taught in comparison to the traditional method of instruction. Teaching-
learning problems are solved on personal basis.

2. Mastery Learning: PSI aims for attaining mastery learning on the part of each and every
student regardless of their relative standing in the class. Here a student tries to go
independently on the path of learning and strives hard to gain complete mastery over the
subject matter of a particular curriculum unit. He is allowed to take the task of the next unit
only when he has got required mastery over the previous unit. He is assigned or rewarded
only because of his relative position in the class.

3. Self-Pacing: PSI allows all the learner of a group or class to proceed on the path of
learning according to their own pace depending upon their background, abilities and
capacities and level of aspiration and motivation etc. In this way he is not made to suffer on
account of the excessive or slow speed of his teacher or fellow students like in traditional
method of classroom teaching where the slow learner are bound to lag behind and the bright
one are bored.

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4. Provision and emphasis on written work: PSI gives more emphasis on the written work
than the traditional methods of instruction. Here the subject material is presented before the
learner in written form. The instruction is also provided to him in writing. There are study
guides available to the learners for guiding them on their path of learning. The students are
provided with written unit tests for testing their acquisition of mastery over the learning tasks.
In this way, in OSI sufficient emphasis is laid over the written mode of communication than
the oral one.

5. Use of multi-media: The use of multimedia is encouraged for the appropriate flow of
communication and getting in touch with a variety of learning sources on the part of
individual learners. Different learners learn better through different devices. Some people
learn better by listening, others by seeing or some others by reading and writing the content.
Consequently, in PSI, a learner is free to make use of all types of audio-visual presentations,
pictures, models, graphic material, tapes, film, teaching machines, computers etc., as a source
of learning and also as a mode of inter-communication.

6. The Provision of appropriate reinforcement: An individual learner is free to test his

comprehension and mastery level through the unit tests as and when desired by him. The
feedback provided by the result of this test as and when desired by him. The feedback
provided by the result of this test provides him adequate reinforcement. There is no
restriction of any kind on him in terms of the time schedule or frequency for taking this test
and getting knowledge about this progress on the learning path and this way, PSI is quite
capable of providing sufficient reinforcement and feedback to the individual learners both in
terms of frequency and a appropriate timings.

7. The use of proctors: Other distinctive features of PSI lie in its mechanism of utilizing the
services of student leaders known as proctors. Proctors are given necessary guidance and
training for supervising and guiding the learning path to their fellow learners. The face-to-
face, one to one interaction and personal guidance is only possible through a sizable group of
proctors. They prove very much helpful in the task of tutoring, providing personal social
contact, taking unit tests, immediate scoring, providing timely feedback and reinforcement
and encouraging as well as motivating the individual students for raising their performance
level to the set mastery level.

8. Reducing the problem of wastage and stagnation: In PSI, the stress is laid over the
acquisition of the set mastery level by the individual leaners. When one attains this mastery
level with regard to a particular unit, he is permitted to proceed further on the subsequent
unit. In this way, for an individual learner, his learning is almost continuous; he does not
waste his time for the sake of others. Moreover, he does not have to repeat his study in a
particular class on account of his failure in the examination. In this way, PSI helps in
reducing and checking the ill effects of the problem of wastage and stagnation faced by the
learners in the traditional system of instruction.

9. Role of teacher: PSI requires a significant change in the role of the teacher. The teacher is
required to provide individualized and personalized instruction to his students. Merely

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lecturing or demonstration in the class does not meet the requirements of this type of
instruction. He has to arrange for suitable learning materials, learning environment, timely
frequent reinforcement and feedback to all the individual learners. He is to act as a capable
manager of the learning tasks and in this way his responsibility as a teacher are greatly
enhanced.

