tT

LIVE TERMINALS

SWITCH OFF
R
NG THiS COVE
BEFORE REMOVI

SS
-
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION COMPETENCES

Part 2 Studies: Science

Maurice Lewis
BEd (Hons), FIEIE

L21.3 (0UZ

o>
lias 2
x

0074 10443|

Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd

Text © Maurice Lewis, 1993

Original line illustrations © Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd 1993

The right of Maurice Lewis to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in
accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher or under licence
from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Further details of such licences (for reprographic
reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of 90 Tottenham
Court Road, London W1P 9HE.

First published in 1993 by:

Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd
Ellenborough House
Wellington Street
CHELTENHAM
GLS0 1YD
UK

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 0 7487 1660 2

Typeset by Florencetype, Kewstoke, Avon

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Scotprint Ltd, Musselburgh
: Contents
Preface iv Electric motors
and starters 42
Introductory Basic principles; output power, efficiency;
mathematics 1 cage induction motor; rotor operation;
Algebraic equations; factorising; removing wound rotor induction motor; application;
brackets; substitution; index notation; single-phase induction motor; universal
numbers in standard form; exercise 1.1; motor; motor starters; direct-on-line; star

simultaneous equations; transposition of delta; autotransformer starter; rotor

formulae; square root and cube root signs; resistance starter; motor protection; power
scientific calculator; trigonometrical ratios; factor improvement equipment; speed
useful hints; ratios of common angles; control; exercise 3

complimentary angles; relations between

ratios; solution of triangles; sine and Elements of
cosine rules; exercise 1.2 lighting design 65
Light; terminology; lumen method calcula-
Alternating current tion; lighting systems; types of lamp;
circuits 24 control gear; lamp faults; exercise 4
The sine wave; circuit components;
Appendix I Multiple-choice
resistance; inductance; capacitance; RLC
questions 78
circuits; resistance and inductance in
Appendix 2 Written questions 84
series; resistance and capacitance in series;
resistance and inductance in parallel; Appendix 3 Answers to exercises,

resistance and capacitance in parallel; and questions 86

power factor; three-phase supplies; bal-

anced loads, power calculations; instru-

ment connections using current and

voltage transformers; cathode ray oscillo-
scope; digital and analogue instruments;
exercise 2
. Preface
This book is written for Part 2 students triangles using the units of kW, kVA and

studying the City and Guilds of London kVAr.

Institute Course 236-8 syllabus in electrical Chapter 3 deals with motors and starters
installation competences. It is the second describing the basic principles of motor
book ina series of three books aimed at operation of single-phase and three-phase
covering electrical science topics of the motors. Starting methods are also discussed
current syllabus. To help you cope with the along with the protective measures to safe-
technicalities of the course, it was decided to guard against undervoltage and overload. The
include a revision of basic mathematics. The chapter is supported with numerous, easy to
first chapter, therefore, covers algebraic draw, circuit diagrams for the reader.
equations, use ofa scientific calculator,
Chapter 4 covers elements of lighting
transposition of formulae, simultaneous
design and summarizes some of the common
equations and solving problems using
trigonometrical ratios. lamps in use today which operate from in-
candescent, fluorescent and discharge
Chapter 2 concerns alternating current
sources. This chapter supplements the studies
circuits, introducing you to phase displace-
of lighting found in Part 1: Theory and
ment between current/voltage quantities
prepares student readers for studies at Part
when applied to circuit components possess-
3 level (i.e. the Course ‘C’ Certificate).
ing resistance, inductance and capacitance.
You will be shown numerous worked exam- Each chapter includes appropriate

ples of RLC components connected in series exercises. In addition, Appendix 1 provides

and parallel and you will also see how easy the student with 70 multiple choice questions;

it is to construct graphs and phasor diagrams Appendix 2 sets 10 written questions;

of circuits which illustrate power factor. The Appendix 3 provides answers to all exercises,
chapter introduces three-phase systems and multiple choice questions and written
balancing of loads, star and delta connections questions.
as well as providing a number of calculations
on three-phase power involving power Maurice Lewis
 Introductory
mathematics
Objectives values replace the letter dimensions, then the
answer for area and volume would need to be
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
expressed in square units and cubic units respec-
construct equations from derived data. tively.
perform simple algebraic factorisation. Create an equation for finding the total area of a
multiply expressions in brackets. rectangle if it is divided into two parts as shown in
use standard form notation. Figure 1.1. Here, the length of the two parts is
solve simultaneous equations. called a and b and the width is called x. The areas of
rearrange formulae to change the subject. the two rectangles are, therefore, ax and bx respec-
solve problems with the aid of a scientific calcu- tively. The total area (A) is now expressed as:
lator.
solve triangles using sine, cosine and tangent
ratios.

Algebraic equations
The branch of mathematics in which letters and
symbols are used to represent quantities is called _— a ee ear
algebra. One of its advantages is the freedom it Figure 1.1 Area calculation
allows to express unknown quantities when using
different types of equation and formula. Another is
A = ax+bx
its use.in solving problems without the distraction
created by difficult arithmetic. The following exam- You saw in the first example how the equation was
ples serve to illustrate these two points. further simplified by inserting brackets. In this
Create a simple algebraic equation for finding second example, you can see that x is common in
the distance round a room given that the distance both terms and brackets can be used to enclose the
(d) is equal to twice its length (/) and twice its term a + b, simplifying the equation into:
breadth (b). Here: A =x(a+b)
d = 2) +20 This process is called factorisation which is dealt
or with after the next example.
A 3m length of conduit is to be cut into three
d = 21+ 6) pieces. If the second piece is twice as long as the
To find the room’s area (A) you would simply first piece and the third piece is 40 cm shorter than
write: the first piece, what are the lengths of all three
pieces if 20 cm is allowed for wastage?
A= IX. In this example, you must take the initiative of
and to find its volume (V) you would write: giving the first piece a letter symbol (say x), then
the second piece becomes 2x and the third piece
V=lxbxh (x — 40). You should make a sketch of the problem
(where / is the height of the room). If numerical (see Figure 1.2) and note that the useful length of
1
conduit is only 280 cm. The problem is solved by arithmetric. In multiplication the sign is often
creating a simple equation based on finding x. omitted when writing down more than one term,
Hence e.g. 4xyz means (4 x x x y x z) but the sign must
reappear when numbers are substituted for actual
Wastage symbols. It is usual practice to assume that all sym-
x 2x x-4 y
bols, letters and numbers have a plus value unless
a minus sign is shown. You must remember the sign
ge res ate rule used in ordinary multiplication:

Figure 1.2 Length calculation Rule: like signs give a plus and unlike signs give a
minus.

x+2x +(x —40) |= 280 Substitution

4x — 40 = 280
Ifx =4 andy = 5, them
“lve ae BOXY
3(x + y) = 314s 3) Zi
therefore NeansOircm.
A(x + y) = -4(44+5)= -36
hence, second Biece
x(x-y) = 444-5) =-4
2% = LOOCem
In the fourth example, if a = —2 and b = 4 then:
and third piece
4a(2a +b) = 4(-2) [2 (-2) +4]
x-40 = 40cm
, -8 (-4'+ 4) =0
In this example, brackets are shown around the
Notice the different types of bracket used. The
term (x — 40) since it represents a collective term in
terms contained within the inner brackets must be
itself but no factorising is required.
tackled first before dealing with the group terms,
separated in this example by the plus sign. See if
you can solve the next problem.
Factorisation Simplify the following algebraic expression by
Factorise the following: removing the brackets and then finding its value
whent = —1
ax + Sy
2(1 + 26—30),—43 — Ai on)
Since 5 is common to both sides then S(x + y).
The solution is:
7x* — 14x
—-1+ 8-114
Since 7x is common to both sides then 7x(x — 2).
and when t = —1 the numerical answer is 2.
2x + 120
Since 2 is common to both sides then 2(x + 60). Further examples
1) 3(x— 13) = 9-3(% +2)
Removing brackets
Remove brackets:
Remove the brackets from the following:
3x
— 39 = 9 —3y=6
3(x+y) = 3x + 3y
collect like terms:
—A(x+y) = -4x-4y
MX) = Xray
3x4: e195 30— 6
solve for x:
4a(2a + b) = 8a’ + 4ab
nae| & Nw
The laws of algebra are the same as those for
aw),
 Multiplication of powers
2) 2(x+ 1) = 5x -7
axa — ans
Remove brackets:
If a = 10, m = 5 and n = 3 this becomes:
se 5x —7
ears
collect like terms:
108
2x— 5x = -7-2
I 100000000
solve for x:
=3aXt = -—9 Further examples
oo 3 xo = (OX SKS
KS XK)
= 5246
3) x :a
x-4 = 5)
&3 x 8° x 8&4 = R3+0+4

Transpose 5: = 8’
¥—2.= S(x
— 4)
Rule: When multiplying powers of the same base,
remove brackets: add the indices.
-
x-2= 5x — 20

collect like terms: Division of powers

Sy = 2 —20 a™ ee ae = (gue

solve for x:
If we give m and n the same values as above, (i.e.
—-4y = —18 m = 5 and n = 3) we have:
4.5 =alOey
10?
4) (x
+ 3) (x +5) = 55 + x2
100
Remove rackets:
x +3x+5x+15= 55
+ x? Note: If in the above example, m = 3 and n=5S, the
answer would be 10° which is 1/100 or 0.01. You
x? 4+8x+15 = 55
can show this by cancelling the number of tens in
ax? + 8x = 55
— 15 the numerator and denominator, for example:
Bx Je 40 10" Wx Wx 10
10 Wx Wx Wx 10x 10
a= 5
1
S00
The line dividing 1 and 100 is called the quotient
line and you will see that m (the numerator) is less
than n (the denominator). This tells you that an
Index notation index having a negative integer produces an answer
If a is any quantity and n is a positive integer (i.e. as a fraction less than unity (e.g. 107 is really 1/10?
whole number) then a” means a Xaxa.. 4 te)ial = 0.01),
factors. This is termed the index or nth power of a. You can see from the following list where the
The index thus indicates the number of times which change froma positive integer to a negative integer
a occurs as a factor. occurs:
 10° = 1000000 Further examples
10° = 100000 4° ote fed nae AG
Pr
10% = 10000 a
10*>="1000 <=
a
gt=@=1
10? = 100 a
10° >=" 10
LOPS ara Rules: When dividing powers of the same base sub-
1071.= 1/10 = 0.1 tract the index of the denominator from the index of
107 = 1/100 = 0.01 the numerator. Any base raised to the index of zero
10" =" 171,000 = 0.001 is equal to 1.
10* = 1/10000 = 0.0001
10° = 1/100000, = 0.00001 Powers of powers and fractional powers
10° = 1/1000000 = 0.000001 Indices can take the form of a power of a power, i.e.
(a")" and also be a fractional power, i.e. a'”. In the
Numbers in standard form former case, the two powers are multiplied together
whereas in the latter case the power is more con-
One way of avoiding errors with long complicated veniently written as the square root of a, i.e.Va.
numbers, especially decimal numbers is to express
them in standard form. This basically means multi- Note: a'? x a'? = a! =a (e.g. V3 x V3 = 3).
plying them by a power of 10. You saw in the
table above that 10? = 100, 10° = 1000 and 10° = Further examples
0.000 01. When the power of 10 is positive the (10°) = 10° = 10'8

numerical value of the index gives the number of

ei 2 (m°*)* a m2 s m°
places that the decimal point has to be moved to
n (n2 3 ns n°
the right. If it is a negative value, the decimal point
has to be moved to the left. Consider the following
examples: a* =
=

80 987 = 80.987 x 10° Rules: When raising the power of a base to a power,
40 000 000 = 40 x 10° multiply the indices together. The power of a base
which has a negative index is the reciprocal of the
259.009 25 = 02050 1Y
power of the base with the same but positive index.
0.094 = 9.4 x 107
0. 000 0345 = 3.45 x 10°
Exercise 1.1
2.463 x 10% = 0. 000 246 3
1. Simplify a*b + ab?
You can prove that 10° = 1 by considering the 2. Simplify a*b x ab?
expression:
3. Figure 1.3 shows a triangle ABC which is
Q° = qu
divided into two right-angled triangles by the
|
3
5 +|- 2
3 perpendicular line h. Derive an equation for
finding its area.

Note also
a xqQ= qe

Therefore N c
Figure 1.3 Area calculation
 Hint: Treat both small triangles as half rect-
angles and note that the line BC = BN + NC
. Figure 1.4 shows arectangle with two triangles
cut out. Write down an algebraic equation for
the area of the remainder and solve the equa-
tion when/ = 15cm,b = 10cmandh = 4cm

| Figure 16 Power triangle

terms of the other two quantities using

Pythagoras’ theorem.

Simultaneous equations
These are algebraic equations containing two
Figure 1.4 Residual area calculation (or more) unknown quantities such as x and y.
The equation is solved by using information or
. Solve the equation 2(x + 5) = 3(2x — 4) data extracted from the problem. The following
examples illustrate the method used.
. Two rectangular boards are equal in cross
sectional area. The length of one is 18 cm and
that of the other 16 cm. If the difference in O Example 1.1
their breadths is 4 cm, find the breadth of each
To find two numbers x and y if their sum is
board and their common area.
100 and their difference is 20 is expressed
. Create a simple algebraic equation for finding as:
the area (wall thickness) of a standard piece of
x - y= 100 [1]
metal conduit.
and
. The sum of resistance for three resistors con-
nected in series with each is given by x-y = 20 [2]
Pas ae i ak
If R = V/I, create a formula for potential differ- A Solution
ence (V). To eliminate y add together both equa-
. Figure 1.5 shows a radial distributor AG. If the tions.
current flowing into point A is x amperes, state Thus
with reference to x the current flowing between
each section and also the current flowing ek 2 120)
towards G. and therefore
10. Figure 1.6 shows a right-angled triangle repre-
gre? 00
senting power quantities viz. power (P), volt-
amperes (S) and reactive voltamperes (X). If x is substituted in equation [1] you can
Write down an expression for finding X in solve for y:

x A B c D E eG
Hence
60 + y = 100
and therefore
60A 40A 15A 10A 70A 45A
| y = 100-60
Figure 1.5 Radial distributor
= 40
 3x -Sy =6 [1]
Example a | | eee ed 2]
An electrical contractor installed in a
premises x luminaires which cost £30 each
and y electric fires which cost £50 each. If Solution
the total expenditure was £490 and he A
spent £10 more on the fires than he did on Multiply equation [1] by 3 and equation [2]
the luminaires, determine how many lumi- by 5. This will make the y terms the same
naires and fires he purchased. in both equations and since they have
opposite signs their sum will be zero.
Hence
Solution 9x — 15y = 18 [3]
Here, the two equations needed to solve nnd
the problem are:
20x + 15y = 185 [4]
30x + 50y = 490 [1]
By adding both these equations:
—30x + 50y = 10 [2]
29% 203
Equation [2] tells you that the total cost of
y is more than the total cost of x by £10. then
Adding the equations together will result — 203 _ 7
in: 29
Substituting this value in equation (1)
100y = 500 gives:
and therefore 2 —5y = 6

as © Sys
Substituting y = 5 in equation [1] solves 55) Eis
for x:
Hence erefore
theref y =o
You should check your answer by substi-
Oe a0 tuting x and y in the second equation, to
30x = 490 - 250 give (4x7) + (3 x3) = 37
30x = 240
and therefore Q Example 1.4
noes oe An_ electrical contracting firm pays its
semlor apprentices £x per hour for their
To solve simultaneous equations it is often neces- basic pay and £y per hour for their over-
sary to multiply or divide the equations to make time. One apprentice works a basic week
the coefficients of one of the unknowns the same of 38 hours plus 6 hours overtime while a
in both equations. It is then a matter of adding or second apprentice works a basic week of
subtracting the two equations to eliminate one of 40 hours plus 4 hours overtime. If the first
the unknowns. The next three problems illustrate apprentice is paid £235 and the second
this method. apprentice is paid £230, determine their
basic and overtime pay per hour.

