what is SDLC ? write a short note on formal review. explain software quality assurance .

**Software Quality Assurance (SQA)** is a process that ensures software write a short note on software quality element
The **Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC)** A **formal review** is a structured, systematic process for examining software
meets specified standards, requirements, and quality criteria throughout its **Software Quality Elements** refer to the key attributes that
is a structured process used to develop software. documents or code. It involves multiple participants who assess the quality of a
development. SQA encompasses a set of activities that monitor and improve determine the overall quality of software, ensuring it meets
It consists of a series of phases that guide the product at various stages of development. Formal reviews are designed to
the quality of software products, ensuring they are reliable, efficient, and fit user needs and performs reliably. These elements help in
development from the initial idea to deployment identify errors, inconsistencies, and deviations from requirements early, reducing
for use. evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of the software.
and maintenance. Here’s a breakdown: the risk of defects in the final product.
### Key Components of Software Quality Assurance: Some of the essential software quality elements include:
### Key Aspects of a Formal Review:
1. **Planning** 1. **Process Definition and Management** 1. **Functionality**
1. **Preparation**
- Define the project goals and requirements. - Establishes standard procedures, practices, and guidelines for development. - Ensures the software performs the intended functions and
- Reviewers receive documents in advance to familiarize themselves with the
2. **Requirements Analysis** 2. **Requirements Analysis and Verification** meets user requirements.
content.
- Gather and document requirements from - Verifies that requirements are clear, complete, and feasible. 2. **Reliability**
2. **Meeting**
stakeholders. 3. **Quality Planning** - Measures the software’s ability to perform without failure
- A formal meeting is conducted where each participant presents their findings.
3. **Design** - Develops a quality plan that outlines the goals, standards, and quality over a specified period.
3. **Defect Identification**
- Create architecture and design specifications. practices. 3. **Usability**
- The focus is on detecting defects, not on solving them during the review.
4. **Implementation (Coding)** 4. **Audits and Reviews** - Refers to the ease with which users can interact with the
4. **Documentation**
- Write the code based on the design documents. - Conducts formal reviews (e.g., code reviews, design reviews) and audits. software.
- All defects and improvement suggestions are documented for the author to
5. **Testing** - Detects defects early and ensures compliance with standards. 4. **Efficiency**
address.
- Test the software to find and fix bugs. 5. **Testing** - Aims for optimal performance and quick response times.
5. **Follow-up**
6. **Deployment** - Involves multiple types of testing (unit, integration, system, acceptance) to 5. **Maintainability**
- The author makes corrections based on feedback, and the team may conduct
- Release the software to users. validate functionality. - Measures how easily the software can be modified,
follow-up reviews if needed.
7. **Maintenance** - Identifies and resolves issues to improve software reliability and corrected, or enhanced.
### Benefits:
- Update and improve the software as needed. performance. 6. **Portability**
- Improves quality by identifying issues early
- Evaluates how easily the software can be transferred to
write a short note test oracle what is acceptance testing ? different environments or platforms.
A **test oracle** is a mechanism or source used to determine whether a explain integration test. give any one approach for it **Acceptance Testing** is the final phase of software testing where the give three levels of testing .
software program's output is correct during testing. It provides a standard or **Integration Testing** is a type of software testing where individual software is evaluated to ensure it meets the specified requirements and is The three primary levels of testing in software give a different types of software metrix.explain any one in details
expected result to compare against the actual results generated by the software modules are combined and tested as a group. This testing focuses on ready for release. This testing is conducted from the end user's perspective to development are: **Software Metrics** are quantitative measures used to assess various aspects of
under test. This helps testers identify discrepancies, which may indicate bugs or verifying the interactions between modules to ensure they work validate that the software behaves as expected in real-world scenarios. The 1. **Unit Testing** software development and performance. They help in evaluating software quality,
defects in the software. together correctly. The goal is to detect interface defects, data primary goal is to determine if the software is acceptable for delivery to the - Tests individual components or functions in isolation, managing projects, and making informed decisions. Here are some common types of
### Key Aspects of a Test Oracle: transfer issues, and integration-related bugs that may arise when client or end users. like methods or classes. software metrics:
1. **Accuracy Verification** components are integrated. ### Key Aspects of Acceptance Testing: - Aims to ensure that each part of the code functions as 1. **Process Metrics**
- It checks if the program's output aligns with expected values or behaviors. ### Key Aspects of Integration Testing: 1. **User-Centric Testing** intended. - Measure the efficiency and effectiveness of the software development process.
2. **Automated vs. Manual Oracles** - It is performed after unit testing and before system testing. - It focuses on verifying that the software meets the user's needs and fulfills - Typically performed by developers. - Examples: Defect density, review efficiency, and effort variance.
- Test oracles can be automated (e.g., scripts or software) or manual (e.g., user - It ensures that different parts of the application interact as all business requirements. 2. **Integration Testing** 2. **Product Metrics**
input or documentation). expected. 2. **Performed by End Users or Clients** - Tests the interaction between integrated modules or - Measure characteristics of the software product itself.
3. **Types of Test Oracles** - Tests how modules communicate with each other, including - Often conducted by the client, end users, or a quality assurance team that components. - Examples: Size (e.g., lines of code), complexity, and code coverage.
- Examples include **specification-based oracles** (based on requirements), handling of inputs, outputs, and errors. simulates user behavior to validate functionality. - Verifies data flow and interaction to ensure that 3. **Project Metrics**
**mathematical models** (for algorithmic verification), and **previous #### Process: 3. **Real-World Scenarios** combined parts work together correctly. - Track the project's progress and resource usage.
versions** (for regression testing). 1. **Start with Top Modules** - Tests are based on actual use cases and scenarios to ensure the software - Helps detect interface issues between modules. - Examples: Cost, schedule adherence, and team productivity.