Merits of PSI:

1) PSI can help the learners to work independently and proceed on the path of learning
with their own pace.
2) It is a good instructional process to achieve mastery learning and accepted level of
performance.
3) As a method of instruction, it proves more effective than the traditional methods such
as lecture and demonstration.
4) It is useful in the teaching of all the subjects, but proves specifically effective for
courses that need convergent thinking (rather than divergent) on the part of the
learners. Similarly, it is more suitable to the teaching of higher classes and college
courses in comparison to the lower ones.
5) It helps the students’ exhibit better performance in terms of retention and use of the
acquired learning. Here, the learner is able to acquire real knowledge with deep
understanding and better insight. There is no rote memorization of the facts as the
learner tries to acquire meaningful learning through his own independent efforts.
6) The learner can develop proper positive attitude towards learning and education with
the help of PSI. He gets proper feedback and reinforcement as and when needed by
him in his process of learning.
7) The learner can acquire good study habits as he has to work continuously on the
successive course units at his own. He has to achieve mastery over the subject matter
and test the performance through unit test. This makes him quite responsible,
disciplined and sincere in the task of learning.

De-merits of PSI:

1) The teachers are not equipped with the know-how of this new system. Most of them
have not even heard the name of such instructional system. It is not included in
teacher preparation courses of various universities and hence the teachers suffer from
the lack of knowledge.
2) PSI may face a lot of practical difficulties in being adopted as a method of instruction
simply because our classroom environment and resource can hardly meet the needed
requirements for its implementation.
3) PSI may run into bad weather on account of its unique demand of needing the
services of so many proctors. Such responsible students, who may play the role of
well-balanced supervisor, guide and instructor can be hardly available in the present
teaching-learning environment in schools and colleges.
4) The individual learner is provided with full freedom of completing his unit at his own
pace. There lies a danger an possibility that he may mist utilize this freedom in

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 wasting his time in other misadventures than the real learning. In the absence of
competition and comparison with the other students of the class, he may not take care
of his progress and thus, take too much time for the mastery of a learning unit
5) The teachers, the new entrants who have studied about it in their teacher preparation
of courses, face a stiff opposition from their elders as most of them do not wish to be
side-tracked on account of their ignorance about such innovative instructions. The
fear and temperament of rigidity is, thus, a great obstacle in adopting this new
instructional system.

MICRO TEACHING

Micro-teaching is one of the most important developments in the field of teaching

practice. It is originated in Sandford university in 1963. It is considered a mechanism of
feedback device for the modification of teacher trainees.

Meaning of Micro Teaching

Micro-teaching is like a simulated social skills training to provide the feedback to

teacher trainee for the modification of teacher-behaviour. It is a training device that can be
applied at various pre-service and in-service stages in the professional development of
teachers. Micro-teaching provides teachers with a practice setting or instruction in which the
normal complexities of classroom are reduced and in which the teacher gets feedback on the
performance.
Basically, micro-teaching is a ‘Scaled down teaching encounter’ in which a teacher
teaches a small unit to a group of 5 to 10 students for a small period of 5 to 10 minutes and
one teaching skill is practiced during the teaching. Micro-teaching is a new training design
for pupil-teachers which provide an opportunity to practice one teaching skill at a time and
with information about their performance immediately after completion of their lesson.
Micro-teaching is clinical teaching programme which is organised to explore the
trainee to an organised curriculum of miniature teaching encounters, moving room the less
complex to the more complex.

Definitions of Micro Teaching:

According to D. Allen, (1968) “Micro Teaching is a scaled down Teaching encounter in

class, size and time.”
According to Prof. B. K. Passi “Micro Teaching is a training technique which requires pupil-
teacher to teach a single concept using a specified teaching skill to a small number of pupils
in a short duration of time.”
According to L. C. Singh “Micro Teaching is a scaled down teaching encounter to which a
teacher teaches a small unit to a group of five pupils for a small period of five to twenty
minutes.”

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 PROCEDURE OF MICRO TEACHING / MICRO TEACHING CYCLE

1. Skill definition: The pupil-teacher or the supervisor defines a certain skill. The skills of
micro-teaching are defined regarding the teaching behaviours in order to procure knowledge
of required skills, which they have to focus on.