Example 1.3
From the information given, solve for x A Solution
and y: ' In this example the equations are:
and '
40x + 4y = 230 [2]
Multiply equation [1] by 2 and equation [2]
by 3 and then subtract equation [1] from
equation [2] in order to eliminate y. The
rule for subtracting is to change all the
signs in the equation you are concerned
with, then add it to the second equation. Figure 1.7 Closed loop circuit

Hence
currents to each loop can be expressed as:
76x + 12y = 470 [3] Dedede dec DR ekes [1]
and and

120x + 12y = 690 [4] J Re Ley Bey, [2]

Now change signs of equation [3] and add Inserting the values in these two equations
to equation [4]: gives:
-76x — 12y = —470 [3’] 21 LO 1) =i [1]
120x + 12y = 690 [4] and
44x = 220 Ble SEE) [2]
therefore The two equations become:
eS 127, + 101, = 6 [1]
Substitute x in equation (1) and
Hence Ze l =e [2]
190 + 6y = 235 Multiply equation [2] by 6 and subtract it
from equation [1] which will give the
oy = 235 — 190
answer to L;:
therefore
121, + 101, II ON [3]
P= 135
and
The basic rate of pay is therefore £5/hour
12h, —18f = 12 [4]
and the overtime pay is £7.50/hour.
Subtracting equation [4] gives:
25in = 6
Example 1.5
Figure 1.7 shows a closed loop circuit in therefore
which two batteries send current to differ- [= -0.214 A
ent parts of the circuit. Derive equations
The minus sign shows that J, is flowing
for the current flowing round loop ABEF
against J,. If this value is now substituted in
and loop ACDF and solve the equation for
equation [2], /, can be found:
the unknown currents. Assume J, + J, = J,.
Thus

Solution
21, — 0. 642 = 2
Since the batteries are the driving force, the and
 Dia ln ae also the ability to manipulate terms and symbols in
order to change their position or place. The inten-
therefore
tion is to nominate a new quantity to become the
I,1 = 0.679 A subject of the formula.
The first rule you must learn is that everything on
The third branch current is
either side of an equal sign, i.e. the left hand side
I, = [,+ I, = 0.679
—0. 214 (LHS) and right hand side (RHS) is in a state of
balance. You cannot do anything to one side with-
= OMA Gore
out it affecting the other side. The following exam-
ple illustrates this point using numbers instead of
letters to make the procedure easily understood.
QO Example 1.6
Sometimes the information extracted from Dea = lca)
a problem results in three related equa- If you add a number (say 60) to the LHS of the
tions to be solved. Consider the following equal sign, you will have to repeat this on the RHS.
but remember to change the signs of an You must think of the equal sign as a pivot balanc-
equation when subtracting it and adding it ing the two sides like a set of scales:
to another equation:
60 + (2x5) = 60+
(1 x 10)
Note: The brackets must be used to keep the orig-
Solution inal numbers together.
x+y+z= 53 [1] If you subtract (say 40) from the LHS, you must
repeat this for the RHS:
x2 ver 3zi= 105 [2]
x+3y+4z= 134 [3] 60-40+(2x5) _60-—40+
(1 x 10)
a . z
Subtracting equation [1] from equation [2]
gives: If you divide by 2 on the LHS, you must repeat this
on the RHS:
Wer 22 =052 [4]
60-40+(2x5) _ 60-40+ (1x 10)
and subtracting equation [2] from equation Z = 2
[3] gives:
And if you multiply by 4, the LHS and RHS both
Yer Zz =) 29 [5] become:
Now see if you can finish off this problem 4[60 — 40 + (2 x 5)] _ 4[60 - 40 + (1 x 10)]
along the lines explained above. 2 2
Hints: = 60
Subtract equation [5] from equation [4] to
givez-= 23 You should take note of the way the extra brackets
have been inserted so that the number 4 embraces
Substitute z in equation [5] to give y = 6 all the numbers on both sides.
Substitute y and z in equation [1] to give Now let us start transposing the numbers. The only
X= 24, way to remove 2 in the divisor on the LHS is to
multiply both LHS and RHS numerators by 2. This
allows you to cancel the 2 on the LHS.
Transposition of formulae You must remember that there is always an invisi-
ble 1 multiplier associated with a single number,
This topic was introduced in the Part 1 Science
symbol or term (and other terms) and when the
book and is reviewed here in more detail since it
number is totally removed, you are left with 1:
still presents a problemto most Part 2 students.
Transposition of formulae requires not only an 2x 4[6
40+0-
(2x5)] _ 60x2
understanding of the basic rules of arithmetic but
2 ies
8
Whilst you cannot transpose any of the numbers If
inside the brackets you can cancel out 2 on the
LHS. You can also transpose 4 to the denominator Vabc = d
on the RHS which is the result of dividing both then
sides by 4:
A0C =a"
4[60-40+(5x2)] _ 60x2 = 30 If
4 poh
Cancelling out 4 on the LHS leaves:
eee7
60 — 40 + 10 = 30 then
With no numbers as divisors, you can equate the
[>
3
problem to zero and it will demonstrate to you how
the numbers change their sign when they are Now consider transposition of formulae using
moved directly across the equal sign. Thus by algebraic quantities. In the last example you
adding —60 to both sides you obtain: saw that:
— 60 + 60 — 40 + 10 = 30-60
leaving
Now make A the subject of the formula. Start by
5 « —40+10
= 30-60 removing 7 to the numerator on the LHS leaving
A the subject. Thus:
By adding +40 to both sides you obtain:
Pl
40
—40 + 10 = 30-60
+ 40
It is generally accepted that the subject of a form-
leaving
ula is written on the LHS allowing the other
10 = 30 - 60 + 40 quantities to be expressed on the RHS, i.e:
By adding —10 to both sides you obtain: AseTr.
— 10+ 10 = 30-60
+ 40-10 You should try and get into the habit of writing
down ‘introductory’ words for each step taken in
leaving
evaluating the formula, e.g. if, since, then, and,
0 = 30-60
+ 40-10 therefore, also, hence (from here), thus (as a result
of this). Consider the following example:
Note: Having finished this example, it is worth
remembering that when a number is multiplied by If
0 the answer is 0. If it is divided by 0 the answer is oo
infinity and when 0 is divided by the number the k
answer is 0. To make ¢ the subject of the formula, firstly, move
k to the numerator on the LHS, then squre both
sides and remove / to the denominator on the LHS:
Square root and cube root signs Ski aNlct
The square root of a number is the number whose
and
square equals the given number. For example,
25 = 5 (and 5S? = 25). Also note that V1 = 1 (SK yee, It
singe 1* = 1. therefore
The cube root of a number is the number whose
cube equals the given number. For example, 4/125 (Sky _
ey (andS.= 125).
[?

When formulae involve root signs, try and or

simplify the task by removing the root sign first. Ske
For example:
 Example 1.7
Make A, p, and / subjects of the formula:

ReetA

ee
©
Resistance (R) depends ona
A battery has internal resistance (r)

Figure 1.10 Internal and external circuit resistance

conductor's properties

Figure 1.8 Resistance factors

A Solution
Eos V(Rit7)

R= (E/V)-r
Solution
r= (E/V)-R
A= LIN
p= RAI
Example 1.10
l= RA/p
Make R, subject of the formula:

Example 1.8 Z,~ Ze= (Ry + R)L

Make R and Vsubjects of the formula:
V Supply terminals R, fi
ar
i

R, I;
Current (/) is driven around circuit
by source voltage but limited by Fault current (/;) flows through different elements of a
resistance (R) circuit
Figure 1.11 System impedance
Figure 1.9 Limiting current flow

Solution
R= Vilvand se IR
A Solution
R, = bh — Z,/L] makes

Example 1.9
Example 1.11
Make E£, R and r subjects of the formula:
Wok Make R the subject of the formula:
ee R+r L= UR? +X
10
 Dees ext A Solution
Me sent, (L—'s)

eee
Overall limit to a.c. current is called impedance (Z) QO Example 1.14
Make Vthe subject of the formula:
Figure 1.12 Impedance
Se
Wer
R

A Solution
Pm NZX * e cerittitt
ree
Example 1.12
If X, = 2nfL and X. = 1/27fC make fthe
subject of the formula:
xX, = X, A resistor (R) produces heat energy (W)

Figure 1.15 Heat energy

6 Xx, Xc

Solution
V= VWRit

Example 1.15
Make R, the subject of the formula:
Resonant frequency (f) occurs when X, = X, eS et
Figure 1.13 Circuit resonance Reaalimal
E

A Solution

NLe

Example 1.13
Make N, the subject of the formula:

Se He Np Equivalent resistance (R,) in a parallel circuit has an ohmic

N. 5 value smaller than any circuit resistor
Figure 1.16 Parallel resistor connections
a)
Solution
R, = RRR, ~ R.)

Example 1.16
Slip (s) is the difference between
Make n the subject of the formula:
synchronous speed (n,) and rotor
speed (n,) nE
Figure 1.14 Induction motor ae R+ar

11
The more cells connected in series the higher the voltage
eye) QO m
and internal resistance

Figure 1.17 Connection of cells in series

A Solution
n = IRU(UIr- E)

Scientific calculator
The course 236-8 Electrical Competence syllabus
requires students to use a calculator to perform
the four basic operations of arithmatic. These
operations along with other techniques such as
JE LLLLEL
WEL
ELL
percentages, square roots, memory calculations
and trigonometric functions will be dealt with in Figure 1.18 Keyboard of a typical scientific
this section. In order for you to become a proficient calculator
user of your calculator, you must be conversant (Second functions have been omitted for clarity)
with its keyboard functions and you must acquire
0 to 9 are number keys with the decimal point
plenty of practice using it. Figure 1.18 shows the
key shown as a dot.
layout of a typical keyboard with second functions
+/— key is used to change the sign of a displayed
omitted for clarity. Listed below is a brief explana-
number.
tion of the main operating keys.
equal sign (=) key is used to obtain a calculation
result.
2ndF key is used when you want to perform x—M key is used to store a number in the cal-
second operating functions with selected keys culator.
(those identified by smaller print and often a RM key is used to recall a stored number.
different colour). M+ key is used to add a further entry to an entry
In key and log key are used to calculate log- already stored in the memory.
arithms.
OFF key is used to switch the power ‘off’ and Until you are absolutely conversant with your cal-
normally has a facility to do this automatically culator, it is important that you make a rough
after an interval of time if no other keys have check of any calculation. The golden rule to
been used. remember is that any error keyed is an error creat-
ONIC key is used to switch the power ‘on’ and is ing a wrong answer. The following worked exam-
also the facility to cancel keying errors input. ples are provided to help your understanding of the
sin, cos and tan keys are used for trigonometric keyboard functions. The words ‘press’ and ‘obtain’
calculations. are action points with the latter word making the
F-E key is used for changing the display mode. assumption that you are able to tap into your cal-
CE key is used to clear an entry. culator whole and part numbers.
Exp Key allows entry of exponential numbers in
standard form. Example 1.17
x’ key is used to perform power calculations,
Evaluate:
giving the value of x to the index y.
x’ key is used to calculate the square of a number. 3.5 xX 6.2 x 19.99
(and ) keys are used with bracket calculations. 5.084 x 12.1 x 7.8
12
A Solution Solution
A rough check would express the num- Rough check:
eratom-as' 6 x 6 x 20 =:720 and the
denominator as 5 x 12 x 8 = 480. Hence:
0.03 x20x100 60
720 + 480 =. 1.5, 90x0.09x10 81 — ae

It should be noted that numbers containing Steps using your calculator are:
decimal fractions of 0.5 and above have press ON/C key
been rounded off to the next highest num- obtain 0.03
bers. There are no definite rules for obtain- re press X key
NO
iW
ing an approximate answer but rounding obtain 18.5
off numbers in order to cancel out on Sepress X key
either side of the quotient line greatly 6. obtain 100
simplifies matters. 7. press = key (display shows 55.5)
Steps in using your calculator are: 8. press + key
9. obtain 88.8
1. press ON/C key IQ) press + key (display shows 0.625)
2. obtain 5.5 11. obtain 0.09
3. press X key 12. press + key (display shows 6.944)
ab obtain 6.2 13. obtain 10
5. press X key (display shows 34.1) 14. press = key (display shows 0.694)
6. obtain 19.99
Answer = 0.69
7. press = key (display shows 681.659)
8. press + key
9. obtain 5.084
Example 1.19
10. press + key (display shows 134.07927)
11. obtain 12.1 Find the current taken by a 415 V/20 kW
12. press + key (display shows 11.080931) three-phase induction motor if it has a
13. obtain 7.8 power factor of 0.7 lagging and an effi-
14. press = key (display shows 1.4217064) ciency of 89%. The current is found from
the formula:
Answer = 1.42 (to three significant
figures). I, = (P x 100) + (V3 x V, x p.f. x % effy)
Note: Significant figures are counted from left to 20.000 x 100
right, starting with the first non-zero figure. In 1.732 x 415 x 0.7 x 89
general, answers are accepted to two decimal
points.
Solution
As an alternative method, you could multiply the Rough check:
denominator completely out and place the answer
479.82792 in the memory using the memory enter 2 000 000 = 200
x—M key. If you now multiply the numerator com- 2 x 400 x 0.5 x 100 4
pletely out to obtain 681.659, then press the + key,
recall memory RM key and the equal sign = key, Steps using your calculator are:
the same answer should appear.
obtain 2000000
press + key
Example 1.18 obtain 1.732
press + key (display shows 1154734.4)
Evaluate:
obtain 415
0.03 x 18.5 x 10° press + key (display shows 2782.4926)
88.8 x 0.09 x 10 obtain 0.7
ee
13
 8. press + key (display shows 3974.9894)
9. obtain 89 O Example 1.21
10. press = key Find the cross sectional area (A) of an
(display shows answer 44.662802) insulated cable if it has an overall diameter
(d) of 6.2 mm. Here, A = td’/4
Answer = 44.66 A
Note: The square root of 3 (i.e. V3) = 1.732. For
this function, press number 3 key and then press A Solution
the 2ndF key and the x key. A = (3.142 x 6.27) + 4
If there are more numbers in the denominator
than in the numerator, it would be easier and A rough check gives:
quicker to multiply the numbers in the denomina- A = (3x 40)+4 = 30
tor first, place the answer obtained in the memory
by pressing the xM key, then tap in the numera- Using your calculator:
tor numbers. You should then press the divide key 1. press ON/C key
followed by the recall memory RM key and obtain
2. press 2ndF key
your answer by pressing the equal sign key.
o press EXP key
(display shows 7 = 3.1415927)
O Example 1.20
press X key
Find the disconnection time (t) for a fuse obtain 6.2
that protects a SO mm? twin pvc-insulated press x? key
cable (S) having copper conductors, if its press = key (display shows 120.76282)
insulation material factor (k) is taken as s press): > key
115 and its fault level (/.) estimated to be . obtain 4
4000 A. The formula used is: 1SORIA
press = key (display shows 30.1907)
t= (x8) +12 Answer = 30.19 mm?
Note: The divisor 4 could be inverted by pressing
A Solution
the 2ndF key and then by pressing the ( key. This
Hence: changes 4 into 0.25 (its reciprocal). The calculation
t = (115? x 50*) + 4000? can now be completed in the numerator.

Your rough answer check is:

t= N00 10055050 = 25 O Example 1.22
4000 x 4000 16 Determine the resistance (R) of a 1.5 mm?
twin and earth pve-sheathed copper cable
Steps using your calculator are:
if its length (/) is 25 m (50 m overall) and
1. press ONIC key its resistivity (p) is taken to be 0.0172 pOm.
obtain 115 The formula for finding resistance is
press x” key (display shows 13,225)
. press X key R= (pxl+A
. obtain 50
. press x? key
WHN
WDNR
. press = key A Solution
(display shows 3,306,2500)
8. press + key
R = (0. 0172 x 50 x 10°) + (1.5 x 10°)
9. obtain 4,000 Rough check
10. press x? key
11. press = key R = (0. 02 x 50 x 10°) + (2 x 10°)
(display shows 2.0664063) = 0.5
Answer = 2.07 s
Using your calculator:
14
 . press ON/C key 18. press + key
. obtain 0.0172 19. obtain 36
. press X key 20. press = key (display shows 47.3541)
. obtain 50 21. press 2ndF key
. press = key (display shows 0.86) 22. press x’ key (display shows 6.88143)
. press + key
Answer = 6.88 A
. obtain 1.5
FR
WN . press = key (display shows 0.57333)
ONDMNF

Answer = 0.57 0 Example 1.24

Note: The above steps have considered the cancel- Solve the expression:
ling out of 10° since it appears in both numerator B55 M108 + 98x 10°
and denominator.

0 Example 1.23
Solution
The steps on your calculator should be as
The formula for finding a cable’s tabulated follows:
single-circuit current carrying capacity (/,)
ok . press ON/C key
is given by:
. obtain 5.55
Pirlage ini as 0.4812 % (Le CLIC? . press EXP key
. obtain 4
If J, = 4.16A, J = 6A and C, OGD: . press <wkey (display reads 55.500)
determine the value of I . obtain 9.81
. press EXP key
. obtain 6
Solution
. press = key (display reads 0.0056574)
WW
OMmONADANF
Here, it is difficult to obtain a rough check
but those involved in this type of cable Answer 0).006 = 6 x 10°
selection should be able to see from the
data that the required value of J, will be
Example 1.25
slightly greater than the J value.
(i) Solve
I, = 6+ (0.484.167) x (1 —0.652)/0.65°
(0.727 + 1.15) x (230 + 70) x 27
Using your calculator proceed as follows: 10° x (230 + 20)
(ii) Solve
. press ON/C key
. obtain 0.65 1.6 x10? * 8.04 x 107
. press x’ key (6.76 x 10°) + (3.24 x 107)
. press +/— key
. press + key
. press 1 key
. press = key (display shows 0.5775) A Solution
Answer (i) 0.061 = 6.1 x 10°
FP . press +key
CONNNFSWN
Answer (ii) 0.002 = 2 x 10°
9. obtain 0.65
10. press x’ key
Note: When dealing with minus powers, remember
11. press = key (display shows 1.3668639) to press the +/- key directly after the EXP key.
12. press X key
13. obtain 4.16
14. press x’ key (display shows 17.3056)
Example 1.26
15. press X key
16. obtain 0.48 Figure 1.19 shows a right-angled triangle
17. press = key (display shows 11.3541) representing impedance (Z), resistance (R)
15
 and capactive reactance (X,). Determine
the unknown side using the formula.
X= NZ? —R
A Solution
Press/obtain the following keys:
ON/C

Solution
Answer a SNOB lO
> 20
2ndF
1/x
O +

60
Example 1.27
2ndF
Determine the rotor speed n, of a 6-pole
1/x
cage induction motor operating from a
50 Hz supply with a 7% slip.
2ndF
The formulae to use are n, = n,(1—s) and FPSSRMINDHAAWNE
pk 1/x
n, = f/p where n, is the synchronous speed Answer = 15 2)
of the stator, fis the frequency and p is the
number of pole pairs (3).
Trigonometry

A Solution
0 Example 1.30
What are the sine, cosine and tangent of
Answer n, = 15.5 rev/s the following angles: 0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and
90°?