4. **Challenges** 2. **Use of Stubs** performs well in a production-like environment. 3. **System Testing** 4. **Code Metrics**
- Creating a test oracle can be difficult if expected results are unknown or hard 3. **Progressive Addition** 4. **Pass/Fail Criteria** - Tests the entire system as a whole, covering all - Focus on specific aspects of code quality and maintainability.
to define, especially in complex or AI-based systems. 4. **Validation** - The software must pass acceptance testing for the client to approve and integrated components. - Examples: Cyclomatic complexity, code churn, and coupling.
### Importance: #### Advantages: accept it. If it fails, the issues must be resolved, and the testing repeated. - Validates that the complete system meets specified 5. **Testing Metrics**
Test oracles are crucial in validating software correctness and ensuring high - Major design flaws are detected early in top-level modules. ### Importance: requirements. - Measure testing activities and results.
quality, as they help detect errors early by providing a clear benchmark for test - Helps verify the main control structure of the application early in Acceptance Testing is crucial because it acts as the final checkpoint before - Performed in an environment similar to production to - Examples: Test coverage, defect discovery rate, and defect leakage.
results. the testing process. software is released. It provides confidence that the software is fully ensure reliability.
functional, meets user expectations, and is ready for deployment in a live
give the template for defect report. environment. ### Detailed Explanation: **Cyclomatic Complexity**
A **Defect Report** (also known as a **Bug Report**) is used to document and track What is defect ? write a note on ISO 9000 quality standard. **Cyclomatic Complexity** is a software metric used to measure the complexity of
issues or defects found in a software product. Here's a template for a defect report: A **defect** in software refers to any flaw or issue in the software that causes it to behave ### **ISO 9000 Quality Standard** a program's control flow. It counts the number of linearly independent paths
### **Defect Report Template** incorrectly or fail to meet the specified requirements. It is commonly known as a **bug** or **ISO 9000** is a set of international standards that define the criteria for a quality management through the code, helping to determine the complexity and maintainability of a
1. Defect ID **fault**. Defects can arise from various stages of the software development process, including system (QMS). It provides guidelines for organizations to ensure that their products and services program.
- A unique identifier for the defect (e.g., DEF-001). consistently meet customer requirements and comply with applicable regulations. ISO 9000 is
design, coding, testing, or deployment. #### How It Works:
2. Title/Short Description** published by the **International Organization for Standardization (ISO)** and is one of the most
### Key Characteristics of a Defect: widely recognized and implemented standards for quality management worldwide. Cyclomatic complexity is calculated based on the program's control flow graph,
- A brief description of the issue (e.g., "Login button not responsive on mobile"). 1. **Deviation from Expected Behavior** #### **Key Elements of ISO 9000:** where:
3. Reported By - The software does not function as intended or described in the requirements. 1. **Customer Focus**: - **Nodes** represent program statements or blocks.
- Name of the person who reported the defect. 2. **Impact on Functionality** - The standard emphasizes the importance of understanding customer needs and expectations, - **Edges** represent control paths or transitions between nodes.
4. Date Reported ensuring that products and services consistently meet or exceed these expectations.
- A defect may cause a feature to malfunction, crash the application, or produce incorrect results. The formula for cyclomatic complexity is:
- The date when the defect was reported. 2. **Leadership**:
3. **Defects Can Be Caused By**: - Leaders within the organization are required to establish a clear vision and direction for the quality \[
5. Severity - **Coding Errors**: Mistakes made by developers during programming. management system and create an environment that encourages employee engagement and M = E - N + 2P
- The impact level of the defect (e.g., Critical, High, Medium, Low). - **Design Issues**: Problems in the architecture or design of the software. continuous improvement. \]
6. Priority - **Incorrect Requirements**: When the software does not align with the initially specified user 3. **Engagement of People**: where:
- The urgency for fixing the defect (e.g., P1, P2, P3). - All employees at every level should be involved in the QMS, as their engagement and competence
needs. - \( E \) = Number of edges
7. Description are essential to achieving quality goals.
- **Integration Problems**: Errors that arise when different modules or systems interact. 4. **Process Approach**: - \( N \) = Number of nodes
- A detailed description of the defect, including the problem observed. ### Types of Defects: - ISO 9000 promotes the use of a process-based approach to managing the organization’s activities, - \( P \) = Number of connected components or exit points
8. Steps to Reproduce 1. **Functional Defects** focusing on improving efficiency and effectiveness. #### Example:
- A clear set of steps that will allow the tester or developer to reproduce the defect. - Affect the actual functionality of the software, causing it to fail in performing its expected tasks. 5. **Improvement**: Consider a simple program with conditional and loop statements. Higher cyclomatic
- Example: 2. **Non-functional Defects** - Continuous improvement is a core principle of ISO 9000. Organizations are encouraged to complexity suggests more branches or decision points, indicating that the code may
1. Open the application. constantly improve their processes, systems, and overall performance. be harder to understand, test, and maintain.
- Involve performance issues, security vulnerabilities, or usability concerns. #### **ISO 9000 Family of Standards:**
2. Click on the "Login" button. 3. **UI/UX Defects** ISO 9000 is part of a larger family of quality management standards, which include:
#### Benefits:
3. Observe that nothing happens. - Relate to the user interface or user experience, such as layout issues, button misplacement, or - **ISO 9001**: The most widely adopted standard for implementing a quality management system, - **Improves Testing**: Guides the creation of test cases to cover all control paths.
**9. Expected Result** poor navigation. outlining requirements for a QMS that can be certified. - **Code Maintainability**: Identifies complex areas that may need refactoring.
- A description of what should have happened under normal circumstances (e.g., "The 4. **Security Defects** - **ISO 9004**: Provides guidelines for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of a QMS and - **Quality Assurance**: Helps to maintain low complexity, leading to more robust
login form should appear"). achieving sustained success. and error-free software.
- Vulnerabilities that could lead to unauthorized access, data breaches, or other security issues. - **ISO 19011**: Offers guidelines for auditing quality management systems.
