ChE 420 - Qualitative and Quantitative

Chemistry
Chapter I. Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
Analytical chemistry involves the separation, identification, and the quantification of matter. It
involves the use of classical methods along with modern methods involving the use of scientific
instruments.
Analytical chemistry involves the following methods:
The process of separation isolates the required chemical species which is to be analysed from a mixture.
The identification of the analyte substance is achieved via the method of qualitative analysis.
The concentration of the analyte in a given mixture can be determined with the method of quantitative
analysis.
Today, the field of analytical chemistry generally involves the use of modern, sophisticated instruments.
However, the principles upon which these instruments are built can be traced to more traditional
techniques.

Methods Used in Analytical Chemistry

The methods used to determine the identity and the quantity of the analytes in the field of analytical
chemistry can be broadly divided into classical and instrumental methods.

1. Classical Methods
There exist many classical methods of checking for the presence or absence of a particular compound in
a given analyte. One such example is the acid test for gold.

Another example of a classical method for qualitative analysis is the Kastle-Meyer test which employs
phenolphthalein as an indicator to check for the presence of haemoglobin in the given analyte.

Flame tests can be used to check for the presence of specific elements in an analyte by exposing it to a
flame and observing the change in the colour of the flame.

Gravimetric analysis is a classical method of quantitative analysis, which can be used in analytical
chemistry to determine the amount of water in a hydrate by heating it and calculating the weight of the
water lost.

One of the better known classical methods of quantitative analysis is volumetric analysis (also known as
titration). In the titration method, a reactant is added to the analyte till an equivalence point is obtained.

2. Instrumental Methods
Spectroscopy involves the measurement of the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and the
atoms or molecules belonging to a sample.
With the help of electric fields and magnetic fields, the method of mass spectroscopy is used to measure
the ratio of the mass of the molecule to its charge.

A common instrumental method used in the field of analytical chemistry is electrochemical analysis. In
this method, the analyte is placed in an electrochemical cell and the voltage or the current flowing through
it is measured.

The interaction between the analyte and energy in the form of heat is studied in the discipline of analytical
chemistry known as calorimetry. A calorimeter is an instrument that is used to measure the heat of a
chemical reaction.

It can be noted that even biological measurements are made with the help of this branch of chemistry,
and this field is known as bio analytical chemistry.

Branches of Analytical Chemistry

Two sub-branches come under analytical chemistry namely quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis
which can be explained as follows. These two methods form the backbone of many educational labs of
analytical chemistry.

1. Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative Analysis is a method of determining the absolute or relative quantity regarding the
concentration of one or more substances present in a sample or compound.

For example, take a sample of an unknown solid substance. The chemists first use “qualitative” methods
to identify what type of compound is present in the sample; then he adopts the quantitative analysis
procedure to determine the exact amount or the quantity of the compound present in the sample.

Some Quantitative analysis techniques include Gravimetric Analysis and Volumetric analysis.

2. Qualitative Analysis

Quality means the standard or the feature of one substance. Hence, Qualitative analysis method deals
with the determination of the quality of a particular compound, irrespective of its quantity or
concentration. In simpler words, the qualitative analysis does not measure the amount of the substance
but measures the quality of that material. One of the best examples of this type of method is the
observation of a chemical reaction, whether there will be a change in colour or not.

The qualitative analysis method can be measured in different ways such as Chemical tests, flame tests,
etc. Several such tests are widely used in salt analysis (identification of the cation & anion of inorganic
salts).

Importance of Analytical Chemistry

Analytical chemistry is the branch which is taught in almost all schools and colleges. But the applications
of it are made in pharmaceutical industries, food factories, chemical industries, agricultural industries and
in scientific laboratories. The tools used for this purpose are quite expensive which one cannot afford at
home.
USES OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry has evolved from an art of court magicians to alchemist's into a science with
applications throughout industry, medicine, and all the sciences.

• The concentrations of oxygen and of carbon dioxide are determined in millions of blood samples
every day and used to diagnose and treat illnesses.
• Smog-control is done by the measurement of quantities of hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and
carbon monoxide in automobile exhaust.
• Analytical chemistry helps diagnose parathyroid diseases in humans measurements of ionized
calcium in blood serum.
• Determination of nitrogen in foods establishes their protein content and thus their nutritional
value.
• Analysis of steel during its production permits adjustment in the concentrations of such elements
as carbon, nickel, and chromium to achieve a desired strength, hardness, corrosion resistance,
and ductility.