Other calculator applications

Percentages A Solution
Press the following keys:
1. 03 sin; (Ans=0)
QO Example 1.28
What is 4% of 240 V?
0; cos;
0; tan;
(Ans=1)
(Ans=0)
. 30; sin; (Ans=0.5)

A Solution . 30; cos; (Ans=0.866)

AnRWN
. 30; tan; (Ans=0.577)
Press/obtain the following keys:
Repeat this procedure for the other angles.
1. ON/C
240
R = 67-6Q
x
4
2ndF
%
eS
a
Answer = 9.6 V

Reciprocals

O Example 1.29
A 20 Q resistor and 60 C resistor are con-
nected in parallel. What is their equivalent
resistance? Figure 1.19 Impedance triangle

16
Example 1.31 ,A Solution
In Figure 1.19 what are the angles created For the value P, press/obtain the follow-
between the ratios R/Z and X/Z? ing keys:
1. ON/C
120
Solution x?

For angle @¢, press/obtain the following

keys: a 30
aS
x?
1. ON/C
2: 67.6
3 2ndF
4. 125 OID
x2

a
Answer P = 116.2 0)
5. 2ndF
6. cos For the angle between X/S, press/obtain
Answer @ = 57.262° the following keys:

For angle 0, press/obtain the following 1. ON/C

keys: 2. 30
3
1. 105.1 4. 120
5 =
125 6. 2ndF

2ndF Answer 6 = 75.52°

i cos
ae
cad
el
For the ratio between P/S, press/obtain the
Answer @ = 32.775° following keys:
1. ON/C
2. 116.2
Example 1.32 3,+
The formula required in Figure 1.20 is 4. 120

x = WPF
a

Answer cos ¢ = 0.968

If X = 30QandS = 1209, find the value
of P and the angle between the sides X/S.
The ratio of the sides P/S is called the
Trigonometrical ratios
power factor (cos ¢). Determine this con-
dition using the values given. Figure 1.21 shows a right-angled triangle. The line
facing the right angle is called the hypotenuse and
the other two sides called adjacent and opposite.
The two acute angles are given Greek letters 6
(theta) and ¢ (phi) and you will see that the adja-
cent side for angle ¢ is the opposite side for angle
6. Similarly, the adjacent side for angle @ is the
opposite side for angle ¢. The trigonometrical
ratios of the three sides are called: sine, cosine and
tangent (abbreviated sin, cos and tan) and are
Figure 1.20 Power triangle expressed as follows:
es
 And
= 53.13,
hypotenuse
adjacent (0) cos d = z= 0.75
opposite (?)

- adjacent ()
ON tan d = += 1.333

opposite (0)
It will be seen that 6+ @ = 36.87° + 53.13° =
Figure 1.21 The 3-4-5 triangle 90°. It should be noted that both angles express
the degrees as a whole number and part number.
opposite To convert the decimal part into minutes you
S110 a cre simply multiply by 60, i.e. 0.87 x 60 = 52.2 mins
hypotenuse
and 0.13 x 60 = 7.8 mins.
adjacent
cos: i
hypotenuse Useful hints
opposite For tangents of angles less than 90°
tan 6 = tere
adjacent
e when the angle is 0°, tan 0° = O
; opposite e@ when the angle increases the tangent increases
a hypotenuse e@ when the angle is 45°, tan 45° = 1
adjacent e when the angle approaches 90°, tan 90° ap-
proaches infinity.
eo es hypotenuse
For sines of angles less than 90°
opposite
BPs adjacent e@ when the angle is 0°, sin 0° = 0
e when the angle increases the sine increases
Since there are 180° in any triangle, ¢ and @ cannot @ when the angle is 90°, sin 90° = 1
exceed 90°. Their range of values may be found
For cosines of angles less than 90°
from trigonometrical tables or from a scientific
calculator. e when the angle is 0°, cos 0° = 1
In Science 1 book, under the sub-heading of e when the angle increases the cosine decreases
mensuration, the 3-4-5 right-angled triangle aptly e when the angle is 90°, cos 90° = 0
illustrated the theorem of Pythagoras by showing
that the square on the hypotenuse was equal to
the sum of the squares on the other two sides Ratios of common angles
(e.g. 3° + 4 = 5’). This triangle will be used to find
the sine, cosine and tangent of the above trigono- Figure 1.22 shows an equilateral triangle (all sides
metrical ratios: and angles equal). The length of CD is found
by: sin 60° = CD/AC.
sin 0 = 3 0.6

Therefore

6 =
36.870
Also 4
COSI) = e= 0.8

3
tan 6 = Te 0.75

sin @ = 5=
4 0.8 Figure 1.22 Equilateral triangle

18
Therefore : opposite
i 8 =
CD-= sin 60° x AC hypotenuse
and also
=").a00 x 2 adjacent
608.6 =
3 hypotenuse
hence Hence sin 8 = cos

sin 60° = V3/2 and sin 8 = cos (90° — 6)

tan 60° = V3/1 also cos 6 = sin (90° — 6)
cos 60° = 122
Relations between ratios
also
This can be explained with reference to Figure 1.24
sm 30% 1/2
Here
tan 30° = 13
sin 9 = opposite (AC)/hypotenuse (AB)
and cos 30° = V3/2
and
Figure 1.23 shows an isosceles triangle (two sides cos 6 = adjacent (BC)/hypotenuse (AB)
and two angles equal) where cos 45° = BC/AC. therefore
Therefore sin 6/cos 8 = (AC/AB)/(BC/AB)
AC = BCicos 45° = (AC/AB)
x (AB/BC)
= VO.) = AC/BC
= 1.414 = stan0
2
hence:
cos 45° = 1/2
sin 45° = 1/2
and tan 45° = 1
B
Lo) aE
A

4
Figure 1.24 The general case for a right-angled
triangle

O Example 1.33
With reference to Figure 1.26 find the side

cJs) dB marked X and the two acute angles 6 and

; d.
Figure 1.23 Isosceles triangle
A Solution
Complementary angles Since

These are angles whose sum is 90°. The sine of an cos @ = adjacent/hypotenuse
angle is equal to the cosine of its compliment, and 10/20
the cosine of an angle is equal to the sine of its com-
ll 0.5
pliment. You will see from Figure 1.21 that:
19
 therefore Sine rule
oO = 6UP This rule is used when you are given one side and
any two angles or two sides and an angle opposite
also
to one of the sides. Figure 1.25 shows an acute-
d= 90°-@ angled triangle with its angles labelled A, B, and C
and sides labelled a, b, and c. If a line AD (side h)
= 90° - 60°
is drawn perpendicular to BC, then in angle ACD:
= 30"
sin. C=
Since
therefore
sin @ = opposite/hypotenuse
h= sinCxb [1]
= X/20
and in angle ABD:
then
sin B.= hie
X = sin dx 20
therefore
= sin 60° x 20
h=.sin BXc [2]
= 0.866 x 20
Se fae A

Note: This example should be carried out using

a scientific calculator in they way previously ic b
described. For example, to obtain angle ¢:

1. press ON/C key B Cc

2. divide 10 by 20 a D

3. press = key (display shows 0.5) Figure 1.25 The sine rule
4. press 2ndF key
5. press cos key (display shows 60°) Since [1] and [2] are equal:
To obtain side X sinC xb = sinBxc
1. press sin key (display shows 0.866) Therefore
2. multiply 0.866 by 20 b Cc
a press = key _ (display shows 17.32) sin B sin C
You can solve for X simply by applying Pythag-
In a similar way it is possible to find the third ratio:
orus’ theorem:
X = V20°- 102 ——
sin A
= 17.32 Any pair of ratios may be used to solve a triangle
You could also find X by using the ratio tan @ = for the conditons mentioned.
opposite/adjacent.

Solution of triangles
As seen above, every triangle consists of three sides
and three angles but for triangles which are not
right-angled the sine rule and cosine rule can be 10
used. Figure 1.26 Right-angled triangle

20
Cosine rule To find side c, rearrange the sin rule to
become:
This rule is used when you are given two sides of a
bx sin C
triangle and the angle between them or if you are
given three sides of a triangle. Its proof will not be = Vsin B
given but it is stated as: obtain 61.8
press X key
a= Db © — 2be cos A
WNobtain 72° (angle C)
Ba a> aC — 2 aecosb press sin key (display shows 0.951)
Sapress = key (display shows 58.775)
and
press + key
C= 4° +b?
—2 ab cos C obtain 66
press sin key
ID)
90
0 press = key
Example 1.34 (display shows c to be 64.337)
With reference to Figure 1.27, find the
lengths of the unknown sides using a Example 1.35
scientific calculator. Using your calculator, find the angles of
the triangle shown in Figure 1.28.

B
a= 48

Figure 1.27 Example triangle Figure 1.28 Example triangle

Solution Solution
The solution to this formula is found by
Express the sine rule formula to find side a, using the cosine rule. Use your calculator
Ke. to confirm the following working:
os bx sin A
~ sin B cosA = Moet

1. press ON/C key Hence

2. obtain 66° (unknown angle for B) Re 1444 + 2704 — 2304
3. press sin key (display shows 0.9135) 3992
4. press M+ key
(angle A) = 0.4666
5. obtain 42°
6. press sinkey (display shows 0.6691) therefore
7. press X key A= 6216"
8. obtain 61.8
9. press=key (display shows 41.3522) You can now apply the sine rule to find
10. press + key angle B:
11. press RM key (display shows 0.9135) sin A x b
12. press = key Sun Jo) = 7 be
(display shows a to be 45.2656)
21
 Hence 14. Solve 3p-2q = 7 [1]
sin 62.18° x 38 Tp -3q = 18 [2]
sin B=
48

=O 15. Solve 6/,+10/, = 2 [1]

OL oh. Ol. tex die [2]
therefore

Bia eaaase

The angle C is found by:

Trigonometry
180° — 62.18° — 44.43° = 73.39°
16. With reference to Figure 1.29 determine sides
AC and CB.

DB, 125

co (257 B
Figure 1.29
a

EXERCISE 1.2 . The power factor of an inductive circuit is 0.75

Simple equations lagging. If the impedance is 30 (, what is the
resistance and reactance of the circuit?
1. Solve for y when 7y + 10 = 4y + 19
2 . Solve for d when 12d — 5(d-1) = 2d +6
3 . Solve for n when 6 — 4(3 —n) = 3(n—7)
4 . Solve for a when 2(a - 13) = 10 - 3(a + 2)

5. Solve for x when

r=30. FMS
Calculator problems
6.° 9:18 x10" — 7:38 x 10"
7. 5.89 x 10° + 2.68 x 107
8. 2.65 x 10° + 8.17 x 10° Ve= 185V

Figure 1.30
9. 6.89 x 10° + 4.73 x 108
10. 1.98 x 10° x 4.65 x 103
. The reactive voltamperes of a circuit is
Simultaneous equations 150 kVAr. If the apparent power is 210 kVA,
what is the phase angle and true power of the
11. Solve 3x+2y = 4 circuit?
eves 0 Re
NO

12. Solve 3x+2y = 9

20 3yc= 16 . Figure 1.30 shows voltmeter readings across a
resistor (V,,) an inductor ( V_) (containing resis-
13. Solve 8m -3n = 39 tance) and the a.c. supply (V,). Determine the
7m+5n = -4 ed
dt

phase angle (@).

eeNR
ale

22
 20. Figure 1.31 shows a power triangle.
If P = 25 kW and ¢, = 53°, determine S, and
Q,. If the phase angle decreases to 24° (¢,),
what is the value of S, and difference between
Q, and Q,?

Figure 1.31

ZS
 Alternating
current circuits
Objectives
The sine wave
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
The generation of alternating current electricity is
e@ describe the production and nature of a sinu-
by electromagnetic induction created by an a.c.
soidal waveform;
generator’s rotating magnetic field cutting through
e@ describe phase displacement between voltage
stationary stator conductors. The voltage produced
and current waveforms for different circuit com-
is cyclic in nature and Figure 2.1 shows how one
ponents;
cycle is produced when the generator’s rotor makes
@ construct phasor diagrams of a.c. voltage and
one complete revolution. The shape of the graph is
current quantities for different circuit compo-
sinusoidal (i.e. of a sine wave) and you will see that
nents,
it reaches two maximum values, one in a positive
@ state the meaning of power factor and show how
direction and the other in a negative direction. It
it can be obtained from the construction of right-
also passes through zero twice in every cycle which
angled triangles;
is the point of the graph where the fastest rate of
e describe the production and nature of a three-
change occurs from one peak to the other.
phase system;
The time taken for one cycle to occur is called
@ state the need for a neutral conductor in a three-
the periodic time (7) and the number of cycles per
phase system to create phase balancing;
second is called the frequency (f). The unit of
e state the difference between star and delta in rela-
frequency is called the hertz (Hz). Periodic time is
tion to line and phase voltage and current,
expressed as:
e perform calculations to find power factor, true
power, apparent power and reactive power in a.c. T = if [2.1]
circuits.

@
—— ee

0-866
0-707 r.m.
eae

voltage

ASE
My

90 120 150 180 210 a0 270 Be 330 360

—— ttaa
ee rs
degrees (8) Emax
1 cycle -
Figure 2.1 Generation of a sine wave

24
The public electricity supply in Britain is generated
at a frequency of 50 Hz, which is 50 cycles per
second and this means that the a.c. generator’s
rotor (7) with its travelling magentic field has to be
driven at a constant 50 revs/s or 3 000 revs/min. The
formula for finding the generator’s rotor speed is:
n= fip [2.2]
where pis the generator’s magnetic field pole pairs.
It is important to note that when dealing with
ordinary induction motors (asynchronous types)
the same formula is used for finding synchronous
speed (n.) of the travelling magnetic field. The
rotor speed of such motors is not the same since it
has to consider slip.
In Figure 2.1 the line on the graph marked 0.707 Figure 2.2 Phase displacement between supply
is the effective value or root mean square value voltage and supply current
(r.m.s.). All a.c. supply voltages and currents are
measured using r.m.s. values. The peak is called the PaaiPhx tx [2.3]
maximum value and if the root mean square value
By transposition
is known the maximum value can easily be found
by dividing it by 0.707. For example, if the supply p.f. = PIVI [2.4]
voltage were 240 V the maximum value would be
Power factor has no unit like ampere for current
240/0.707 = 339 V.
or watt for power. If there is no phase angle,
cos ‘0° = 1 (called unity power factor) and if it is
90° then cos 90° = 0. These are the two extreme
conditions of power factor and if you insert either
Circuit components of these values in formula 2.3, you will see that
To understand a.c. theory, you need to know the power can only be consumed in circuits which
current and voltage relationship of three circuit create phase angles below 90°.
properties, namely resistance (R) the property of a
resistor, inductance (L) the property of an inductor Resistance
and capacitance (C) the property of a capacitor.
Electrical equipment may possess one or more When a resistor is connected to an a.c. supply (see
of these properties and it is usually the inductive Figure 2.3), it presents the only common opposition
component which is found to be the main cause to current flow (i.e no inductance or capacitance).
of phase difference or shift between current and You will see from the graph that both current and
voltage quantities (see Figure 2.2). If there is no voltage waveforms pass through the same instan-
inductance in the circuit, the phase difference is taneous points together. This means that there is
usually zero, with the current rising and falling in no phase angle between them and the quantities
phase with the voltage. If the phase difference is are said to be in-phase with each other. As already
too great due to inductance in the circuit, it may explained, if there is no phase angle then unity
affect the supply system and lead to higher instal- power factor exists. The phasor diagram, repre-
lation and running costs for the consumer. senting a rotating vector, indicates the magnitude
In Figure 2.2 the phase difference is represented and direction of the voltage and current quantities.
by a phase angle (¢) and it is the cosine of this Its rotation is in an anticlockwise direction and
phase angle (cos ) which is called power factor is normally drawn horizontally, making one of the
(p.f.) In a.c. circuits, power (P) is not just the quantities a reference. The two quantities are
product of voltage (V) and current (/) (as in d.c. meant to be superimposed on each other but are
circuits), it has to include power factor. The form- drawn side by side for clarity. Either quantity can
ula is expressed as: be drawn longer than the other, depending on
:

25
 max. value
R voltage
ax current -
/ ——>
° 90 180 ey:

. a
V
(a) circuit (b) graph (c) phasor (a) circuit (b) graph (c) phasor
Figure 2.3 Circuit, graph and phasor diagram for Figure 2.5 Circuit, graph and phasor diagram for
‘purely’ resistive a.c. circuit ‘purely’ inductive a.c. circuit

scale, and to distinguish between them the voltage Once the reactance is found the impedance of the
is given an open arrow and the current a closed circuit can be found from the formula:
arrow.
If the instantaneous values of voltage and cur- Z=NR+X, [2.6]
rent are multiplied together the resulting power You could also find the impedance with an am-
curve would look like Figure 2.4(a). This clearly meter and voltmeter and use the formula:
shows that a resistive component consumes power Z = V/I [2.7]
since there is no negative power to cancel out the
positive power over the cycle. Electrical equipment If the inductor in Figure 2.5 actually had no re-
sistance, often described as a ‘pure’ inductor, its
possessing resistance as a single circuit component
are electric fires, storage heaters and water heaters, current quantity would be displaced from the volt-
all of which are designed to consume power and age quantity by a phase angle of 90°. This phase
thereby create heat energy. ‘lag’ of the current is caused by the inductor’s
induced voltage as a result of its magnetic field
cutting through its own windings. This voltage
Inductance opposes the supply voltage which creates the cur-
An inductor is a coil or winding which possesses rent lag condition. The circuit is said to have a
both resistance (R) and inductance (L). The unit of lagging power factor.
inductance is the henry (H). Figure 2.5 shows an If the instantaneous values of voltage and
inductor connected to an a.c. supply. Its opposition current are again multiplied together over one
to current flow is called impedance (Z) which is complete cycle, no power will be consumed since
measured in ohms. In order to express inductance positive and negative quarter cycles of power can-
in ohms you have to find the inductor’s inductive cel out (see Figure 2.4(b).
reactance (X,). This is given by the formula: When acoil is designed to be highly inductive, it
possess negligible resistance and has an extremely
X= 2nfL [2.5] low power factor. This implies that it will consume
very little power. Its application in a.c. circuits is
No net power
Max. value _Power B
Current
based on its property to produce artifical magnet-
ism often to create movement, voltage changes or
current limitation.