 write a note on defect metric What is software testing? Explain objectives ofsoftware testing. Explain V and V model of software testing.
explain cause-effect diagram Defect metrics are crucial tools in software quality assurance and project management. They ### **Software Testing** **V-Model of Software Testing**
A cause-and-effect diagram, also known as a fishbone diagram or Ishikawa measure and analyze defects throughout the software development lifecycle to improve product **Software testing** is the process of evaluating and verifying that a software application or The **V-Model** (also known as the **Verification and Validation Model**) is a
diagram, is a tool used to identify, explore, and display the possible causes of a quality. Here’s an 8-point note on defect metrics: system meets the specified requirements and functions correctly. It involves executing the software development and testing model that emphasizes the relationship between
specific problem or effect. Here are eight key points explaining it: 1.Definition: software to identify bugs, defects, or any inconsistencies between the actual and expected development activities and testing activities. It is an extension of the **Waterfall
1.Purpose: Defect metrics quantify defects identified during the software lifecycle, helping teams assess the outcomes. Software testing ensures the quality, reliability, and performance of the software model** and represents a step-by-step approach to software development and
The diagram is used to systematically analyze and identify potential causes of a quality, reliability, and performance of the software product. before its release to end users. testing, where each development phase is directly associated with a corresponding
problem, enabling teams to focus on the root causes rather than symptoms. 2.Purpose: Testing can be done manually by human testers or automatically using specialized testing tools. testing phase.
2.Structure: These metrics guide the identification of areas requiring improvement, ensuring early detection The goal is to find defects, fix them, and ensure that the software performs as intended.
The diagram resembles a fishbone, with the "head" representing the main problem and resolution of issues to minimize project risks. - ### **Objectives of Software In the V-Model, the process follows a **V-shaped path**, where the left side of the
(effect) and the "bones" branching out to list potential causes categorized by major 3.Types of Defect Metrics:Defect Density: Defects per unit size (e.g., defects per 1,000 lines 1. **Verify Correct Functionality**:
Testing** "V" focuses on **verification** (building the product), and the right side focuses on
factors. of code). - The primary objective of software testing is to ensure that the software behaves as **validation** (testing the product). This model highlights that testing is planned in
3.Categories: Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE): Percentage of defects removed before delivery. expected under different conditions and meets the functional requirements defined by the parallel with each phase of the development process, ensuring that testing is
Commonly, causes are grouped into categories such as the 6 Ms (Man, Machine, Defect Leakage: Number of defects found post-release compared to pre-release testing. client or stakeholders. integrated into the development lifecycle from the very beginning.
Material, Method, Measurement, and Mother Nature/Environment) or 4 Ps (People, Defect Severity Distribution: Categorization of defects by their impact on functionality (e.g., 2. **Identify Defects and Bugs**:
Processes, Policies, and Plant/Technology). critical, major, minor). - Testing helps uncover defects or bugs in the software, whether they are related to code, ### **Key Phases of the V-Model**
4.Collaboration Tool: 1.Measurement Stages: logic, design, or user experience. The goal is to find issues early and fix them before the 1. **Requirements Analysis** (Left Side of the "V")
The diagram is typically created in group brainstorming sessions, promoting team Metrics can be collected during requirements gathering, design, coding, testing, and post- software is released. 2. **System Design** (Left Side of the "V")
collaboration and generating diverse perspectives on potential causes. deployment phases to track defect trends across the project lifecycle. 3. **Ensure Software Quality**: 3. **High-Level Design / Architecture Design** (Left Side of the "V")
5.Visual Representation: 2.Importance: - Quality assurance is a key objective. Testing aims to ensure that the software is of high 4. **Low-Level Design** (Left Side of the "V")
Its visual format helps to organize thoughts clearly and systematically, making it Helps evaluate the effectiveness of development and testing processes. quality, performs efficiently, and provides a good user experience by meeting quality 5. **Coding / Implementation** (Bottom of the "V")
easier to understand relationships between the problem and its possible causes. Provides insights into the root causes of defects. standards, both functional and non-functional.
6.Prioritization: Aids in predicting software reliability and future maintenance needs. 4. **Confirm Compliance with Specifications**: ### **Verification and Validation**
After listing causes, the team can evaluate and prioritize them for further analysis or 1.Improvement Tool: - Testing ensures that the software adheres to its specified requirements, ensuring that it - **Verification** (Left Side of the "V"):
testing to determine their actual impact on the problem. Teams use defect metrics to refine testing strategies, allocate resources efficiently, and focus fulfills the business needs or user expectations as outlined in the specifications. - The process of ensuring that the software is being built correctly according to the
7.Flexibility: efforts on high-risk areas of the product. 5. **Minimize Risk**: design specifications and requirements.
The cause-and-effect diagram can be used in various industries and disciplines, 2.Benchmarking: - Testing helps reduce the risk of software failure by identifying potential issues before they - Focuses on activities like **reviews**, **inspections**, and **static testing** to
including manufacturing, healthcare, education, and service sectors. Metrics allow comparison against industry standards or historical project data to evaluate can cause significant damage or lead to customer dissatisfaction. By finding and addressing check the correctness of the software.
8.Foundation for Root Cause Analysis: performance and quality improvements over time. defects early, testing minimizes the risks associated with deploying faulty software. - **Validation** (Right Side of the "V"):
It serves as a starting point for more in-depth analysis, such as the 5 Whys method 3.Visualization and Reporting: - The process of ensuring that the software meets the business requirements and
or data-driven investigations, to confirm the root causes of the issue. Defect metrics are often presented using charts or dashboards for easy tracking and user needs.
communication with stakeholders, facilitating better decision-making. - This phase focuses on **dynamic testing**, such as functional testing and system
What is test execution? Why it is important and its activities testing, to ensure that the software performs as expected in real-world scenarios.
**Test Execution** is the process of running the test cases on the developed