2. Demonstration: The demonstration is the second step in the process. Experts demonstrate
the specific skill by themselves or with the help of audio\video tape recordings to the teacher
trainee. This gives an idea to the teachers to work accordingly.

3. Lesson planning: This step is the first action by the student-teacher. The trainee teacher
plans a short lesson through which he/she could practice the skill. This microteaching lesson
plan is done with the help of his supervisor.

4. Conducting lesson: Once the planning is done, according to the targeted skill the pupil-
teacher teaches the planned lesson to the group of students. These lessons are observed by
supervisors and pupil teachers. Further, they are videotaped, audio-taped, or televised through
a CCTV camera. These tapes are later used for self-evaluation as well.

5. Discussion and conclusion: Once the teaching session comes to an end it is followed by a
concluding session. The concluding session consists of feedback from the supervisor. During
this session, the audio or video recording may also be displayed in order to give an
opportunity to evaluate oneself. Moreover, it also boosts the confidence level of the trainee. It
is the best way to reinforce the trainee to work better the next time.

6. Re-planning: Mastering a skill is an ongoing process. Thus, once the cycle of micro
teaching revolves, the process is repeated. This repetition involves the re-planning of the
lesson plan. The aim of this re-planning is to master the skill mentioned earlier.

7. Re-teaching: On completion of the re-planning of the lesson, it is again taught to another

group of students from the same class. The time duration is kept as same as the previous
class. This method contributes in practicing the skill repeatedly.

8. Re-discussion: At the end of the re-teaching session, the discussion and conclusion step is
repeated. These discussions and suggestions encourage the performance of the trainee. Thus,
the process of feedback is procured to enhance performance furthermore.

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9. Redoing: After the end of every session, this cycle is repeated. The repetition is continued
until the required skill is mastered. This process is repeated while attaining all the required
skills.

Thus, we can conclude that micro-teaching involves the 4R’s viz, Recording, Re-
teaching, Re-discussing, and Redoing.

SIMULATED TEACHING

The belief that teachers are born and one who has good knowledge of his subject can
teach well without going through any prescribed course of teacher’s training do not hold
much ground. Teaching is a serious activity, a highly specializes and technical job that needs
proper pre-preparation, training and sufficient practice in the form of acquiring necessary
knowledge, skills, interests and attitudes. One has to learn the art of teaching and therefore,
the efforts for bringing desirable modifications in the behaviour of the teacher trainees are
very much essential for helping them to become effective teachers. The teacher teaching
courses at all levels cater to this need. Apart from imparting theoretical knowledge there is
provision of practical experiences to the student teachers in the form of demonstration lesson,
discussion lessons and practice teaching.

Meaning of Simulation

Simulation is as old as man on this earth. The process of simulation is not only the
part of human life, but animals also impart training to their kids through simulated teaching.
In the modern age, simulated teaching is used frequently in industries, wars, education and
management etc. Simulated teaching was first used for the training of pilots in the air force
after the end of First World War. These pilots were made aware of aircraft’s in the
classrooms through simulated methods. After acquiring this awareness, these pilots were sent
to the real aircraft. According to D.R. Cruickshank, simulation is the creations of realistic
games to be played by participants in order to provide them with life – the problem-solving
experiences related to their present or future work.

Meaning of Simulated Teaching

Like other training techniques, simulated teaching is also a training technique. This
technique is used to change the behaviour of the pupils. It is also known as simulated social
skill of teaching.
Simulated teaching is used before the practice of class teaching. This technique is a
role-playing technique. In this technique, the pupil – teaching play the role of pupils. In this
technique, small topics are taught as in micro teaching and its teaching duration ranges from
10 – 15 minutes. After this teaching span a discussion on teaching method and teaching
tactics occur. Then, the pupil-teacher who plays the role of the teacher goes amongst the
pupil-teachers and plays the role of a pupil. Some other pupil-teacher acts as a teacher. After
a teaching task of 10 – 15 minutes, the discussion which occurs function as feedback through

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the role-playing in the artificial classrooms. The teaching skills acquired in the artificial
situations by this method can be used while teaching in the real classroom situations.
According to the International Dictionary of Education, “Simulated teaching is a technique
used particularly in management education and training in which a ‘real life situation’ and
values are simulated by ‘substitutes’ displaying similar characteristic. It also means
‘Techniques in teacher education in which students acts out or role play teaching situations in
an attempt to make ‘theory’ more practically oriented and realistic.