Capacitance
A capacitor is a component which possesses capac-
itance (C) as its chief property. Its unit is the farad
(F). When connected to an a.c. supply, its plates
(a) Purely resistive (b) Purely inductive (c) Purely are continually being charged and discharged
circuit circuit Capacitive circuit owing to the positive and negative cycles. No cur-
rent actually flows through the capacitor but
Figure 2.4 Power curves for resistive, inductive
charges are built up on its plates by electron flow
and capacitive circuits
before a voltage is established.
26
 4) Using your protractor, you can find the phase
angle between the supply voltage and supply
current which should confirm any calculation.
5) It is important to label the phasor diagram with
the proper letters and subscripts as well as show
the direction of rotation. Remember that the cur-
V rent and voltage quantities are actually moving.
(a) circuit (b) graph (c) phasor
The following examples show how mixed RLC
Figure 2.6 Circuit, graph and phasor diagram for circuits can be solved.
capacitor connection in a.c. circuit

Figure 2.6 shows the voltage and current wave- Resistance and inductance in series
forms for a purely capacitive circuit and you will
see that the current quantity ‘leads’ the voltage O Example 2.1
quantity by 90°. This implies that a capacitor Figure 2.7 shows a circuit diagram of a
causes a leading power factor and by multiplying resistor of 30 ohms connected in series
together instantaneous voltages and currents, with an inductor of negligible resistance
you will see from Figure 2.4(c) that the capacitor having an inductive reactance of 40 ohms.
consumes no power. If a voltmeter and ammeter If the supply to the circuit is 250 V and the
were connected in the capacitor’s circuit the ratio frequency 50 Hz:
voltage/current ‘would give capacitive reactance
(X,) and like inductive reactance is measured in (i) determine
ohms. a) impedance of the circuit
Capactive reactance can be found from the form- b) current in the circuit
ula: c) pd across each component
d) circuit power factor
X=
C
12nfC [2.8] e) inductance of the coil;
(ii) construct a phasor diagram of the cir-
RLC circuits cuit.
It is very important that you remember the three
basic types of phasor diagram and also treat circuit 30Q 40Q
symbols in their ‘pure’ state unless instructed
otherwise. Moreover, since RLC circuits often
show a mixture of components and are either
connected in series or parallel, it would be advis-
able to apply the following steps when constructing
phasor diagrams:
1) For series connected circuits the supply current NS,
flows through all components. Make the current 250 V 50 Hz
a horizontal reference line, ending it as a closed
Figure 2.7. RL series circuit
arrow and marking it J,
2) For parallel circuits, make the supply voltage the
horizontal reference line since it is applied A Solution (1)
across all the connected circuit components
a) Since:
(unless some components are in series with each
other). Mark the line V_,, drawn as an open Zz =VR 4X?
arrow. then
3) Branch currents or potential differences should
be drawn to a suitable scale and you must apply Z = V30? + 40?
the current and voltage relationships already
explained. = 50'0
27
 b) Since: e) The inductance of the coil is found by
using formula [2.5] and re-arranging it
LVL. to find L:
then Since
1 2 250/50 X= 2ufL
Sus L= X,/luf
c) The pd’s are as follows: = 40/314.2
resistive part: ADT he
Vea
x) oxo Solution (ii)
= 150:V The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2.9.
the inductive part: Note that the supply current is in phase
with the pd across the resistance com-
V= 1X, ponent and the pd across the inductive
= x40) component is 90° out-of-phase with the
reference current. By constructing a paral-
200 V lelogram of these two pd’s the supply
You should note that the algebraic sum voltage is found to be the diagonal line — it
of the potential differences is 350V yet
the supply voltage is 250 V. This will
Sel qiV; = 250V
be made clear when you study the phasor
diagram.

d) Figure 2.8 shows how the components

can be presented as an impedance
triangle. The ratio of the sides R and Z
can be used to find the power factor, i.e.
cos 6 = RIZ
= 30/50
= 0.6 lagging
It is lagging because of the coil’s induc- a V,= aah
es
as
ea
ace
ON 50V
Ses,
ap
toe
le
“see
leas
ths
SN
aas
ae
es
wd
Iper

tance.
Figure 2.9 Phasor diagram

is the phasor sum of the pd’s which can be

found using the formula

X = 400

Example 2.2

Figure 2.10 shows an inductive coil con-

nected to an a.c. supply of 240 V 50 Hz. An
“R=302
ammeter in the circuit reads 2 A. If the coil
Figure 2.8 Impedance triangle is connected to a d.c. supply of 100 V and
28
 Re-arranging formula [2.5]:
L = X,/2uf
119.6/314.2

cS 0.38 H
?Ny
250 V 50 Hz ih 10, oes The coil is very inductive and its power fac-
tor is again found by using the formula:
Figure 2.10 Coil connected to a.c. and d.c. supply
Die Riz = 1OT20
the ammeter reads 10 A, what is the coil’s I 0.08 lagging
inductive reactance and_ inductance?
Determine the power factor of the circuit. You will see that this is a very poor power
factor causing the current to lag behind the
supply voltage by an phase angle of 85°. A
Solution phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2.11.
On a.c.
eee Vil = 2402 = 120.0
On d.c.
Ree Vil ee 100/10. = 10
Resistance and capacitance in series
Re-arranging formula [2.6]:
X,=VE-R
= V120? — 10
Q Example 2.3

Figure 2.12 shows a 50 pF capacitor con-

=e bt7.6.4) nected in series with a 60 ] non-inductive
resistor across a 240V, 50 Hz supply.
Determine:
a) the capactive reactance of the capacitor
b) the impedance of the circuit
c) the current consumed by the circuit
d) the power factor and phase angle of the
circuit
e) the power consumed
Draw a phasor diagram showing the cur-
rent and voltage relationship.

Care he 60g

Iher ONG,
250 V 50 Hz
Figure 2.11 Phasor diagram for highly inductive
Figure 2.12 RC series circuit
circuit
ao
 resistor is found from V, = JR and the pd
Solution across the capacitor is found from V. = LX...
You should also note that if V, was a higher
a) From formula [2.8] value then the phase angle of the circuit
X= 1/2nfC would decrease.

Since C is in pF then
Resistance and inductance in parallel
X= 109/(314.2 x 50)

O
= 63.6510) Example 2.4
b) The impedance Figure 2.14 shows a non-inductive resistor
of 40 © is connected in parallel with a coil
Z = NR 4X?
of inductance 95.6 mH and negligible resis-
V60?
+63.65? tance. If the supply voltage is 240 V, 56 Hz,
87.47 O determine:
a) the inductive reactance of the coil
c) The circuit current
b) the current through each circuit compo-
Parviz nent
= 240/87.47 c) the supply current, power factor and
phase angle.
= 2.74A
Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit using
d) The power factor a suitable scale.
cos 6 = RIZ
= 60/87.47
= 0.68 leading
From this the phase angle ¢ = 46.69°
e) The power consumed is given by form-
ula [2.3]:
P= Vi cos}
= 240 x 2.74 x 0.68 “<0
250 V 50 Hz
= 447.2 W
Figure 2.14 RL parallel circuit
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure
2.13. You should note the pd across the
Solution
V, = 163V
Iher
!
1 a) AL 2ufL
1
1
'
'
314.2 x 0.0956
'

30 0
'
t
t
'
'
'
'
b) T,, = V,/R = 240/40
!
'
1 6A
'
1
1
'
I, = V/X, = 240/30
Wy. = 240 V i
V.=176V = oe

Figure 2.13 Phasor diagram for RC series circuit c) The supply current is solved by using
30
 ING
250 V 50 Hz

Figure 2.16 RC parallel circuit

a ae ,=10A
A Solution
Figure 2.15 Phasor diagram for RL parallel circuit
a) C= 1/2nfX.
Pythagoras’ theorem (see Figure 2.15.)
It is given by the formula: = 109/(314.2 x 20)

fom Sl od = 159 uF
b) T, = V,/R
= 240/20
The ratio of sides J, and I, can be used
to find the power factor: =; 12-4

I,= V@+8=10A I, = V,/X,,

=240/20
= 12
Power factor
= ees
cos @ = I,/I, = 6/10
= VI +12
0.6 lagging
= 1697-4
Phase angle
d) cos¢@= I,/I,
pS
= 121657 = 0.707
= 455

Resistance and capacitance in parallel The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 2.17. As
previously mentioned, it is often an inductor which

Q Example 2.5
y Figure 2.16 shows a non-inductive resistor |.= 16.97 A
of 20 is connected in parallel with a
capacitor having a capacitive reactance of
20 ©. If the supply voltage is 240 V, 50 Hz
determine:

a) the capacitor’s capacitance

b) the current through each component
c) the supply current
d) power factor and
e) phase angle
Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit using
Figure 2.17 Phasor diagram for RC parallel circuit
a suitable scale.
31
needs power factor correction and this is achieved
by placing a capacitor in parallel with it. Discharge
lamp control gear is a typical application of such an
arrangement.
The following example shows how the supply
current can be reduced by 50% with the inclusion
of a capacitor in circuit.
Veer

O Example 2.6
Figure 2.18 shows an inductive coil in
parallel with a capacitor. If the inductor
takes a current of 6 A and lags behind the
supply voltage by a phase angle of 45°,
what will be the supply current if the
capacitor’s current is 3 A and leads the
supply voltage by 90°? Figure 2.19 Effect of capacitor

6) On your calculator you will find that

cos 45° = 0.707 and cos 16° = 0.96 which
shows how much the circuit power fac-
tor has been improved by the addition
of a capacitor. The supply current is
reduced by 1.6 A.
It should become a little clearer to you that
inductors and capacitors have the effect of neu-
tralizing each other when connected in the same
circuit. The next example shows all three compo-
nents connected in series with each other. This
250 V 50 Hz also serves to illustrate the anti-phase effect of two
Figure 2.18 Power factor correction dissimilar reactances which cause energy to flow
backwards and forwards giving rise to a high volt-
age across each component’s terminals. You will
A Solution
come across the term resonance which is often used
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure to describe this condition of energy oscillation.
2.19. You should construct your diagram
along the following lines:
1) Draw a horizontal line and label it the Example 2.7
reference voltage; Figure 2.20 shows aseries circuit compris-
2) Choose a suitable scale (say 1 cm = 1 A) ing a resistor of 5 Q, an inductor of 0.02 H
and with your ruler and _ protractor, and a capacitor of 150 pF. The compo-
draw the inductor’s current J, of 6A nents are connected to a single-phase a.c.
lagging the supply voltage by 45°; supply of 240 V, 50 Hz. Determine:
3) Now draw the capacitor’s current J. of
a) the resultant reactance;
3 A leading the supply voltage by 90°;
b) the impedance of the circuit;
4) Construct a parallelogram and insert
c) the supply current;
the diagonal line representing the
d) the circuit power factor;
supply surrent J, which should measure
e) the p.d. across each component;
4.4 cm;
f) the frequency at which X, = X_.
5) Use your protractor to verify the angle
OL 6c: Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit.
32
 Ri L=0.02H C = 150 uF pd across X,
V, = IX, = 15.2 x 6.28
= 103.36V
pd across x’.
O XG,
Via
¢
IX, =As2% 212
250 V 50 Hz
322.24 V
Figure 2.20 RLC series circuit
f) Resonant frequency (f.) occurs when
Solution X, = X,. Since X, = 2nfL and X, =
1/2nfC then by transposition of the
| From formula [2.5]:
formula:
X, = 2nfL = 314.2 x 0.02
i= 1/(2mVLC )
= 6.25 o) = l/iQarx v0.02 < 150 10")
From formula [2.8]: = Oz
X= W2nfC = 10°/(314.2 x 150) Figure 2.21 is a phasor diagram of the cir-
, = 212 {2 cuit.

This tells you that the circuit condition

favours a leading power factor condi-
tion since X_. has a higher value than X,.
Since the reactances are in anti-phase with
each other (180° apart), they must be sub-
tracted.
a) resultant reactance ner

X= X,-X, = 21.2
-6.28
Not to scale
= 14.920
b) impedance
Ze UR aX?
= V5?
+14.92?
Ve
me AS.1 5)
Figure 2.21 Phasor diagram for RLC series circuit
c) supply current
T= V/Z = 240/15.75
= 152A Power factor
d) power factor Power factor was previously explained as the
relationship between current and voltage for
eos: = RIZ=-5/15.75
three types of RLC component. Several worked
= 0.32 leading examples made reference to the impedance tri-
angle as a method of obtaining the cosine of the
e) pd across R
phase angle which expressed power factor as a
Y.R TRe= 15:2:X:5 value between 0 and 1. Other right-angled triangles
could be used, for example, Figure 2.22 (taken
76V
from Figure 2.15) shows the supply current and

33
 Leading power factor

OQ= reactive voltamperes (VA,)

S\

+ Unity power factor (W=VA)

Figure 2.22 Current triangle for a parallel circuit

OQ= reactive voltamperes (VA,)

SN

Lagging power factor

a Va
Figure 2.24
conditions
Power triangles showing power factor

Figure 2.23 Voltage triangle for a series circuit

branch currents for parallel connected components If a power factor improvement capacitor is
and Figure 2.23 (taken from Figure 2.9) shows the inserted in such a circuit, the line marked Q will
supply voltage and potential differences for series decrease in length as a result of the phase angle
connected components. It is also possible to find decreasing and the only way to make the lagging Q
power factor using a power triangle since it was disappear completely is to insert in the circuit a
shown in formula [2.4] that: capacitor of the correct value which will result in
p.f. = PIVI unity power factor. In other words, inject a leading
Q line of the same magnitude which can be sub-
The quantity (P) represents the true power taken tracted from the lagging Q line leaving no phase
by the circuit as measured by a wattmeter. The angle between P and S.
quantity (VJ) represents the apparent power or The following examples will help to show how
voltamperes (S) as measured by a voltmeter and these problems can be solved.
ammeter. These quantities are shown in the power
triangle of Figure 2.24. The line at 90° is the quad-
rature component or no-power quantity and refers
to the extreme phase condition found in a ‘pure’
inductor or capacitor. This quantity is better known O Example 2.8
as the reactive power (V/,) or reactive voltamperes The circuit connections of a single-phase
(Q). a.c. induction motor are shown in Figure
Power triangles truly represent power factor and 2.25. The wattmeter reads 5 kW, voltmeter
are and ideal way of representing single-phase and reads 240 V and ammeter reads 32 A.
three-phase circuits especially where quantity units
(a) Determine the power factor of the cir-
are expressed in kilowatts (kW), kilovoltamperes
cuit.
(kVA) and reactive kilovoltamperes (kVAr). You
should note that if a.circuit is inductive the right- (b) Draw a power triangle and determine
angled triangle is drawn downwards showing a graphically or by calculation the reac-
lagging condition. tive voltamperes in kVAr.
34
 5 kW 32A
QO Example 2.9
A 240 V, 50 Hz single-phase induction
motor has a power factor of 0.75 lagging
and takes a supply current of 39 A.
Determine the following:
a) input power (kW);
b) apparent power (kVA);
Figure 2.25 Instrument connections for a motor Cc) capacitor size to improve p.f. to unity.
circuit

A Solution
A Solution
a) Since
(a) Power factor P= iWVicosia
pf, = PS = 240 x 39 x 0.75
5000/(240 x 32) = 7020 W
|= 0.65 lagging = 7.02 kW
(b) Figure 2.26 shows the power triangle. b) Since
P= 5kW Sead
S = 240
x 32 = 240 x 39
= 7.68kVA = 9360 VA

The lagging kVAr is found by re- = 936kKVA

arranging Pythagoras’ theorem in the c) The lagging kVAr is found by re-
formula: arranging Pythagoras’ theorem as
S= VPs@ shown above.
Hence
then
Q 52 pe

Q = VP = V9.36? — 7.02?
= \16R 5 II 6.19 kVAr

= D.02 KV Ar. To raise the power factor to unity in the above

example the kVAr or (Q) line shown in Figure 2.24
must be cancelled out by an equal and opposite
leading kVAr, i.e. it too must be 6.19 kVAr. A
Motor
winding

P=5kW

240 V 50 Hz

Figure 2.26 Power triangle Figure 2.27 Motor circuit

30
diagram of the motor connections is shown in
Figure 2.27. Notice that the capacitor is connected Solution
across the 240 V supply terminals. Since efficiency is the ratio output/input,
The current (J) is found by the formula then the motor’s input can be expressed as:
I. = VA,/V Output (P.)