explain black box testing and its type and state transition
software application to check whether the software behaves as expected and meets •write short note on the concept of software
What is White Box testing and its types? Explain flow graph notation. the defined requirements. During this phase, the test cases are executed in the test
testing environment, and the actual results are compared with the expected results to inspection
Black Box Testing focuses on testing the functionality of a system without any **White Box Testing** identify defects or failures. •Definition: Software inspection is a formal, peer-reviewed
knowledge of its internal workings or code structure. Testers interact with the system **White Box Testing** (also known as **Clear Box Testing** or **Structural Testing**) is a software process where software artifacts (such as code, design, or
based on its specifications and requirements, ensuring it performs as expected from the testing technique where the internal workings of the application are known to the tester. In white box Test execution is a critical part of the software testing process as it allows testers to requirements) are systematically examined to identify
user's perspective. testing, the tester has knowledge of the code, the architecture, and the internal structures of the validate the functionality, performance, and overall behavior of the software. It is
typically carried out after the test design and test preparation phases.
defects, inconsistencies, or potential improvements.
Key Points on Black Box Testing software being tested. The focus is on verifying the internal logic, structure, and flow of the software, •Objective: The primary goal is to detect issues early in the
1.Definition: Black Box Testing is a software testing technique where the internal ensuring that all code paths are executed and that the program operates correctly according to its
structure of the application is unknown to the tester. The focus is on verifying the ### **Importance of Test Execution** development lifecycle, improving software quality and
design.
functionality, inputs, and outputs of the software. 1. **Verifies Software Functionality**: Test execution ensures that the software reducing defects that could arise in later stages like testing or
2.Objective: To validate the system against user requirements, ensuring it behaves as ### **Types of White Box Testing** behaves according to the specified requirements and functions correctly in all production.
expected in all scenarios, without needing to know the underlying code or architecture. 1. **Unit Testing**: expected scenarios. •Process: The process involves planning, an overview
Types of Black Box Testing: - Focuses on testing individual components or functions in isolation. It verifies if each part of the 2. **Detects Defects**: By executing test cases, testers can identify defects and
issues within the application. This is crucial for improving the quality of the software
presentation by the author, a review phase where team
•Functional Testing: Verifies if the software functions as per the specified requirements. program works as intended. members examine the artifact, defect logging, rework by the
•Non-Functional Testing: Validates performance, security, usability, and reliability of - **Example**: Testing a specific function that calculates the sum of two numbers. before its release.
the system. 3. **Ensures Requirements Fulfillment**: Test execution helps verify that the author, and follow-up to ensure defects are resolved.
2. **Integration Testing**:
•Regression Testing: Ensures new changes don't affect existing functionality. - After unit testing, integration testing ensures that the interactions between different modules or software meets the business and functional requirements set at the beginning of the •Roles Involved: Key roles in an inspection include the
•Acceptance Testing: Verifies if the system meets the business requirements and is components of the software work as expected. development process. Author (creator of the artifact), Moderator (facilitator of the
ready for deployment. - **Example**: Verifying that the login module integrates correctly with the database. 4. **Risk Mitigation**: It helps identify and mitigate potential risks in the software, process), Inspector (reviewers), and Recorder (documents
State Transition Testing is a black-box testing technique that focuses on verifying a 3. **Control Flow Testing**: allowing the development team to address issues before the software is released to
users.
the issues found).
system’s behavior under various state changes. It is particularly useful for systems with - This type of testing involves evaluating the flow of control within the software. It ensures that the •Benefits:
finite states and transitions based on inputs. control structures like loops, branches, and conditions behave as expected. 5. **Confidence in Release**: Successful test execution with no major defects gives
Key Points on State Transition Testing the development team confidence that the software is ready for release, thus •Early defect detection.
- **Example**: Verifying that the program follows the correct conditional paths (if-else
1.Definition: State Transition Testing examines how a system responds to events that statements). improving the chances of a successful deployment. •Improved quality of the software.
trigger transitions from one state to another. The goal is to verify that the system moves 4. **Path Testing**: ### **Activities in Test Execution** •Knowledge sharing and collaborative learning among the
through all possible valid states correctly. - Path testing is based on executing all possible paths in the program. It helps to ensure that every 1. **Test Case Preparation**: team.
- Ensure that all test cases are properly designed and documented.
2.Components: possible route through the software is tested.
2. **Test Environment Setup**:
•Types: Software inspections can be applied to different
States: Different conditions or situations the system can be in (e.g., logged in, logged - **Example**: Testing a program with various combinations of inputs to execute all paths, artifacts, such as code inspections, design inspections,
out). including loops and conditional branches. - Set up the necessary infrastructure or environment (servers, databases, software
Transitions: The actual changes from one state to another (e.g., "from logged out to configurations, etc.) in which the test will be executed. requirement inspections, and test plan inspections.
5. **Loop Testing**:
logged in"). - Loop testing focuses on testing loops within the code, ensuring that the program behaves correctly 3. **Test Case Execution**: •Challenges: Inspections can be time-consuming and may
1.Coverage Types: with various loop conditions (zero iterations, one iteration, multiple iterations, etc.). - Execute the test cases one by one, following the defined test steps. face resistance from developers. The effectiveness depends
Valid Transitions: Tests all expected transitions between states based on specified - **Example**: Testing a loop that iterates through a list of items to check if it handles edge cases, 4. **Logging Defects**: on the team's experience and the quality of the review
inputs. such as an empty list. - If a defect is found during the execution, it should be logged immediately with
detailed information (such as test case ID, steps to reproduce, and environment
process.
Invalid Transitions: Verifies how the system handles inputs that should not cause any ### **Flow Graph Notation in White Box Testing**
valid state transition. **Flow Graph Notation** is a graphical representation used in white box testing to represent the details).
1.Applications: It is useful for systems like login processes, workflows, and systems flow of control within a program. It uses nodes and edges to depict the different operations and 5. **Tracking Test Results**:
with finite states where the output depends on the previous state and the input (e.g., control flow paths in the program's structure. - Record the actual results and compare them with the expected results.
ATM, online banking).