Assumption of Simulated Teaching

The technique of simulated teaching is based on the following assumption.
1) Teaching behaviours can be identified.
2) The behaviours of pupil-teacher can be developed and modified by the psychological
use of role perception and role-playing.
3) Some teacher-behaviours are essential for effective teaching. The teacher-behaviours
can be practiced.
4) The feedback mechanism can be used for the modification of social communication
skills of the pupil-teachers.

Procedure or Steps of Simulated Teaching

According to Saxena and Oberoi (1994), prior to sending the pupil-teachers to the real
classrooms, they are trained in the artificial environment by simulated teaching technique.
The procedure or steps of this technique are as follows:

1. Assignment of Roles: The first step of this technique is the assignment of roles to the
pupil-teachers. All the pupil-teachers have to play all the roles. All the pupils play the roles of
teacher, pupil and the supervisor.

2. Selection and Discussion of Social Skills for Practice: After assigning the roles in the
first step, some specific social skills are selected and discussed. The topics related to these
skills are practiced. For practice, those topics are selected in selected social skills “fit”.

3. Preparation of Work Schedule: After this, it is decided that who should initiate the
simulated teaching. When it should be summed up? Who will sum it up? Who will interrupt?
etc. hence, such work schedule is decided before-hand.

4. Determination of Observation Technique: In this step, decision regarding the

observation technique is taken. It also includes the types of data to be recorded and their way
of interpretation. Hence, this step is related to the procedure of evaluation.

5. Organization of First Practice Session: After all the preparations, the first practice
session is organized and the feedback is provided to all the participant pupil-teachers
regarding their teaching work. If the need is felt, some changes can be made for second
session. The data regarding the first practice session is recorded so that the evaluation of the
teaching behaviour can be conducted on the basis of that recorded data. Hence, the sessions
go on and everyone gets his turn.

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6. Altering the Procedure: After the first session, necessary changes are made in the
procedure. In this, topics are changed. Also, the pupil-teacher, observer and the teaching
skills are altered. Hence, in this altered procedure too everyone plays the role of a teacher and
all the pupil teachers get a chance to practice. Hence, this cycle goes on till the pupil-teacher
is trained.

Advantages of Simulated Teaching:

1. Simulated teaching establishes a setting where theory and practice can be combined.
2. Simulation requires the teachers to be active participants in the process.
3. There is no risk involved. The decisions are made and carried out without physical or
psychological harm to children or school as a result of practice teaching.
4. Controlled teaching assignments are possible. Student teachers obtain experiences,
which are realistic and thus they become critical.
5. Simulation is a teaching device that motivates and involves students. It changes
student teacher behaviour. It has been said to impart at least an equal amount of
student teaching.
6. Students in a simulation programme are not expected to identify the group time and
follow it. Every student is expected to have experiences, which are different from the
usual laboratory type experiences, which are common to all. Thus, simulation enables
the student to be himself.
7. Simulation stimulates the students for acquisition of purposeful activities and they
feel keenly interested in role-playing, socio-drama and gaming activities.

Demerits/Limitations of Simulated Teaching:

1. The use of simulation cannot be made in all subjects of the curriculum.
2. Simulation cannot be used in case of small children because the mechanism is too
difficult for them to follow.
3. It requires a lot of preparation on the part of teachers. Very few teachers are prepared
to take up the extra work necessary to make this technique a success.
4. In advance countries, highly sophisticated audio-visual aids are used for simulation.
We cannot afford the use of costly audio-visual aids at present in our schools and
colleges.
5. Learning is a serious activity which is highly individualized and needs concentration
on the part of the learners. Simulation is a play technique which reduces the
seriousness of learning.

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