= 6194/240 Input power (P,) = erunit ncy

efficie
= 50/0.83 = 60.24 kW
25.8 A
Since the input power is electrical, from
To find the capacitor’s value you must firstly find its
capacitive reactance which is expressed as: formula [2.4]:

X= Vil, PP
Pees
240/25.8 therefore
9.3.0 ces \| Fie
By re-arranging formula [2.8] the capacitance is:
= 60.24/0.65 = 92.67 kVA
C= W/QnfXx,)
The motor’s lagging reactive voltamperes
Expressed in microfarads: (Q) is found from the formula:
Co 101 (2 ar 50%
93) Q = VS?- P?

= 342 WE V92.67? — 60.247

You should note that by reducing the power factor II 70.43 KVAr
to unity the motor only takes 29.25 A instead of
39 A. Figure 2.28 shows a phasor diagram of the This kVAr is reduced by the capacitor’s
currents. leading kVAr, hence resultant kVAr is:
QHins vege OF \70.49K- 40?= 30.43 kVAr
Is = 29.25 A
if - UPF When the motor is running corrected the
kVA is found to be:
S= VP@
[em S16
V60.24? + 30.43?
67.49 kVA
In the above example you should note the power
factor has improved to 0.89 (see Figure 2.29)
Figure 2.28 Phasor diagram
Q=70 kVA a
(leading)

Example 2.10 cos @, = 0.

cos ¢, = 0.
A 50 kW a.c. motor is 83% efficient and
operates at a power factor of 0.65 lagging.
If a 40kVAr power factor improvement Q=70kVA
capacitor is to be connected in parallel (lagging)
with the motor, find graphically or by
calculation the input kVA before and after
the capacitor is connected. Figure 2.29 Phasor diagram

36
 rE. ete
Figure 2.30 Three-phase generation of a.c.

2 4

(E,,y,) are dealt with. The phasor diagram shows

Three-phase supplies the induced voltages for each of the phases and
these are labelled from the neutral or star point
Figure 2.30 shows how three phases are spaced at
outwards. You will see that the yellow phase to
120° intervals inside an a.c. generator. The conduc-
neutral voltage E,,, when reversed becomes E,,.
tor phases (in pairs) are identified as red, yellow
This phase voltage is vectorially added to E,,, and
and blue and when the generator’s rotating mag-
the resultant called E,,,. This is the line value
netic field sweeps across these phases they each
between both red and yellow phases. By measure-
produce a voltage in the sequence shown. You will
ment it is found to be V3 (1.732) longer than the
see that when one phase reaches a maximum in any
phase value. You should complete Figure 2.32(b)
direction the other two phases reach only half their
for the other two line values.
maximum value. This means, for example, that if The following example shows the importance of
the yellow phase was delivering an instantaneous V3 in star and delta systems, making clear the
current of say 30 A in the positive direction, then difference between line and phase values for each
the red and blue phases would each return an
system.
instantaneous current of 15 A in the negative direc-
tion to be in balance.
At distribution level to consumers, the three-
phase system would be given a neutral reference
conductor since there is no guarantee that the sys-
tem could remain balanced. Any of the phases may
take different load currents to that of other phases Red phase 15 A

and the purpose of a neutral conductor is to allow Yellowphase |Linevoltage (VI) 39 a

L1

any out-of-balance current to flow back through 1a

the system (see Figure 2.31). Blue phase | Phase voltage (Vp) 15 A
In dealing with three-phase systems you will OL3
come across connections known as star and delta. N
The term V3 is used to distinguish between line and Star point

phase values of the current and voltage. To illus- — 5 Balanced load

trate this, Figure 2.32(a) shows a typical star-
connected system. For clarity reasons, only the red Figure 2.31 Neutral connection for keeping supply.
phase voltage (£,,,) and red to yellow line voltage system balanced

on
 Evnr

Se
Phase voltage

Eyr (phase voltage)

Eynr (line voltage)

Line voltage

(a) Phase and line voltage (b) Phasor diagram

Figure 2.32 Star connnected system

A Solution
-* Instar
Least,
Example 2.11 therefore
Figure 2.33 represents a three-phase star jem 200%
connected supply system feeding a delta L
connected load. If the star connected phase Also V, = V3 v
voltage is 240 V and its phase current is er arke
20 A, determine the star line voltage and Pad
current and also the delta line and phase V, = 3x 240
values of voltage and current. — 415 V

In delta
Fa=qnad,
therefore
I, = 20/3
= 11.56A
Also si Ves Vy
therefore
Star V,= 415 V
pag de 1 aN3ilp When dealing with three-phase system the total
VY. = 13% Y=V
power isvale given by:]
Legend:
V, is line voltage P= X3 VI, cos } [2.9]
Vp is phase voltage
I, is line current The power in each phase is given by:
aia
Ip is phase current | Py Y, plpcos [2.10]
The following are some examples of finding power
Figure 2.33 Star and delta connections in three-phase systems:
38
 (b) In delta
Example 2.12
Calculate the line current and total power Pye 415/40 = 10.375 A
consumed by three 40 ohm resistors con- and
nected in star to a 415 V three-phase star
supply system. if 43.1,
= V3 x 10.375 = 17.97 A
Solution
P= V3x 415 x 18x 0.8
The phase voltage across the load is: = 10333 W
Vez VAS
= 415/1,732 Example 2.14
Figure 2.34 shows three consumers con-
240 V
nected to a 415 V three-phase, four-wire
The line current is the same as the phase system. If Consumer A has unity power
current. factor, Consumer B has a power factor of
0.6 lagging and Consumer C has a power of
But
0.7 leading, determine the system’s overall
fn=1V¥
P
JR
F
kW, kVA, kVAr and power factor.
= 240/40
Supply transformer
= 6A secondary winding
Supply system
Since the resistors are of equal value, this
will be the current in all three lines and you
should note that unity power factor exists.
From the formula [2.9]:
P = V3 V,I, cos >
S732
* 415. x ox I
= 4313 W = 4.313 kw

PE
Example 2.13 System Supply cable sheath
= earthing
Three impedances each having a value of TN-S
40 ohm and power factor 0.8 lagging are to
be connected in (a) star and (b) delta Figure 2.34 Three-phase four wire supply
across a 415 V three-phase supply. Deter-
mine the supply current and the total Solution
power consumed in each case. Consumer A S$ = Plcos d
= S0/S50 kVA

Solution QO = 0 kVAr
(a) In star Consumer B P= Sxcos @
f= 1,=V,/Z = 80x 0.6
= 240/40=6A = 48 kW
Poa 240, ¢6.0.8 Oa S<sipw
= 3456 W = 80x 0.8 = 64 kVAr
39
 Consumer C P = S$ ¢0s @
Exercise 2
40 x 0.7 = 28 kW
iO I S x sin d 1. Figure 2.36 shows the circuit diagram of a SON
discharge lamp. With switch (S) open, ammeter
40 x 0.714
(A,) reads 5 A and the wattmeter (W) reads 420
Il 28.57 kVAr W. With the switch closed, ammeter (A,) reads
2.2A, ammeter (A,) reads 3A and the
The total kilowatts used by the three con-
wattmeter reads 420 W. Draw a phasor diagram
sumers is:
of the circuit using a scale of 1 A = 2 cm.
P = 50+ 48 +28
= 126kW
The total kVAr is the difference between
the quadrature components, thus:

Se
= 64 - 28.57
= 35.43 kVAr
The total kVA can be found by Pythagoras’
theorem:
S= VP
V1267 + 35.437
130.9 kVA
The overall power factor:
COS i= hS
Figure 2.36 SON discharge lamp circuit
126/130.9
II 0.96 lagging
2. A 20 resistor is connected in series with an
The power diagram is shown in Figure 2.35 inductor having an inductance of 0.2 H across
a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Ignoring the inductor’s
resistance:
a) determine the following:
(i)the inductive reactance of the inductor
(ii)the impedance of the circuit
28.57 kVAp (iii)the circuit current
(leading)
(iv) the potential difference across each
28 kW
component
(v) the circuit power factor
35.43 kVAp (vi) the power consumed.
(lagging)
b) Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit.
3. A 20 uF capacitor is connected in series with a
(lagging)
50 2 resistor across a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
a) Determine the following:
Figure 2.35 Graphical solution (i) capacitive reactance of the capacitor
40
 (ii) the circuit impedance
(iii) the circuit current
(iv) the potential difference across each |,= 3 A (45° lagging)
component
(v) the circuit power factor
(vi) the power consumed.
b) Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit. O 240V O
50 Hz
4. Figure 2.37 shows a seriés connected RLC cir- Figure 2.39 Series/parallel circuit
cuit.
. Figure 2.39 shows a series/parallel RL circuit.

30.Q ¥, «50 O) -X,=90 G a) Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit to a

scale of lcm =1A
b) Determine the supply current and power
factor of the circuit.
_ An a.c. current having a maximum value of 3 A
% = 150 V50 Hz ——+—_>—_> lags behind an a.c. voltage having a maximum
value of 300 V by a phase angle of 45°. Draw a
Figure 237 Series RLC circuit graph of the quantities to suitable scale and
determine their r.m.s. values.
a) Determine the following: . A 12 kW/240 V single-phase load operates at a
power factor of 0.7 lagging.
(i) impedance
(ii) circuit current a) Calculate the current taken by the load.
(iii) potential difference across each com-
ponent b) Obtain graphically or by calculation the reac-
tive voltamperes
(iv) circuit power factor
(v) power consumed. _A resistive heating load of 18 kW consists of
three separate elements, each rated at 6 kW/240
b) Draw a phasor diagram of the circuit.
V. The ends of the heating elements are wired
5. With reference to Figure 2.38 determine the separately into a six-terminal connection block:
current in each ammeter and draw a phasor dia- a) Draw a circuit diagram of this arrangement,
gram of the circuit. showing how the six terminals should be
interconnected when fed from:
(i) a 415 V three-phase and neutral supply
(ii) a 240 V single-phase supply.
Pi oUNks X,
= 40 2
b) For both types of supply:
(i) calculate the current in the phase and
neutral conductors
(ii) state the power consumed by the heat-
ing load if the neutral accidently be-
came disconnected.
10. A factory has three-phase loads of (i) 120 kW
unity power factor and (ii) 240 kVA at 0.8 power
factor lagging. Draw a power triangle represent-
O 240V O ing these two conditions and determine the total
Mixed RLC circuit kW, kVA, kVAr and power factor of the system.
Figure 2.38
41
 Electric motors
and starters
Objectives Permanent
magnetic field,
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
@ describe the principles of electromagnetic induc-
tion and conduction;
@ perform calculations to find efficiency, torque and
power of motors;
e@ describe the production of a rotating magnetic
field from a three-phase supply; Conductor Conductor carrying
e@ perform calculations to find synchronous speed, magnetic field current inwards
Force direction
rotor speed and fractional slip;
@ describe the operation and performance of three- Figure 3.1 Force in a current-carrying conductor
phase cage rotor and wound rotor induction situated at right-angles to a magnetic field
motors;
@ describe the operation and performance of the
2) the current (/) flowing in the conductor mea-
following single-phase motors: resistance-start,
sured in amperes (A):
capacitor-start, shaded-pole and universal;
3) the effective length (/) of the conductor mea-
e describe the function and operation of the
sured in metres (m).
following starters: direct-on-line, star-delta, auto- Hence:
transformer and rotor resistance;
@ draw circuit diagrams of motors and starters as F = Bll newtons [3.1]
listed;
The interaction of two magnetic fields, causing
@ describe the protective measures used in starters
the conductor to move, is the basic operating prin-
against overload and loss of supply voltage;
ciple of most motors. The central idea is to have
@ state the reason for motor power factor improve-
one of the magnetic fields on a motor’s stationary
ment in motor circuits;
part, known as the frame or yoke and the other
@ state several methods that can be used to control
magnetic field on the motor’s rotating part. In an
the speed of motors.
a.c. motor the rotating part is called a rotor where-
as in a d.c. motor it is called an armature.
Electromagnetic induction (i.e. a moving field
Basic Principles cutting conductors) is used to create the secondary
magnetic field for a rotor-type motor whereas in an
When a current-carrying conductor is placed armature-type motor the secondary field is created
at right angles to a magnetic field a force (F) is by electromagnetic conduction (i.e. current fed into
exerted on it which tries to repel it out of the a commutator via brushgear). Both these methods
field. This repulsion is caused by the conductor’s will be discussed in this chapter.
own magnetic field interacting with the primary
magnetic field (see Figure 3.1). It is found that
the magnitude of force on the conductor is propor-
Torque
tional to:
The movement of a motor’s rotating part is
1) the flux density (B) of the magnetic field mea- described by its torque (7) in newton metres which
sured in teslas (T); is the product of a tangential force (F) acting on its
42
 v I T/r
X 2urxn
Ni ree |: 2mnT watts [3.4]

F newtons Efficiency
Figure 3.2 Force acting in a circular path on Not all the electrical energy supplied to a motor
motor shaft is converted into mechanical energy. Between
20-30% is lost in various ways, mostly as heat
drive shaft or pully and the measured distance (r) energy. In the windings, resistive losses occur which
from the centre of the shaft. This distance is the are called copper losses and in the core, magnet-
radius measurement (see Figure 3.2). ising losses occur which are called iron losses.
Hence: There are other losses such as friction losses from
T = FrNm [3.2] bearings and brushes and windage losses of rotat-
ing parts such as an integral fan to keep the motor
Torque is dependent upon the efficiency of the cool.
magnetic circuit and the air gap or clearance As a general rule, motors having a high power
between the stationary and rotating parts of the output rating are more efficient than those having
motor. If the air gap was large it would create a a low output power rating. Tests show that a
weak magnetic circuit and this would result in a low motor’s efficiency improves while it is on load.
torque. You will come across several meanings for When left to idle on no-load it is likely to consume
the term torque, such as starting torque which is between 25-50% of its full-load running current.
needed to overcome static friction when the motor For this reason it is important to ensure that a
is first switched on from standstill; accelerating motor does not spend a large proportion of its
torque which is needed to run the motor’s rotor up operating time on no-load or even on low-load.
to full speed; running torque which is the torque on The rule of thumb in motor selection is to consult
the motor’s shaft at full speed; pull-out torque manufacturers of the connected driven machine
which is the maximum torque for the motor to and not to oversize a motor for its particular appli-
maintain its operating speed before it stalls. cation.
Efficiency of a drive motor or its driven machine
EEE can be found from electrical input and mechanical
Output power output details. Since output cannot be greater than
input, then percentage efficiency is given by the
A motor converts electrical energy into mechanical expression:
energy which is work done (W). If the motor’s shaft
makes one revolution, the force (F) on it will
have ee input e
op Hiicietien Gh = Ra power
moved through a distance of 2mr metres. Hence,
work done is: Per unit efficiency is:
W = Fx 2mr joules [3.3] output power [3.6]
Efficiency (n) = [aout power
(Py
The motor’s rate of working or output power
one
measured in watts (W) is the work done in If consideration is made to losses, then:
its shaft rotate s at n revolu tions per
second. If input power — losses
second its mechanical output power will be: Efficiency (n) = input power [3.7]
P. O = Fx2urxn
or alternatively:
, 1.e.
Since torque is force times radius (distance) Efficiency (7) = output power [3.8]
F = 7/r and there-
T = Fr (see expression [3.2], then output power + losses
fore:
43
 : Adjusting %
LJ screws 100

% full load 100

(a) (b)

Figure 3.3 Induction motor load test (a) brake apparatus, (b) test results

Therefore
Pronpie sd _ Output power x 100
Figure 3.3 shows the results of a load test % efficiency input power
on a small single-phase, cage induction
motor using a spring balance brake. From P, x 100
the data given below determine the Eo
motor’s efficiency: =. 215.22'« 100
Supply voltage 110V 316.8
Load current 3A ~ 68%
Power factor 0.96 lagging
Speed 23.8 rev/s
Radius of pulley 0.08 m Example 3.2
Spring balance diff 18 N @) :
eo oe ee a A 240 V single-phase a.c. induction motor
with a power factor of 0.7 lagging, drives a
Solution lathe fitted with a cutting tool which exerts
a force of 200 N on a work piece 10 cm in
Electrical input power diameter. If the motor runs at a speed of
24.67 rev/s and has an efficiency of 82%,
P,= VIx pf. what is its electrical input power and sup-
= 110x3x 0.96 ply current?