 Explain in detail Statistical Software Quality Assurance Explain different types of errors? what is quality in software development explain write short note on system testing explain different
Statistical Software Quality Assurance (SSQA) is a methodology that uses statistical techniques to Errors can occur in various fields, such as mathematics, computer science, statistics, and engineering, type of system testing
software quality factory System Testing is a comprehensive level of testing where the entire
measure, evaluate, and improve the quality of software products. It integrates mathematical and each with its specific context. However, we can categorize errors into a few general types:
In software development, quality refers to how well the software meets both software system is tested as a whole. It is conducted after integration
statistical methods into software testing and quality management to make the process more data- •Syntax Errors:
functional and non-functional requirements, its reliability, usability, performance, testing and aims to ensure that all components of the system work
driven, objective, and measurable. •These are errors that occur when the code does not follow the syntax rules of the programming
security, and how free it is from defects. High-quality software is reliable, together correctly. System testing evaluates both functional and non-
Key Aspects of SSQA: language. For example, missing semicolons, unmatched parentheses, or incorrect keywords.
efficient, secure, and meets the needs of the users and stakeholders.
1.Definition: Statistical Software Quality Assurance involves using statistical tools and techniques to •Runtime Errors: functional aspects of the software to verify that it meets the specified
Software Quality Factory in 7 Points
assess, control, and improve the software development process. It applies statistical methods to •These errors happen while the program is running and typically cause the program to crash or requirements and performs well in a production-like environment.
1.Definition: The Software Quality Factory concept is an approach where Different Types of System Testing
monitor software performance, detect defects, and predict potential failures. behave unexpectedly. They occur due to invalid operations, like dividing by zero or trying to
software development processes, including testing and maintenance, are 1.Functional Testing:
2.Statistical Techniques Used: access an out-of-bounds array index.
treated as systematic, repeatable, and measurable activities aimed at producing Validates that the system functions as expected, meeting the
Sampling: To select subsets of the software or test cases for detailed evaluation, rather than testing •Logical Errors:
high-quality software. specified functional requirements. It checks individual features and
the entire system, to save time and resources. •These occur when the program runs without crashing but produces incorrect results due to
2.Focus on Process Optimization: The idea is to create efficient and operations of the software.
Control Charts: Used to monitor the stability and performance of the software over time, identifying flawed logic or algorithms. They are often the hardest to detect because the program executes
standardized processes for developing and testing software. This includes 2.Performance Testing:
any significant deviations from the expected behavior. successfully, but the output is wrong.
clearly defined roles, workflows, and procedures to ensure consistent quality at Assesses how the system performs under various conditions, such
Regression Analysis: Helps determine the relationship between different variables, such as •Compilation Errors:
every stage of development, from design to deployment. as load and stress. It helps to identify potential bottlenecks or
software features and their performance, to predict future outcomes or identify trends. •These errors prevent the code from being compiled. They are usually caused by syntax errors
3.Automation and Metrics: A key aspect of the Software Quality Factory is performance issues.
3.Quality Metrics: SSQA emphasizes the collection and analysis of quality metrics to assess or incorrect code structure and must be resolved before the program can be compiled and
automation. Automated tools for testing, code analysis, continuous integration, 3.Security Testing:
software performance and the effectiveness of the testing process. Common metrics include: executed.
and deployment are integralEarly Defect Detection: Quality is built into the Ensures that the software is free from vulnerabilities and resistant to
Defect Density: Number of defects per unit of software (e.g., per thousand lines of code). •Semantic Errors:
development process from the beginning. Rather than identifying defects late in attacks. It focuses on authentication, authorization, data integrity,
Test Coverage: The percentage of the code or functionality covered by the tests. •These errors occur when the syntax is correct, but the meaning or intent behind the code is
the development cycle (e.g., during testing), the Software Quality Factory and encryption.
Reliability: How often the software performs its intended functions without failure. incorrect. It involves using constructs inappropriately, even though they are syntactically correct.
emphasizes early detection through techniques like code reviews, unit testing, 4.Usability Testing:
4.Process Improvement: Statistical tools help identify areas for improvement within the •Interface Errors:
and continuous integration, ensuring defects are addressed as soon as they Evaluates the user interface (UI) and user experience (UX), ensuring
development or testing processes. By using statistical analysis, teams can detect inefficiencies, •These errors occur when there is a mismatch between different software modules or systems
arise. the software is intuitive, easy to use, and meets user expectations.
bottlenecks, or areas where defects are more likely to occur, thus improving overall productivity and that are interacting, such as incorrect API usage, missing or wrong function parameters, or data
4.Standardized Testing: A standardized approach to testing is adopted across 5.Compatibility Testing:
product quality. format inconsistencies.
the software development lifecycle. This includes automated testing, regression
5.Risk Management: Statistical methods help assess and manage risks by predicting potential •Memory Errors: Verifies that the software works across various environments,
testing, performance testing, and security assessmentsContinuous including different browsers, operating systems, devices, and
issues or failures. For example, using predictive models to assess the likelihood of defects or system •These errors happen when a program uses memory incorrectly. Common memory errors
Improvement: The Software Quality Factory is not static; it emphasizes network configurations.
failures under certain conditions helps allocate testing efforts efficiently and focus on high-risk areas. include memory leaks (not freeing up memory after use), accessing null pointers, or buffer
continuous improvement. Regular assessments, feedback loops, and the use of 6.Regression Testing:
6.Cost-Effectiveness: By using statistical techniques like sampling and analysis of variance overflows.
metrics ensure that the development processes evolve over time, improving Ensures that new changes, features, or fixes do not introduce new
(ANOVA), SSQA helps focus testing efforts on areas that are most likely to contain defects. •Concurrency Errors:
efficiency and quality. defects or negatively impact existing functionality.
7.Continuous Monitoring and Improvement: SSQA emphasizes continuous monitoring of software •These occur in multi-threaded or distributed systems when multiple threads or processes
5.Collaboration and Communication: Collaboration among development 7.Recovery Testing:
quality metrics throughout the software development lifecycle attempt to access shared resources simultaneously, leading to conflicts or race conditions.
teams, quality assurance professionals, and stakeholders is crucial. Tests the system's ability to recover from failures, such as crashes or
.
- Perform a quantitative analysis of the data collected.
This can include calculating total costs for each category