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
• QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS - Reveals the components of the sample

• QUANTITATIVE ANAYSIS - Determines the amount of components present in the sample

SCALE OF OPERATION IN CHEMICAL ANALYSES

MACRO

SEMI-MICRO

MICRO

ULTRAMICRO/SUBMICRO

% COMPOSITION
MAJOR CONSTITIUENTS - 100.00-1.00%

MINOR CONSTITIUENTS - 1.00 -0.01%

TRACE CONSTITIUENTS - <0.01%

STOICHIOMETRY OF REACTIONS IN A SOLUTION

• study of the quantitative relationships or ratios between two or more substances undergoing a
physical change or chemical change.
• derives from the Greek words: stoicheion (element) and metron (measure)
 • Jeremias Benjaim Richter defined it as the science of measuring quantities or mass ratios of
chemical elements.

You might be given a chemical equation and the mass of one reactant or product and asked to determine
the quantity of another reactant or product in the equation.

Or, you might be given the quantities of reactants and products and asked to write the balanced equation
that fits the math.

MASS-MASS STOICHIOMETRY
One of the most common types of chemistry problems you'll use stoichiometry to solve is the mass-mass
problem. Here are the steps to solve a mass-mass problem:

1. Correctly identify the problem as a mass-mass problem. Usually you're given a chemical equation, like:

A + 2B -› C

2. Balance the chemical equation.

3. Convert any mass values in the problem into moles.

4. Use molar proportion to determine unknown quantities of moles.

5. Convert the mole value you just found into mass, using the molar mass of that substance.

Chapter 2: Review of Basic Principles

Acids and Bases
ACID

A substance that produces H+ ions in aqueous solution. Strong acids ionize completely or almost
completely in dilute aqueous solution. Weak acids ionize only slightly.

BASE

A substance that produces OH ions in aq solution. Strong soluble bases are soluble in water and
are completely dissociated. Weak bases ionize only slightly.

A useful definition of acids and bases is that independently introduced by Johannes Brønsted
(1879–1947) and Thomas Lowry (1874–1936) in 1923. In the Brønsted-Lowry definition, acids are proton
donors, and bases are proton acceptors.
Strong Acids Weak Acids
HCl HF
HBr HCN
HI H2SO3
HNO3 H3PO4
H2SO4
HClO4
HClO3

Strong Bases Weak Bases

LiOH Ammonia
NaOH Derivatives
KOH
RbOH
CsOH
Ca(OH)2 GAP IIa (+2) Charge
Sr (OH)2 GAP IIa (+2) Charge
Ba(OH)2 GAP IIa (+2) Charge

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
1.) What is the pH of a solution containing 0.01 M HNO3?

2.) Calculate the pH of a solution containing 1.2345×10−4M Ca(OH)2?

3.) The molar solubility of calcium hydroxide is 0.013 M Ca(OH)2. Calculate the pH.
METHODS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Percentage by Weight (w / w %)
As an example consider 5 g sugar dissolved in 20 g of water. What is the w/w% concentration of
sugar in this solution?

Percentage by Volume (V / V %)

A solution of propanol (CH3CH2CH2OH) is prepared by dissolving 67 mL in enough water to have a

final volume of 250 mL. What is the volume percent of the propanol?

Weight by Volume (W / V %)

Calculate the mass/volume percent of a 762.5 milliliter solution that is prepared by dissolving
289.15 grams of calcium azide, Ca(N3)2, in water.
MOLE
• The mole (mol) is the SI unit for the amount of a chemical species. It is always associated with a
chemical formula and is Avogadro’s number of particles represented by that formula.

• The molar mass of a substance is a mass in grams of one mole of the substance

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.) Determine the mass in grams of Na+ in 25.0g of sodium sulfate.

Mole Fraction
SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.) What are the mole fraction of the components of the solution formed when 92 g glycerol
is mixed with 90 g water?

2.) A solution is prepared by mixing 25.0 g of water, H2O, and 25.0 g of ethanol, C2H5OH.
Determine the mole fractions of each substance.

Parts Per Million

For very dilute solutions, parts per million (ppm) is a convenient way to express concentration.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.) What is the molarity of K+ in a solution that contains 63.3 ppm of K3Fe(CN )6
Molarity
The molarity (M) of a solution is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of
solution.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.) What is the molarity of a solution containing 0.32 moles of NaCl in 3.4 liters?

2.) A 4 g sugar cube is dissolved in a 350 ml teacup filled with hot water. What is the molarity of
the sugar solution?

Molality
A property of a solution and is defined as the number of moles of solute per kilogram of
solvent.

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. What is the molality of a solution containing 0.46 mole of solute in 2.0 kg water?
2. If we mass 5.36 g of KCl and dissolve this solid in 56 mL of water, what is the molality of the
solution?

3. How much acetic acid, in mL, is needed to make a 3.0 m solution containing 25.0 g of KCN?

4. Calculate the molality of a 7.55 kg sample of a solution of the solute CH2Cl2 dissolved in the
solvent acetone (CH3COH3C) if the sample contains 929 g of methylene chloride
Normality

SAMPLE PROBLEM
1. How many grams of NaOH are there in 500.0 mL of a 0.175 N NaOH solution?