= 316.8 W
Mechanical output power A Solution

Po = 2unT Torque T= Fr
= 0.28 % 23.8 x (18 x 0.08) = 200 x 0.05
= ellis? W = 16 Nan

44
Output power c) The mechanical output of the motor is
the generator’s input.
P= 2unT
Since® y= ce
2t Xx 24.67 x 10
,
1550 W
then Pes x P;
Efficiency n = P./P,
= 40.75 x 1800
Input power
= 1350\W
P= P,/n The generator’s terminal voltage is:
= 1550/0.82
Ve Pil
= 1890 W
="N350/27 = 50:V
but P,= VxIxpf.
therefore ] = P/(V x pf.)
Example 3.4
1890/(240 x 0.7)
A 415 V, 50 Hz three-phase cage induction
11.25 A motor has an output rating of 12 kW.
Determine its efficiency if its full-load
current is 33 A and power factor is 0.7
Example 3.3 lagging. ©
a) A motor-generator set runs at speed of
20 rev/s and delivers a current of 27 A to
an external load. If the motor’s electri-
Solution
cal input is 2 kW and its copper and
magnetic losses are 120 W and 80W % Efficiency 7 = output power rating
respectively, what is its efficiency, ignor- electrical input power
ing other losses?
= 12,000
b) What is the motor’s torque?
V3 x 415 x 0.7 x 33
c) What is the generator’s voltage if its
efficiency is 75%? aS

Solution
Example 3.5
a) The motor’s mechanical output power
is its electrical input power minus the A 6-pole, 415 V, 50 Hz three-phase induc-
losses: tion motor has a power factor of 0.7 lag-
ging and is used to drive an elevator lifting
v \|P= PP. 100 kg at a rate of 3.6 m/s. If the elevator
= 2000 - 120 - 80 and motor efficiencies are 75% and 85%
respectively, determine for full load condi-
= 1800 W tions the motor’s output power and input
power.

P= | ant

then ie 3
Age Solution
Se Te The power required by the elevator is
2000
given by the formula:
2m x 20
Oe ee cone
time
I 15.9 Nm
45
 — J WA

)
@ () 009)RS) oo
sae aes
oe (tes
Tey
=)

1 . Endshield,
driving end 10. Drain plug 20. Lubricator extension plug
2 . Grease nipple 11. Yoke with or wthout feet 21. Terminal box cover
3 . Grease relief screw 12. Eyebolt 22. Terminal box cover gasket
4 . End securing bolt, or through 13. Inside cap, non-driving end 23. Terminal board
bolt and nuts 14. Ball bearing, non-driving end 24. Terminal box
Anti-bump washers 15. Circlip 25. Terminal box gasket
. Ball bearing - driving end 16. Endshield, non-driving end 26. Raceway plate
. False bearing shoulder 17. Inside cap screws 27. Raceway plate gasket
. Flume 18. Fan with peg or key 28. D flange
OMINADMA
. Rotor on shaft 19. Fan cover 29. C face flange
Figure 3.4 Components of a typical cage-rotor induction motor

100 x 9.81 x 3.6

1 Cage induction motor
3531.6 W The construction of this type of motor is shown in
The motor’s output is the elevator’s input Figure 3.4. Its stationary part the yoke or frame is
since both machines are coupled together a hollow cylinder made from welded or rolled steel
on the same shaft. Thus: supporting a slotted laminated stator core compris-
Motor’s output power ing annular silicon-steel stampings. On the inner
circumference of the stator core in the slots is
Elevator’s input power placed a distributed stator winding, insulated
Efficiency according to the supply voltage. The windings
3531.6 are either a single layer (one coil side per slot) or
0.75 double layer (two coils per slot) arrangement with
4708.8 W the ends brought out to a terminal box on the
motor’s casing. If the motor is designed for three-
Motor’s input power phase operation the three windings ends will be
Motor’s output power marked U1-U2, V1-V2 and W1-W2. Some motors
Efficiency are internally star connected and only have one end
4708.8 per phase brought out. For operation on a single-
0.85 phase supply the motor’s main winding will
be
marked U1-U2. If it has an auxiliary winding
5539.76 W to
facilitate starting it will be marked Z1-Z2. Other
46
forms of lettering may be used, depending on the ported at both ends by bearings and endshields and
type of motor and its method of starting. it may have attachments such as an internal fan to
_ The motor’s rotating part the rotor, consists of keep the windings cool or centrifugal switch which
a laminated steel core having longitudinal slots operates an auxiliary stator winding.
into which are inserted lightly insulated copper or In a cage induction motor there is no electrical
aluminium conductors called rotor bars. These connection between the rotor and stator. The clear-
rotor bars are short-circuited at each end by heavy ance (air-gap) separating both these parts is very
copper or aluminium end rings which form a closed small (about 1.5 mm for small motors and 2.5 mm
circuit reassembling a cage (hence the term cage for large motors).
rotor induction motor). The rotor shaft is sup-

Frame

Stator winding

—Air gap

Rotor (end ring)

Rotor bar conductor

Stator

Motion of
travelling
magnetic field
inside stator

Red Yellow Blue @ @ Maximum current in/out

® © % maximum current in/out

Three-phase supply

travelling inside the stator of an induction

Figure 3.5 Rotating field produced by a three-phase supply,
motor at synchronous speed
47
 Stator’s travelling
magnetic field
direction cutting
rotor at sychronous
speed (n,)

tage Cage rotor’s induced

magnetic field at
asynchronous speed (n,)
Figure 3.6 Field theory of induction motor based on the fact that like poles repel

Rotating magnetic field n, = f/p rev/s [3.9]

It was explained in chapter two that a three-phase With a supply frequency of 50 Hz and the stator
a.c. supply automatically produces a red, yellow only having one pair of poles per phase the mag-
and blue phase sequence with the phases displaced netic field would travel at a synchronous speed of
from each other by 120° (see Figure 2.30). This 50 rev/sec. For the same frequency a 4-pole
supply is ideal for operating a three-phase cage machine would have a synchronous speed of
induction motor since its three stator windings will 25 rev/sec.
automatically produce a travelling magnetic field
inside the stator core (see Figure 3.5).
Rotor operation
The way in which this rotating magnetic field is
created can be understood by considering the case You will see from Figure 3.6 that the motor’s
of a motor having one slot per pole per phase. rotor travels in the same direction as the rotating
When current in the red phase winding is positive magnetic field. The rotor will receive full induced
and at a maximum value, the yellow and blue phase voltage at standstill and because its rotor bars are
windings are negative and half their maximum short circuited at both ends, induced currents flow
value. At this instance the resulting magnetomotive along them. This gives rise to a rotor field system
force (i.e. the ampere-turns required to produce which interacts with the stator field system and the
magnetic flux) acts at right angles to the red phase rotor begins to accelerate under the action of a net
winding. This creates a magnetic field that cuts torque. As the rotor speed increases to nearly the
across the cage rotor bars (see Figure 3.5). When same value as the synchronous speed, the rate of
the yellow phase winding reaches a positive maxi- flux cutting becomes reduced and the rotor’s
mum value the stator field moves 120°. Similarly, induced voltage and current also reduce. This
when the blue phase winding reaches a positive affects the net torque and any further increase of
maximum value the field rotates a further 120°. speed is not possible.
This rotation of the magnetic field is responsible for It should not be too difficult to see why the rotor
inducing currents into the rotor bar conductors. cannot run as fast as the stator’s magnetic field
The field travels at synchronous speed (n,) and is since no electromagnetic induction could occur. A
shown in a clockwise direction. It is constant and type of motor having a rotor capable of running at
governed by the frequency of supply (f) and the synchronous speed is called a synchronous motor.
number of pairs of poles (p) in the motor’s stator It has a permanent magnet rotor which locks itself
windings. It is expressed as: into the stator’s rotating field. However, in the
48
asynchronous motor, the difference between the
rotor speed (n,) and the stator synchronous speed Solution
(n,) is called slip (s)/ It is proportional to the load Transpose formula [3.10] and make n, the
on the motor, expressed in per unit as: subject of the formula.
n—-n Since n—-n
5
n
r
[3.10] S
s

When the rotor is not moving its slip is unity (i.e. then Sic n.—7n
s = 1). If synchronous speed was possible, its slip
and n= n.- sn,
would be zero (i.e. s = 0). The motor normally runs r

at constant speed, operating with a slip between

0.03 and 0.05 per unit.
therefore

fe tee
QO Example 3.6
A 4-pole cage induction motor operates
19
from a 50 Hz supply and runs at 24.25
0.95
rev/s. What is its slip speed and per unit 20 rev/s
shp? 4.
The number of poles is found from form-
ula [3.9], making p the subject of the
formula, hence:
A Solution p = fin,
The motor’s synchronous speed is given by
60/20
formula [3.9], hence:
=
n,= fp
Since p is pairs of poles, the stator has six
STN e
poles.
= 2 revs
The slip speed is (25 — 24.25) Example 3.8
= 0.75 rev/s Calculate the rotor speeds of a three-
phase, 2-pole cage induction motor for the
Per unit slip (s) is given by formula 3.10,
following supply frequencies 20 Hz, 50 Hz
hence:
and 120 Hz. Assume a fractional slip of
0.05 in each case.

25 — 24.25 Solution
ed
Synchronous speed on 20 Hz:
= 0.03 per unit (3%)
n.= f/p
= 20/4 = 20 revs
Rotor speed at 5% slip:
Example 3.7
The rotor of a 60 Hz cage induction motor fis r geo OeSUID
runs at 19 rev/s with a 0.05 per unit slip. 33620
What is the motor’s synchronous speed Se eerie
and how many poles are there on the
stator? = 19 rev/s
49
 Synchronous speed on 50 Hz: Slot
n Ss I 50/1 Outer cage
conductor
= 50 revi/s Rotor

Rotor speed at 5% slip: Inner cage

conductor
n, = n,— % slip

Ea
= 50'— 100

= 47.5 rev/s
Figure 3.8 Double cage rotor
Synchronous speed on 120 Hz:
n 5 120/1 6-8 times full-load current. Both starting torque
120 rev/s and starting current are related to rotor resistance.
The higher the resistance the greater will be the
Rotor speed at 5% slip: starting torque since the starting current is low. The
n, = n,.— % slip dotted line in Figure 3.7 represents an improved
rotor cage to increase the starting torque.
5 x 120 Various rotor bar shapes have been designed to
lI 120 —
100 improve the starting torque and one satisfactory
114 rev/s method is by using a double cage rotor. This takes
advantage of slip frequency decreasing as the
When the cage induction motor is mechanically motor speed increases. The rotor has an outer cage
loaded its speed begins to fall and its slip increases. and inner cage. The outer cage is in shallow slots
Its frequency and rotor current increase and, as a and the conductors are made of bronze having a
result, more current is taken by the stator windings. relatively high resistance and low reactance. The
Figure 3.7 shows the torque-speed characteristic of inner cage is in deep slots and the conductors are
a typical motor. The shaded area represents the made of high conductivity copper having relatively
normal operating region and the pull-out torque is high reactance and low resistance (see Figure 3.8).
approximately 2.0 to 2.5 times normal full- The motor starts up on the high resistance cage and
load torque. The motor’s starting current is about during acceleration its torque-speed characteristic
changes over to the high reactance cage. The total
Pull-out torque torque being the sum of the two cages. This
arrangement not only improves the starting torque
but also improves the motor’s performance at full-
load speed.
anbioy

Wound-rotor induction motor

peeds
snouoiyouAS
Another method of improving starting torque is to
provide external resistance to the motor’s rotor.
This type of induction motor operates from a
Starting torque three-phase supply and is often called a slip-ring
motor. Unlike the cage rotor type with its rotor
bars short-circuited by two end rings, this motor
0 Speed (pu) has a wound rotor. One end of the winding is star
1<—_ Slip (pu) 0
connected while the other end is connected to three
slip rings. You will see from Figures 3.9 and 3.10
Figure 3.7 Torque-speed characteristics of two that external rotor resistance is connected to the
cage induction motors slip-rings via brushgear.
50
 External
resistance steps

(*u)
paads
snouoiyaUuA

Figure 3.9 Three-phase wound-rotor induction 0 Speed 100%

Standstill 50 sip
motor oO

This resistance is progressively cut out as the Figure 3.11 Three-phase wound-rotor induction
motor speeds up until finally the rotor winding is motor speed/torque charateristics
short-circuited. It then becomes another star
connection with both ends simulating the short- dotted) at point X which indicates 5% rotor slip.
circuiting end rings of a cage rotor (see circuit In practice, a contactor-type starter is used to
diagram Figure 3.10). provide the necessary circuit protection such as
You will see from this motor’s speed-torque no-volt protection and overload protection. The
characteristic that a series of curves appear. Curve starter will also have an interlock facility to ensure
A illustrates maximum torque with all resistance in that its contactor cannot be closed while the motor
circuit while curves B and C represent intermediate is at standstill until all rotor resistance is in circuit.
steps of cutting resistance out. Curve D is the To provide smoother starting, large slip-ring
motor’s normal operating characteristic. You will motors use liquid resistance starters containing
observe that it cuts the full load torque line (shown caustic soda or washing soda.

Start External
resistance

Off *

L,
Stator winding Rotor winding
Slip rings
L ats and brushgear
ea rena [ee
=a ae

Ls
Figure 3.10 Three-phase wound-rotor induction motor, circuit diagram of motor and starting resistance to
improve torque
51
 Capacitor causes 90° displacement Current or m.m.f. in starting
/winding (with capacitor)
Current or m.m.f. in
running winding

BAZ
1

Figure 3.12 Split-phase rotation of stator fields

Application One method of overcoming the problem is in the

design of a split-phase motor which has two sepa-
With three-phase supplies available and because of
rate stator windings. The windings are initially con-
their robust construction and constant speed char-
nected in parallel and arranged spatially to be 90°
acteristics, three-phase induction motors have wide
apart. One of the windings is called a running wind-
acceptance in industrial and commercial processes.
ing and the other is called a starting winding. The
The majority are 4-pole machines running at
running winding is the main winding and is always
25 rev/sec (1500 rev/min) and are used for com-
connected to the supply but the starting winding
pressors, pumps and fans, etc. Slip-ring motors
(sometimes called auxiliary winding) is designed to
are normally chosen for output ratings above
be disconnected from the circuit.
100 kW. Reversal of direction is by interchanging
To enable the stator to simulate a rotating
any two of the stator winding connections which
magnetic field, one of the windings has a different
actually reverses the stator’s travelling magnetic
resistance (R) value or reactance (X) value. By
field direction.
doing this both windings carry current which are
out of phase with each other as was explained in
chapter two. This is the meaning of split-phase. The
resultant magnetic field produced by these currents
Single-phase induction motors will create the necessary torque on the rotor to
The basic construction of these motors is similar to make the motor self-starting. Figure 3.12 shows
that of three-phase machines. One might assume the production of the rotating field. Two motors
that a single-phase motor only requires one stator operating on this principle are called resistance-
winding for operation but unfortunately this is not start and capacitor-start.
the case. A single-phase supply connected to one The resistance-start motor (see Figure 3.13(a))
stator winding would not produce a rotating has more resistance in its starting winding than in
magnetic field; it would only set up a pulsating field its running winding. It is usually wound with the
similar to the primary winding of a single phase same number of turns as the main winding but
transformer. The rotor would be unable to produce the wire is of a smaller cross sectional area. An
a starting torque. alternative arrangement is to connect aresistor in

=o
 3° fe
Permanent capacitor
(alternative)

Centrifugal switch

Resistor
(separate Capacitor
or part of
starting
winding) Starting Starting
winding winding

Cage rotor Cage rotor

Running winding Running winding

(a) (b)
Figure 3.13 Types of split-phase induction motor (a) resistance start, (b) capacitor start

series with the starting winding. The current in depends upon the motor’s rating — usually 60-100
the starting winding lags behind the supply voltage wF for a motor rated at 750 W. The capacitor is
by approximately 30° while current in the main connected in series with the starting winding and
winding lags behind the supply voltage by approx- often mounted on the motor’s casing (see Figure
imately 70°. 3.15). When the motor is first switched on, current
To reduce copper losses the starting winding is in the starting winding leads the current in the
disconnected from circuit when the motor reaches running winding by 90° giving a reasonably good
approximately 75-80% of its full load speed. The starting torque. In some motors such as the capac-
device which achieves this is called a centrifugal itor-run motor the capacitor is left continuously in
switch and is attached to the motor’s shaft as shown circuit which can improve the power factor to
in Figure 3.14. You will see from the circuit dia- almost unity condition.
gram that the switch is wired in series with the Split-phase motors are widely used for refriger-
starting winding. For motor ratings up to 250 W, ation equipment, fans, pumps and smali power
starting torque is approximately 14 to 2 times application, where a constant drive is required.
full-load torque. Power factor and efficiency are Reversal of direction is achieved by changing over
approximately 0.7 and 55% respectively.
The capacitor-start motor (see Figure 3.13(b))
uses a paper dielectric capacitor for continuous
operation or a dry-type electrolytic capacitor
for non-continuous operation. Size of capacitor