hardware malfunctions, ensuring data is not lost and normal

- Use cost accounting techniques to analyze the costs
costs. This may involve creating categories based on the

- Gather financial data related to expenses incurred in

Measuring quality cost involves assessing the expenses

service quality. It often comprises various components,

and external failure costs that reflect the cost incurred

- Create forms or templates for employees to report

- **Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ)**: Sum of internal

typically categorized into four main areas: prevention

categories, along with methods for measuring quality

operations can resume.

records, departmental reports, and project accounts.
associated with ensuring and maintaining product or

- **Prevention and Appraisal Cost Ratio**: Helps explain Software Testing Strategy What is regression testing?
each category. This may involve consulting financial
1. **Define and Set Up a Framework**: Establish a
external failure costs. Here’s a breakdown of these

\text{Quality Cost} = \left( \frac{\text{Total Quality

framework for identifying and categorizing quality

- **Quality Cost as a Percentage of Sales**: \(

assess the balance of spending on proactive and •Definition: A Software Testing Strategy is a comprehensive plan that outlines the **Regression Testing** is a type of software testing that ensures that previously developed and tested
•write short note on the concept of
costs, appraisal costs, internal failure costs, and

Cost}}{\text{Total Sales}} \right) \times 100 \)

overall approach and methodology for testing a software product. It defines the software still functions correctly after changes have been made. These changes can include enhancements,
software inspection
4. **Use Metrics for Actionable Insights**:

goals, objectives, testing levels, types of testing, and resources required to ensure bug fixes, patches, or other modifications to the codebase. The primary goal of regression testing is to
in relation to productivity and efficiency.

due to failing to meet quality standards.

the software meets its quality standards. detect any unintended side effects introduced by these changes to guarantee that existing functionality •Definition: Software inspection is a formal, peer-
- Calculate specific metrics, such as:

•Test Objectives: The strategy should clearly define what needs to be achieved remains intact and operates as expected. reviewed process where software artifacts (such as
### Steps to Measure Quality Cost

through testing, such as validating functionality, ensuring performance, verifying ### Key Aspects of Regression Testing code, design, or requirements) are systematically
and identifying trends over time.

security, and confirming user requirements are met. These objectives guide the 1. **Purpose**: examined to identify defects, inconsistencies, or
How to measure quality cost.

entire testing process and ensure alignment with project goals. - To verify that new code changes do not adversely affect existing features and functionality. potential improvements.
reactive quality measures.
elements outlined above.

quality-related expenses.

•Testing Levels: Different levels of testing are planned as part of the strategy, - To identify and fix new defects that may arise from updates. •Objective: The primary goal is to detect issues
3. **Analyze Costs**:

typically including: - To ensure that the software continues to meet its requirements after modifications. early in the development lifecycle, improving
2. **Collect Data**:

•Unit Testing: Testing individual components or units of code. 2. **When is Regression Testing Used?**: software quality and reducing defects that could
•Integration Testing: Ensuring that different components work together as - After bug fixes are implemented in the software. arise in later stages like testing or production.
expected. - Following any updates to existing features or the addition of new features. •Process: The process involves planning, an
•System Testing: Validating the software as a whole to check if it meets - After system enhancements or performance improvements. overview presentation by the author, a review
requirements. - Before the release of new versions or updates to ensure quality. phase where team members examine the artifact,
costs:

•Acceptance Testing: Ensuring the software is ready for deployment and meets 3. **Types of Regression Testing**: defect logging, rework by the author, and follow-up
end-user expectations. - **Corrective Regression Testing**: Conducted when no changes have been made to the existing test to ensure defects are resolved.
•Testing Types: The strategy outlines which testing types will be used, such as: cases. The aim is simply to verify that the existing features still work after modifications. •Roles Involved: Key roles in an inspection include
preventing defects from occurring in the first place. This is

This involves assessing potential risks from early stages of

the project and implementing strategies to minimize their
- The primary goal of SQA is to ensure that the software
expectations. The major goals of SQA can be summarized

- SQA aims to continuously improve the processes used

•Functional Testing: Validates the software's functions against its specifications.

- SQA ensures that the software complies with relevant
meets specified quality standards and fulfills stakeholder

- **Progressive Regression Testing**: When changes are made, this involves re-running existing tests and the Author (creator of the artifact), Moderator
processes and practices that ensure a software product

- Rather than only detecting defects, SQA emphasizes

industry standards and regulations, as well as company

establishing and adhering to quality standards at every

- Identifying and mitigating risks is a key goal of SQA.

policies and procedures. This includes compliance with
achieved through practices like rigorous requirements

•Non-functional Testing: Evaluates aspects like performance, security, and

implementing best practices, conducting reviews, and

creating new tests that cover modified areas of the application. (facilitator of the process), Inspector (reviewers),
collecting metrics, SQA helps in refining processes to
Software Quality Assurance (SQA) encompasses the

usability. and Recorder (documents the issues found).

meets defined quality attributes such as reliability,

- **Selective Regression Testing**: A specific subset of test cases from the existing suite is run to verify the
performance, security, and usability. This entails

standards for safety, security, and performance.

•Regression Testing: Ensures that new changes do not break existing impacted areas of the application. •Benefits:
in software development and maintenance. By

analysis, design reviews, and code inspections.

•Early defect detection.

stage of the software development lifecycle.

functionality. - **Complete Regression Testing**: The entire test suite is executed, typically performed for critical
10. **Collaboration and Communication**:

•Smoke Testing: Basic tests to verify if the software build is stable enough for updates or before major software releases. •Improved quality of the software.
7. **Documentation and Traceability**:

further testing. 4. **Automation**: •Knowledge sharing and collaborative learning

enhance efficiency and effectiveness.

•Test Environment and Tools: The testing strategy includes the setup of the - Regression testing is an ideal candidate for automation because: among the team.
4. **Compliance with Standards**:

9. **Measurement and Metrics**:

testing environment, including hardware, software, and network configurations. It - It often requires repetitive execution of the same test cases after every change. •Types: Software inspections can be applied to
1. **Ensure Software Quality**:

8. **Training and Awareness**:

State the major goals of SQA.