Figure 3.14 Cage rotor showing centrifugal

switch mechanism Figure 3.15 Capacitor motor
53
 Stator

Rotor

Fixing holes

E
Laminated Salient pole
stator
Shading coil

Windings
(b)

Figure 3.18 Salient-pole motor showing (a) stator

and rotor, (b) shading pole opposing main field,
(c) shading pole aiding main field

© 1-phase supply
(see Figure 3.17). The shading rings act as short-
circuited, low-resistance coils. When the supply is
Figure 3.16 Shaded-pole (unicoil) motor switched on, eddy currents are induced in the
shading rings and they produce their own magnet-
the starting winding connections. Another type of ic field. The flux produced by this field opposes the
cage induction motor with a stator modification to main flux and you will see that it concentrates on
operate from a single-phase supply is called the one side of the pole (see Figure 3.18). This action
shaded pole motor. causes a slight delay before the flux in the shading
Figure 3.16 is a unicoil motor having a wound area reaches a maximum value. When the main flux
coil on one side of its laminated stator core and starts to decrease, the field inside the shading ring
two copper shading rings on the other side. The increases, giving the effect of sweeping from one
shading rings create an artificial phase shift, suffi- side of the pole to the other. This shift is sufficient
cient to produce a weak starting torque for driving to create a torque to make the motor self-starting.
oven fans, timers, etc, up to about 50 W. Motors of this type are often 4-pole machines
Another type with a higher rating is called a having output ratings around 125 W which are used
salient-pole motor. This has prominent stator poles for constant speed applications.
which are again fitted with copper shading rings

“~ Supply Universal motor

This motor is constructed on the lines of a d.c.
Series motor having a fixed field winding on a
Stator
winding
Compensating
Field winding winding
Cage rotor

Shading ring

Salient pole

Figure 3.17. Shaded-pole (salient-pole) motor Figure 3.19 Circuit diagram of a universal motor
54
 Direction changing over the armature field connections. The
ata
i
universal motor has considerable application in
domestic appliances such as washing machines,
vacuum cleaners, hair dryers, hand mixers, etc.

Motor starters
The prime function of a motor starter is to connect
Single-loop the motor to the supply and accelerate it to full
armature
speed without disturbance in the line or to other
e a conductor
Field winding connected machinery or equipment. The starter
Force
may also provide the following functions:
@ Current out
® Current in 1) to disconnect the motor from the supply in the
event of an overload or fault within the motor;
Figure 3.20.-Field interaction of a universal series 2) to disconnect the motor from the supply for
motor safety reasons — protecting the operator or other
person(s) — achieved by incorporating various
laminated yoke. The field winding is connected in safety devices which trip out the starter;
series with an armature through a commutator and 3) to control the stopping and starting operations
brushgear. The armature has windings. of the motor to meet various requirements of
Figure 3.19 shows a wiring diagram of the motor the work process.
and Figure 3.20 shows the field interaction between
the main field and armature field to produce rota- The problem associated with the starting and
tion of the armature. In this diagram the poles of acceleration of a motor, particularly three-phase
the electromagnetic are shown projected. For a.c. induction motors, arises from its speed-torque
operation a bridge rectifier could be inserted to characteristic. It was explained earlier that both
allow the motor to run as a d.c. series motor. starting torque and starting current are related to
Alternatively, the main field winding is distrib- the motor’s rotor resistance. While the former may
uted around the stator in slots similar to that of the be a fairly modest value (150% of the full load
induction motor and the motor connected directly torque) the latter can be very high, approaching
to the a.c. supply. It should be mentioned that the 6-8 times full load current. These two factors are
a.c. supply sets up eddy currents, causing /’R losses
in the core. For this reason all ferromagnetic parts
need to be highly laminated. The motor suffers
from sparking at the brushes which rest on the
armature’s commutator. It is a problem created by
transformer action from the stator field and causes
induced e.m.f.’s to track across the brushes and
commutator. Motors designed with high kilowatt
ratings are often fitted with a series compensating
winding to counteract this problem.
The universal motor’s operating characteristics
are shown in Figure 3.21. It will be seen that on
light loads the speed is high. For this reason it
should always be connected to some form of load
to avoid racing up to a dangerous speed. Since the
supply is alternating current, both field polarity and
armature polarity change together in the same time ‘Torque Full load
instants and the motor will run in the same direc-
tion. Reversal of rotation is achieved by either Figure 3.21 Performance curves for universal
changing over the main series field connections or series motor

55
 further related to the motor’s terminal voltage. Where it is necessary for the control circuit to
Various types of starter are designed to reduce the provide some of the functions mentioned earlier,
voltage to the motor during the initial starting peri- such as stopping and starting, overcurrent and
od. Once the motor is running at its rated speed the no-load protection then a direct-on-line (DOL)
voltage can be restored to its supply value. In the contactor-type starter is employed. Figure 3.22
case of motors of fractional kilowatt rating and shows a circuit diagram of this starter controlling a
where no appreciable disturbance on the supply three-phase induction motor. The circuit shows
lines is likely to occur, or where consent is given by supply isolation, circuit protection in the form of
a supply authority, then direct-switching of the overloads in each line and no-volt protection by
motor at full voltage is possible. Some common means of the contactor’s operating coil. You will
starting methods are given below with obvious see that facilities exist to start and stop the motor
emphasis on three-phase supplies. remote from its working position. This requires
start buttons to be wired in parallel and stop but-
tons to be wired in series with the no-volt coil.
Direct-on-line starter
A number of modifications can be made to the
This is the simplest and least expensive form of circuit such as operation on a single-phase supply
starter for small motors up to about 3.7 kW espe- to control a single-phase motor as in Figure 3.23 as
cially for motors connected to light loads. With well as inching, external interlock facility and alarm
heavier loads the running up speed is prolonged circuit.
and the motor may suffer damage from over-
heating caused by the high starting current. Very
Star-delta starter
small motors of rating not exceeding 0.37 kW, may
be switched onto the supply without any need of Figure 3.24 shows the connections of a hand-
overload protection (see BS 7671 and IEE Wiring operated star-delta starter. It requires an induction
Regulations, Reg. 552-01-02). motor with six winding ends brought out of its

L1 Paes

|415 V supply

Control circuit

Start buttons

Remote
Operation

a
Stop/reset button

Additional stop button

(remote operation)

Figure 3.22 3-Phase motor with direct-on-line starter circuit

56
 N
| 240 V supply
en,
DP switch

bs Start button

Stop/reset button

Figure 3.23 Circuit diagram of DOL starter for single-phase induction motor

terminal box. You will see by tracing the circuit

Et Oks
that in the start position of the changeover switch
| | Ls
one end of the stator windings is connected in star.
This allows the supply voltage to be applied across
TP switch
two windings in series and the motor will run up
Manual to speed at a reduced voltage. When the motor
changeover
switch
reaches its full speed, the manual changeover
switch is moved to the run position and the motor
operates in delta, each stator winding receiving full
voltage.
The supply voltage per phase in star is only 58%
of the value which would be applied if the windings
were connected in delta (i.e. 240 V/415 V) and this
reduces the starting torque and starting current to
one-third. With only 50% starting torque it should
be appreciated that this starting method is limited
to light and medium loads such as centrifugal
Six-terminal pumps and fans having low inertia.
motor
Figure 3.25 shows a circuit diagram of an auto-
matic star-delta starter. A schematic circuit has
been drawn separate to the main circuit for clarity
reasons (Figure 3.26) which involves a time delay
that allows the star contactor S to operate before
Figure 3.24 Manually-operated star-delta starter the delta contactor D. Briefly, when the start but-
for induction motors ton is pressed, star contactor coil S is energised via

5)
 EPR Eas £3 These percentage torque calculations are based
| | lod cai on the following:
Since Tc
TP switch
When the transformer supplies 100% full voltage at
Fuses 415 V, its full-load torque is 150%. For a tapping of
60% (249 V) its percentage torque will be:
f= US x 240"
415?
= 54%
The initial starting current is 1.6, 3.6 and 5.6
times the full load current. Figure 3.27 shows a
diagram of a manually-operated starter, although
automatic starters are also available. The one illus-
trated shows the changeover switch in the start
position and the transformer on its lowest tappings
to allow the motor to gain speed, taking the least
current. Moving the switch to the run position con-
nects the motor to the full supply voltage.

Et RZ aks
© Star contactor
©) Delta contactor
() Main contactor
Figure 3.25 Automatically-operated star-delta
starter (timer circuit omitted for clarity)

the normally closed contact D and timer contact T.

This closes contacts S and M and the timer coil T
operates. At the same time as coil S closes, current
flows through the main contactor coil M. There is
an interlock between the star and delta main con-
tactors but after a short period of time the timer
contacts open and current then flows through the
normally closed star contact S to operate the delta
coil. The motor windings will then receive full
voltage.

Autotransformer starter
This can be a two- or three-stage voltage reduction
method used where current limitation is required at
Starting. Unlike the star-delta starter it only
requires three stator connections. In practice the
autotransformer is star connected and tappings are
taken off each phase winding to provide 40, 60 and
75% of the supply voltage. With starting torque
being proportional to the square of the motor volt-
age this will give 24, 54 and 84% of the direct Figure 3.26 Control circuit with time delay
switching full-load torque. for Figure 3.25
58
ae 2

415 V supply
TP switch
Tappings

Start Stator winding

Sake or ne we) Pp A es flied

motion
blades Delta
eee tl connected
ki

: : ; Motor
Figure 3.27 Manual changeover switch controlling 3-phase autotransformer

Cg cae eS
415 V supply

TP switch Stator
windings

Control circuit

ae | | |

Bigg EEE Jon

brushgear

External
rotor
resistance

Held closed out

in start position

Stop mI Run ‘Start

-------- <—_____>
button Start Held closed
button 7 in run position

Figure 3.28 Contactor starter controlling three-phase, wound rotor, slip-ring motor
59
 Coil wound
Rotor resistance starter on heat
resisting insulation
A diagram of this circuit is shown in Figure 3.28.
You will see that circuit protection and control is
by a separate contactor circuit and you will also
notice that mechanical interlocks are inserted
Insulated trip bar
between the stator’s contactor and the external
rotor resistance. This ensures that the latter is all in
circuit before the motor can be started. With max-
imum resistance in circuit, maximum torque is
developed from standstill. As the speed of the slip-
ring motor increases its torque drops off until it is
Bi-metal
balanced by the load and asteady speed is attained. element
Some resistance is then cut out and the motor’s
speed again increases until it levels out. This oper-
ation is repeated several times until all the external
resistance has been removed and the motor finally Contacts

runs at its rated speed. In this way the external Figure 3.29 Bi-metallic overload device
rotor resistance is able to provide a certain amount
of speed control but reduction in speed is accom- used, namely, a thermal release or a magnetic
panied by reduced efficiency. When running nor- release. The thermal release is used mainly in small
mally, the starter arm forms a short circuit across contactor starters and consists of two metals having
the slip-rings but with some motors a device at the different coefficients of expansion (see Science
slip-rings is used which allows the brushes to be Book 1 by the same author) and takes the form of
lifted to minimise wear. a bimetal strip. When current is sufficiently strong
This method is ideal for motors up to 100 kW but enough in the motor circuit the heating effects
in order to reduce any disturbance on the mains
and to avoid vibration and shock to the driven
machine the starting torque is often kept to approx- * Trip circuit
imately 150% of full load torque.

Motor protection
Protective devices are usually incorporated in a
starter to protect the motor against overcurrent,
loss of voltage, or as was seen above in the slip-ring
motor, means to prevent misuse of the starter
having interlock facilities. Overcurrent is often an
overload caused by the motor taking too much
current, either through stalling on load or by single-
phasing (when one phase of a three-phase supply
becomes open circuit). It leads to overheating of
the windings and the eventual breakdown of insu-
lation. To prevent this happening, use is made of an
overload device which is often pre-set and operates
by opening contacts which are wired in series with
the starter’s contactor coil. Obviously, an over-
load device set to trip slightly over the normal
rating would be a nuisance and it is usual to find
such devices set around 25% of the motor’s rated
current. Figure 3.30 Oil-filled dashpot magnetic overload
In practice, two types of overload device are System

60
 Single-phase
Probe motor

Disc

Figure 3.31 Thermistors

produced by it causes unequal expansion of the two Star-connected
Strips and they bend. This action is designed to three-phase
open contacts and de-energise the contactor coil of motor
the control circuit. (See Figure 3.29)
The magnetic release is used with larger contac-
tors and’compfises a coil wired in the line circuit
which automatically trips out the starter in
response to an instantaneous overload. The device
contains a plunger whose movement is damped by
a dashpot which is oil-filled. This action avoids
Delta-connected
unnecessary tripping on short time overloads. three-phase
Figure 3.30 shows a typical oil-dashpot. motor
Another method of protection for a motor is
a device called a thermistor which is a thermally-
sensitive semiconductor resistor (see Figure 3.31). ETE 2S SeN
The thermistor exhibits a positive temperature
coefficient (ptc) with its resistance designed to Figure 3.32 Method of connecting capacitors to
change rapidly with changes in temperature. It is motors
ideal for giving protection against excessive over-
power factors. A motor at standstill will have a low
heating of a motor’s windings and is often connect-
power factor of about 0.35 but when running on full
ed in series to operate a relay or alarm circuit.
load it will increase to about 0.7. The most common
In the event of supply failure or the motor being
arrangement to improve power factor is to connect
switched off whether manually by the off button or
capacitors across motor windings.
automatically via overloads, the operating coil acts
In this way it is possible to improve the power
as a no-volt release to de-energise the contactor.
factor of the circuit to unity. Figure 3.32 shows
This is an important safety feature for the operator
several methods depending on a motor’s supply
of the motor and often the coil is wired through a
connections. In large industrial premises where
series of latch-operated stop buttons to allow the
considerable use is made of motors, automatic
motor to be stopped in an emergency.
power factor correction is installed.

Power factor improvement Speed control

Power factor has already been discussed in chapter From expression [3.9], you will see that the speed
two but it is important to appreciate that a.c. of a cage induction motor depends on the fre-
motors, because they have windings, are inductive quency of supply and number of pairs of poles
circuits and as a result will invariably have poor in its stator. Methods are available with electronic
61
 Si |
ate

L2 |
lo O |
Input Output Induction
L3 contactor contactor motor
Autotransformer

Rectifier d.c. link filter Inverter

Figure 3.33 Basic inverter system controlling speed of a three-phase induction motor

equipment, such as a static thyristor inverter,

tovary the supply frequency over a wide range and EXERCISE 3
thus provide a variable speed output. Figure 3.33 is
a simplified circuit diagram of an inverter system 1. Figure 3.35 shows a simplified diagram of the
controlling a three-phase induction motor. The internal connections of an a.c. induction
method of pole-changing in a motor’s stator wind- motor’s three-phase stator windings. Using the
ing is limited to two or three alternative running cross and dot notation of current going in and
speeds. In the wound rotor slip-ring motor only coming out of a conductor, show on the two
a degree of speed control can be achieved with adjacent diagrams:
external starting resistance. At low speeds, a a) the polarity of the poles for phase posi-
motor’s efficiency is greatly reduced. tions 1 and 2 and
For small motors connected to single-phase b) state the direction of the rotating mag-
supplies, speed control is achieved through the netic field.
trigger action of a thyristor’s gate (see Figure 3.34).
In this diagram the two resistors act as a voltage
divider. Diode (D2) only allows positive pulses to
Phase R Phase Y
the thyristor’s gate while diode (D1) prevents any PE
gh

feedback from the negative half cycle of the supply. +

This circuit only provides a limited amount of

speed control. By closing the switch the motor can
run at its maximum speed. ©Current

| Portable
, drill

Figure 3.34 Thyristor motor speed control Figure 3.35 Production of rotating magnetic field
62
 Cage rotor speed 23.15 TEVS
wattmeter 16.92 kW
voltmeter 400 V