2. **Process Improvement**:

6. **Customer Satisfaction**:

also identifies the testing tools and automation frameworks to be used, such as - Automated test scripts can run quickly and consistently, which helps in receiving immediate feedback. different artifacts, such as code inspections,
impact on software quality.

Selenium for automation or JMeter for performance testing. - It allows for regression tests to be run frequently without significant manual effort. design inspections, requirement inspections,
3. **Defect Prevention**:

5. **Risk Management**:

•Test Design and Techniques: It specifies how test cases will be designed, using - Automated testing tools can be particularly useful for managing extensive regression test suites. and test plan inspections.
various techniques like boundary value analysis, equivalence partitioning, decision 5. **Best Practices**: •Challenges: Inspections can be time-consuming
table testing, and exploratory testing to ensure comprehensive test coverage. - **Maintain an Updated Test Suite**: Regularly update test cases to reflect current requirements and and may face resistance from developers. The
•Risk-Based Testing: The strategy should prioritize testing based on risk analysis, features, removing outdated tests that no longer apply. effectiveness depends on the team's experience
where critical and high-risk areas of the software are tested more thoroughly. This - **Prioritize Test Cases**: Focus on high-impact and high-risk areas of the application that are most and the quality of the review process.
as follows:

helps to focus efforts on the most important and impactful parts of the software. likely to be affected by changes.
•Test Deliverables and Reporting: The strategy includes the documentation of test - **Integrate into CI/CD Pipelines**: Automate regression tests within Continuous
deliverables, such as test plans, test cases, and defect reports. Integration/Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) workflows to maintain ongoing quality as code changes
occur.
 •explain testing documentayion in details explain the defect management process with diagram what is pareto diagram explain steps of drawing a
•Definition: Testing documentation refers to the various documents created and •Defect Identification: The first step in defect management is the identification of pareto diagram
maintained during the software testing process. These documents help define, plan, defects during testing or through user feedback. Defects are typically identified when A Pareto Diagram (or Pareto Chart) is a type of bar chart that visually displays
execute, and track testing activities. They serve as a record of test cases, results, the software fails to meet its expected behavior or specifications. Testers, the relative importance of various factors or problems, with the most significant
strategies, and metrics to ensure that testing is thorough and systematic. developers, or end-users can report defects. ones shown first. It is based on the Pareto Principle, also known as the 80/20
•Test Plan: A Test Plan outlines the overall strategy, approach, resources, schedule, •Defect Logging: Once a defect is identified, it is logged into a defect tracking Rule, which suggests that 80% of effects come from 20% of causes. The chart
and scope of testing. It defines the objectives of testing, identifies the test deliverables, system. The defect report should include essential details like a unique defect ID, helps prioritize issues so that efforts can be focused on the most critical ones,
and describes the test environment, tools, and responsibilities. The test plan ensures that description, steps to reproduce, severity, screenshots, environment details, and the improving efficiency and problem-solving.
testing activities are organized and aligned with project goals. status of the defect. Steps to Draw a Pareto Diagram
•Test Case: A Test Case is a detailed set of instructions and conditions used to verify a •Defect Classification: After logging, defects are classified based on severity (e.g., Identify the Problem or Data Categories:
specific feature or functionality of the software. It includes the test inputs, expected critical, major, minor) and priority (e.g., high, medium, low). This helps in determining The first step is to identify the problem or the data categories that you want to
results, and execution steps. Test cases are used to ensure that the software behaves as the urgency and resources needed for defect resolution. The classification also analyze. These could be defect types, customer complaints, failure modes, etc.
expected under various scenarios. categorizes defects based on type (e.g., functional, performance, security). 2.Collect Data:
•Test Scenario: A Test Scenario defines a high-level situation or feature to be tested. It •Defect Assignment: The defect is then assigned to the appropriate developer or Gather data on the frequency or occurrence of each category. This could
is often broader than a test case and provides the overall context for testing. Test team member responsible for fixing it. The defect management tool tracks its status involve counting how many times each issue occurs or how often certain factors
scenarios are used to cover a variety of situations in the system's behavior. and the person or team handling it, ensuring accountability and efficient resolution. contribute to the problem.
•Test Execution Report: A Test Execution Report is a document that records the •Defect Resolution and Fix Verification: Once the defect is fixed, it is retested to 3.Sort the Data in Descending Order:
results of executed tests. It includes details such as which test cases were executed, the ensure that the issue has been resolved and that no new issues have been Once you have the data, sort the categories based on frequency or impact,
pass/fail status, issues encountered, and any deviations from the expected behavior. introduced. This step may involve regression testing to confirm that other parts of the from highest to lowest. This will ensure that the most significant factors are
This report is used to track progress and to communicate results to stakeholders.. software have not been impacted by the fix. plotted first.
•Defect Report (Bug Report): A Defect Report is used to document issues or bugs •Defect Closure and Reporting: After the defect has been resolved and verified, it 4.Draw the Bar Chart:
found during testing. It typically includes information such as the defect ID, description, is marked as closed. A final report or summary is prepared, documenting the defect Create a bar chart with categories on the horizontal axis and frequency (or
severity, steps to reproduce, screenshots, and the current status of the issue. This report lifecycle, including the total number of defects identified, resolved, and the overall impact) on the vertical axis. Each bar should represent one category, and its
helps developers address and fix defects efficiently. quality status of the software. This information helps improve future testing height should correspond to the frequency or magnitude of the issue.
•Test Summary Report: A Test Summary Report provides a high-level overview of the processes. 5.Add a Cumulative Line:
testing process and its outcomes. It typically includes the total number of test cases Add a cumulative percentage line to the chart, starting from the highest bar and
executed, pass/fail statistics, defect status, test coverage, and an overall evaluation of moving to the right. This line shows the cumulative contribution of each
whether the software meets the required quality standards. category as you move along the chart.
6.Label the Chart:
Properly label the axes, bars, and cumulative line to ensure that the chart is
easy to understand. Include the categories, frequency values, and cumulative
percentages to make the information clear.
explain variuous methodologies of quality improvment and 7.Analyze the Chart and Prioritize:
explain any 4 explain scatter diagramin detail Analyze the Pareto Diagram to identify which categories are contributing the
Various Methodologies of Quality Improvement 1.A Scatter Diagram (or Scatter Plot) is a graphical representation of
most to the problem. Focus on addressing the top causes, as they have the
Quality improvement methodologies are approaches that help the relationship between two variables. It uses dots to represent the data most significant impact.
organizations improve their processes, reduce defects, and enhance points on a two-dimensional axis, showing how one variable is affected
customer satisfaction. These methodologies include Six Sigma, Total by the other.
Quality Management (TQM), Lean, Kaizen, PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act), 2.Representation of Data:
and others. Below are explanations of four key •A scatter diagram displays individual data points using
Cartesian coordinates (x, y) on a graph. Each dot explain metric lifecycle
1. Six Sigma
represents a pair of values (one for each variable).
how to use a defect for process improvement
Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology focused on reducing defects and •Defect Identification: The Metric Lifecycle refers to the stages through which a metric goes from
achieving near-perfect performance by identifying and eliminating 2.Identifies Relationships: initial creation to its eventual retirement or modification. It ensures that
•The primary use of a scatter diagram is to identify if there The first step is to identify and document the defect, including its nature and impact on
variations in processes. the process or product. Clear identification ensures that the issue is properly understood metrics are effectively tracked, analyzed, and used for decision-making and
1.Data-Driven: Relies heavily on statistical analysis and data to measure is any correlation or relationship between two variables. process improvement. Below are the key stages of the metric lifecycle:
3.Types of Relationships: and addressed.
performance and identify defects. •Categorization and Prioritization: •Metric Selection:
2.DMAIC Process: Follows the DMAIC cycle (Define, Measure, Analyze, •A scatter plot can show various types of relationships: Appropriate metrics are selected based on their relevance to the objectives,
•Positive Correlation: As one variable Classify the defect based on its severity and urgency. Prioritize defects that have the
Improve, Control) for process improvement. greatest impact on the process or product quality, so that resources can be allocated availability of data, ease of measurement, and their ability to guide
2. Total Quality Management (TQM) increases, the other also increases. decision-making and improvement.
•Negative Correlation: As one variable efficiently.
TQM is an organization-wide approach that focuses on continuous •Root Cause Analysis: •Data Collection:
improvement of all employees and processes to meet customer needs and increases, the other decreases. Once the metrics are defined, data is collected from relevant sources. This
•No Correlation: No discernible pattern Conduct a thorough investigation to determine the underlying cause of the defect. Tools
improve quality. such as the 5 Whys, Fishbone Diagram, or Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA) can be done continuously or at defined intervals, depending on the nature
1.Employee Involvement: All employees at every level are encouraged to between the two variables. of the metric and the business requirements.
4.Outliers Identification: can be used to identify the root cause.
contribute to improving quality. •Process Review: •Data Analysis:
2.Customer Focus: Prioritizes customer satisfaction by consistently •Scatter diagrams can help identify outliers, which are data The collected data is analyzed to extract insights. This step involves using
points that do not fit the general trend of the dataset. Analyze the affected process to identify why the defect occurred. Engage relevant
meeting customer expectations. stakeholders to review workflows, systems, or methodologies that may have contributed statistical tools or methods to examine trends, relationships, and
3. Lean 5.Trend Line/Fit Line: performance gaps relative to the set targets.
•A trend line or line of best fit is often added to a scatter to the issue.
Lean focuses on eliminating waste (non-value-added activities) and •Corrective Action Implementation: •Performance Evaluation:
improving the flow of work to increase value and efficiency. diagram to illustrate the general direction or trend in the The analysis of the data is used to evaluate the current performance
data. Develop and implement corrective actions to fix the defect. These actions should
1.Waste Elimination: Focuses on reducing activities that do not add value address both the immediate defect and any systemic issues that may have caused it. against predefined benchmarks or goals. This helps to assess whether the
to the product or service. 6.Quantitative Analysis: process or system is functioning as expected.
•Scatter diagrams are useful for performing quantitative •Process Optimization:
2.Customer Value: Emphasizes delivering maximum value to customers After the defect is addressed, look for opportunities to optimize the entire process. This •Decision-Making and Action:
with minimal waste. analysis, as they provide a visual sense of the relationship Based on the evaluation, decisions are made to take corrective actions or
between variables. It can be further analyzed using may involve streamlining workflows, improving communication, or enhancing quality
4. Kaizen assurance procedures to prevent similar issues. improve processes. The metrics provide valuable information to support
Kaizen is a Japanese methodology focused on continuous, incremental statistical tools like correlation coefficients. process adjustments and performance optimization.
7.Easy Interpretation: •Monitoring and Effectiveness Measurement:
improvements in processes, often driven by employee suggestions and Continuously monitor the effectiveness of the corrective actions by tracking key •Feedback and Continuous Monitoring:
participation. •Scatter diagrams are simple to create and easy to Metrics are continuously monitored, and feedback is gathered to assess if
interpret, providing an intuitive way to understand complex performance indicators such as defect rates, cycle time, or customer feedback. This
1.Small, Incremental Improvements: Focuses on making small changes helps determine whether the changes have successfully mitigated the defect. they are still relevant. Regular reviews ensure that the metrics provide
regularly rather than large, drastic ones. relationships between variables. accurate and timely information for ongoing improvements.
•Continuous Improvement and Feedback:
2.Employee Involvement: All employees are encouraged to identify areas Treat defects as learning opportunities for continuous improvement. Establish a feedback •Retirement or Modification of Metrics:
for improvement and contribute ideas. loop where insights gained from resolving defects are shared across teams, encouraging As business needs evolve or metrics become less relevant, they are either
ongoing refinement of processes and practices. retired or modified. This ensures that the metrics remain aligned with
current objectives and continue to provide meaningful insights.