= ee Direction of ammeter 39.5 A

travelling pulley dia. 0.33 m

a) stator field brake force 564.44 N

De
esl Rotor bar
Ve Show with a circuit diagram how capacitors can
be connected to single-phase and three-phase
induction motors to improve their power factor.
A universal motor can be connected to an a.c.
Figure 3.36 Cage rotor end ring or d.c. supply. Explain how this is possible.
2. a) Determine What are the dangers if the motor becomes
the synchronous speed and
lightly loaded? How is reversal of direction
rotor speed of an induction motor for the
achieved?
following conditions:
(9 f=50, p=2,s=0.03 Figure 3.37 (over) shows a schematic diagram
iy f= SO, p= 4, 5'='6.03 of two three-phase motors operating a single
(ii) f= 60, p = 6, ss 0.05 speed hoist and traverse of a crane. Follow the
b) What is meant by the fault termed single- control circuit wiring and describe the proce-
phasing? dure for raising and lowering the hoist and
a) Figure 3.36 shows the short-circuited end moving the traverse left and right.
ring of cage rotor for an induction motor. 10. Figure 3.38 show a circuit diagram of hand-
Using Fleming’s right-hand rule, sketch on operated star-delta starter. Complete the con-
the rotor the direction of induced current in trol circuit wiring to bring in the main
each rotor bar conductor and show the contactor.
resultant magnetic field produced.
b) If the travelling stator magnetic field moves
anticlockwise, in which direction will the
rotor cage travel?
c) How would you reverse the direction of a
capacitor-start induction motor?
a) State ONE advantage and ONE disadvan-
tage of a slip-ring motor over a cage induc-
tion motor.
b) How are remote stop and start buttons con-
nected in a direct-on-line contactor starter?
c) What is the function of a no-volt reiease —« je—
coil?
A 1 kW/240V, 50Hz 2-pole single-phase
induction motor operates with a 5% slip. Its
efficiency is 75% and it has a power factor of
0.7 lagging on full load. For this motor:
a) Draw a labelled circuit diagram of a push Stop C
button starter with undervoltage protection
and overload protection.
b) Calculate the input power, current and
speed.
Determine the power output, power factor and
efficiency of a three-phase motor having the Figure 3.38 Hand operated star-delta starter
following test data: showing contactor control
63
 L1
415 V supply

al ome
: mens
ae lapels
Pa

Hoist Traverse
R =raise L = left
L = lower Traverse R = right
motor

Hoist buttons Traverse buttons

Control Raise Lower Right Left
circuit

cst B2 Ce3]|__ cise

Operating
coils

Figure 3.37 Crane control circuit

64
 Elements of
lighting design mesa
Objectives White screen

Infra-red
After reading this chapter you should be able to:
region
@ describe the properties of light in terms of its tei] OO) nh)
colours;
@ state the wavelengths of visible light; Visible
@ state the meaning of a number of terms relating spectrum

to lighting design e.g. luminous flux, luminous

efficacy, luminous intensity, illumination, illumi- ooo hm
nance, luminance, inverse square law, cosine Ultra-violet
law, glare, colour, reflectance, refraction, room region
index, spacing-height ratio, uniformity, utilisation
factor, maintenance factor, lighting design, Figure 4.2 Visible light spectrum
lumens;
portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum.
e@ perform simple calculations using the inverse
You will see from the diagram that cosmic rays are
square law and lumen method;
at one end and radio waves at the other.
@ describe general lighting, localised lighting and
Cosmic waves have shorter wavelengths than
local lighting systems;
radio waves but we cannot see them. Visible light
@ describe various factors which influence the
lies between 380 and 780 nanometres which is
choice of lamp and luminaire for a particular
10° m. Although it is a form of wave motion,
application;
it travels in straight lines at a speed of 300 million
@ state methods of starting discharge lamps;
metres per second or 3 x 10* m/s. The light from the
@ state possible faults in various types of lighting
sun takes eight minutes to reach us and is usually
circuits. considered to be white light but in actual fact when
it is passed through a glass prism it is found to be
made up of all the colours of the rainbow. The red
Light colour is refracted the least and the violet colour
Light is a form of energy that we detect with our refracted the most (see Figure 4.2).
eyes and is transmitted by electromagnetic waves. The colours have different frequencies, the
Figure 4.1 shows that it occupies only a small higher the frequency the shorter will be the wave-

Visible light

Gamma Cosmic
Radio Waves rays

104 107 1 10 104 10° 101 lot 10e- qo"

Wavelength (m)

Figure 4.1 Electromagnetic radiation spectrum

65
 pressure mercury vapour discharge lamp. A third
lamp worth mentioning is the low pressure sodium
discharge lamp (SOX lamp). Its spectral distribu-
tion concentrates around 589 nm giving a distinct
yellow appearance, making all surrounding colours
Luminous
efficacy look yellow.

Infra-red
Ultra-violet
0-4 0-5 0-6 0-75
Wavelength (ium)

Figure 4.3 Response curve of the human eye

length. The relationship between wavelength (A),

frequency (f) and velocity (v) is given by the 200 300 400 500 600 700 ~=800
following expression: Wavelength (nm)
Incandescent lamp (GLS)
f=> [4.1]
Where the symbol 2 is the Greek letter lambda
standing for wavelength. If we wish to find the Infra-red
frequency of, say, the colour ‘violet’ at 400 nm, Ultra-violet
from the above expression it is found to be:
if Bal
400 x 10°
TL Oe ora,
Figure 4.3 shows the response curve of the
400 500 600 700 800
human eye. It will be seen that its sensitivity is
Wavelength (nm)
highest in the middle of the curve, (i.e. in the green
High-pressure mercury vapour discharge lamp (MBF)
and yellow wavebands). Outside these regions the
curve tails off into the infra-red and ultra-violet
zones. Not only are both extremities present in
natural daylight but they are also present in arti-
ficial light sources. The incandescent lamp (GLS Infra-red
Ultra-violet
lamp) mostly emits infra-red radiation in the form
of heat. Its spectral distribution curve is shown
in Figure 4.4 where it can be seen that its light is
mostly at the red end, spreading across the colour
band and sloping downwards to the left hand side
to produce only a small amount of ultra-violet light.
In a fluorescent lamp (MCF lamp), by contrast, the
400 500 600 700 800
emission is mostly ultra-violet radiation which is
Wavelength (nm)
converted into visible light by the introduction of
various fluorescent phosphors which are coated Low-pressure sodium vapour discharge lamp
(SOX)
on the inside of the tube. Figure 4.4 shows a high- Figure 4.4 Spectral distribution of various lamps
66
 The illuminance (£) is found by the expression:
1 Ix on surface
I
ES i lux [4.2]

Cosine law: A law which considers the case where

the surface to be illuminated is not perpendicular
to the direction of the light source. In other words,
if the surface is turned so that the rays of light hit
it at an angle the illuminated area will increase in
size but the illumination will decrease (see Figure
4.7(b)). The illuminance (£) is found by the
Figure 4.5 Relationships of light units in a solid expression:
angle
Eofee lux [4.3]
Terminology
Note: The distance (d) in both laws is not the
The following are some useful terms used in light-
same measurement. In the cosine law the distance
ing design:
can be thought of as the hypotenuse side of a
Luminous flux (F): the rate of flow of luminous right-angle triangle (h). The adjacent side being
energy measured in lumens (Im). the distance (d) if using the inverse square law
Luminous efficacy: the quantity of light emitted expression.
by a source in lumens divided by the power source
input in watts (Im/W).
Luminous intensity (I): the illuminating power of
a light source measured in candela (cd). If a light Lux level Area of activity
source has an intensity of 1 candela, then 1 lumen
50 Walkways, cable tunnels
will be emitted on 1 square metre of surface,
giving an illuminance of 1 lux. In Figure 4.5 since 100 Bulk stores, corridors
the surface area of a sphere is 4mr° and the
150 Churches
radius is 1 m, then 4m lumens will be emitted by
Loading bays
1 candela.
Illumination: is the general term for lighting, 200 Monitoring automatic processes
describing for example a system of leisure and in manufacture, turbine halls
entertainment lighting. 300 Lecture theatres, packing goods,
Illuminance (E): is the measure of light falling on rough sawing
a surface measured in lumens per square metre
which is the lux (Ix). More technically it is the 500 Genera! offices, kitchens,
luminous flux incident upon a small element of laboratories
the surface, divided by the area of the element 750 Drawing offices, ceramic
(ie. E = F/A). Some recommended values of
illuminance are given in Figure 4.6. 1000 Electronic component assembly,
Luminance (L): the measured brightness of a gauge and tool rooms,
surface measured in candela per square metre retouching paintwork

which is the nit (nt). It will depend on a number of 1500 Inspection of graphic reproduction,
factors such as adaptation, i.e. the eyes adjustment hand tailoring, watch repairs
to light intensity.
Assembly of minute mechanisms,
Inverse square law: A law which considers the fact 2000
that the illumination received on a surface due toa jewellers/antiques goldsmith

point source is inversely proportional to the square SS SES SS — ee

of its perpendicular distance from the source (see Figure 4.6 Recommended lux values
Figure 4.7(a). for different areas of activity
67
 A Solution
Figure 4.8 is a 3-4-5 right-angle triangle.
The illuminance at A is found from the
inverse square law:
I _ 400
E= ft- ao 44.4 |x

The illumination at B is found by using the

cosine law, 1.e.
_ 1Ixcos ¢
E =
(a) Inverse square law

Point source b
400 x 0.6
=a GLX
25
Colour: the spectral distribution of a light source
is often a mix of colours, e.g. red, green and blue
and are called in lighting primary colours. The eye
cannot differentiate between mixtures of light giv-
ing the same appearance. The term colour appear-
(b) Cosine law ance is used to describe what colour a light source
or object appears to be or looks like. The colour of
Figure 4.7. Laws of illumination:
a light source to reveal the colours of an object is
called colour rendering.
Example 4.1 Only those colours which fall onto a surface can
be reflected from it. If the light source is, say, defi-
An incandescent lamp is suspended 3 m cient in the red wavelength the surface will lack
above a level workbench and is fitted with that colour.
a reflector such that the luminous intensity Reflectance: a measure of how effectively a sur-
in all directions below the horizontal is face will reflect light. It is often described as the
400 cd. Calculate the illuminance at point ratio of luminous flux reflected to the luminous flux
A on the surface of the bench directly
received.
below the lamp and also at a point B, 4 m
Glare: the discomfort or impairment of vision
away from point A (see Figure 4.8). experienced when parts of the visual field are
excessively bright in relation to their surroundings.
The term ‘glare’ has several interpretations. It can
occur from a reflected surface or directly from a
light source. It is often divided into disability glare
!= 400 cd and discomfort glare. The latter refers to the
degree of visual discomfort that can be tolerated
and is often expressed as an index in lighting
schemes. Glare can be reduced by using prismatic
attachments on luminaires. They are designed to
redirect the light of a lamp into its required distri-
bution.
Refraction: is used to describe the bending of light
A B
Workbench waves when passed through glass or any trans-
|4m parent medium.
Room index: a measure of the dimensions of a
Figure 4.8 Finding the illuminance at two different room used for calculating the utilisation of a light-
positions ing scheme.
68
For a rectangular room it is given by the expres- Lumen method calculations
sion:
This is the recognised method of finding the total
Length x Width lumens required of a lighting installation. It is
Beco Make pe [4.4]
(Length + Width) x Height expressed in the form of average illuminance:
The height (H m) is the distance between the
Ez
_ FxnxNx iLLFX UF lux [4.5]
luminaire plane and horizontal reference plane
(see Figure 4.9). Room indices are given in lighting
tables. ‘ Where: F is the bare lamp flux per lamp
Spacing to height ratio: the spacing between lum- n is the number of lamps per luminaire
inaires divided by their height above the horizontal N is the number of luminaires
reference plane. LLF is the light loss factor for a surface
UF is the utilisation factor for the surface
Working plane: the horizontal, vertical or inclined
plane in which the visual task lies. A is the area of the surface
Uniformity: the ratio between the minimum and By transposition of formula [4.5]:
average illuminance over the working area. It
should not be less than 0.8 where tasks are per-
(Oe ah alHa bir lumens
formed. ~ nx Nx LLFX UF
Utilization factor: the total flux reaching the
working’ plane divided by the total lamp flux. Its A simple example.of this method is shown below.
value will depend on room index and effective
reflectances of standard surfaces, e.g. floor cavity
(F), walls (W) and ceiling cavity (C). Specific val- QO Example 4.2
ues are often given in lighting tables. A rectangular-shaped workshop building
Maintenance factor: the ratio of illumination from 25 m long and 40 m wide is to be illumin-
a dirty installation to that from the same installa- ated using 60 single-tube 70 W fluorescent
tion when clean, expressed as a decimal (often 0.8). luminaires. Each tube has an output of
It is often referred to as the loss life factor (LLF) 6300 lumens and the input to each lumin-
being the product of four other factors, namely, aire is 82 W.
luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD), lamp failure Determine:
factor (LLF), lamp lumen depreciation (LLD) and a) the average illuminance if the light loss
room dirt depreciation (RDD). factor is 0.8 and the utilisation factor is
Lighting design lumens (LDL): the average lumen 0.66.
outputs of lamps throughout their life, based on b) the efficacy of the luminaires.
2000 hours of use. They are less than the initial
lumen values when the lamps are new.
Solution
a) FoaN OEE PFSOUR
Pear apres”
rer <7
Ceiling 6300 x 60 x 0.8 x 0.66 _
eee arr Caer pa 200 lux
cavity

(C =0.3-0.9) Luminaire b) Efficacy = lumens/watts

Wall eeane 6300/82 = 77 lm/W
(W = 0.3-0.7) Height (H)

Horizontal
reference
a Example 4.3
Floor
cavity A classroom measuring 6 m xX 14m
(F = 0.2-0.3) requires to be illuminated to 500 lux by
room reflectances)
single-tube fluorescent lamps having a
(Note C, W and F are recommended
lumen output of 4408 lumens. Each
Figure 4.9 Method of finding room index lamp is rated at 58 W and the light loss
69
 factor and utilisation factor are 0.9 and 0.5 required for the installation if the light loss
respectively. factor is 0.8 and the utilisation factor is 0.71.
a) How many luminaires are required to
give the average illuminance?
b) If the supply is 415 V_ three-phase,
four-wire, how many luminaires can A Solution
With the above information the formula is
be connected to each phase for load written for the total lumens required:
balancing?
EXxA
c) Calculate the current per phase, if Fe
LLF x.UF
each luminaire has control gear losses
of 12 W. _ 500 x (30 x 7.5)
d) What is the efficacy of each fluorescent ~ “PRX O71
tube and each luminaire?
112500
Sart 197368 Im

Solution If the selected lamps were given lighting

design lumens (LDL) of 4450 per lumin-
a) sips EXA
aire then the number of lamps required
~ Fx LLFx UF
would be:
500 x 6 x 14 197368
= 4408x059x05 ~ 7! lamps "cease eae
b) 7 luminaires per phase. If twin luminaires were chosen, then only
Ceara PAs 22 luminaires would be needed. In order to
es V extend this example, assume the room had
the following reflectances: floor cavity (F)
_ 7x (58 + 12) x18 = 0.2, wall (W) =0.5 and ceiling cavity = 0.7.
‘ 240 To find the utilisation factor, we also need
3.68 A to know the room index (R/). This is
derived from:
d) Efficacy of tube in lamp:
lumen/watt = 4408/58 Length x Width
Riis
(Length + Width) x Height
= 76 lm/W
SU Ls Z
Efficacy of luminaire is: 2.3
(30 + 7.5) x 2.4 —
lumen/watt = 4408/70
With the reflectance indices and the room
63 Im/W index the utilisation factor can easily be
Note: In (c) above, since the power factor found from lamp data tables (e.g. UF =
of the circuit is not given the multiplier 1.8 0.71 for a ‘Thorn’ Clipper 2 luminaire).
_ has been used and assumes a p.f. of not less If each fluorescent lamp is rated at 58 W,
than 0.85. its efficacy would be 4450/58 = 77 Im/W.

Lamp data tables provide the spacing to height

Example 4.4 ratios (SHR) for luminaires, quoting the maximum
(SHR MAX) and nominal (SHR NOM) spacings in
A lighting installation in a room is to pro- metres. For planning lighting on ceilings, it is
vide an average illuminance of 500 lx on the appropriate to consider the transverse (TR) and
working plane. The dimensions of the room axial (AX) spacings between luminaires and the
are: length 30m, width 7.5 m and height luminaires and side walls. In the above example,
3.15m. The working plane is 0.75 m. from lighting tables, the chosen luminaires to pro-
Determine the total luminous flux and the duce a uniform illuminance must conform to SHR
number of twin fluorescent luminaires MAX of 1.74 m, SHR TR MAX of 2.02 m and a
70
 SHR AX
2 SHR AX = 2.75 m

KH

SHR TR = 3.75 m

Bc tereo ihe cee eee yh teks yeep ey pee pg jal

SHR TR
2

Figure 4.10 Lighting layout

SHR NOM of 1.5 m. Since H = 2.4 m, then SHR approximate uniform illuminance over the hori-
AX NOM is 1.5 x 2.4 = 3.6 m but should not exceed zontal working plane. The design is based on the
4.2m. Also; SHR TR MAX is 2.02 x 2.4 = 4.85 m. lumen method of calculation and lends itself to
With this information the layout of the luminaires freely changing work patterns of non-critical tasks.
should comfortably fit into two rows of eleven Nowadays, it is directed at the comfort levels of
luminaires per row, i.e. room occupants with emphasis placed on creating
Length: fe a natural environment to work in, minimising
problems of glare. This is a particular problem in
(2 x 0.62 m) + (11 x 1.5 m) + (10 x 1.23 m)
offices where a large number of VDUs (visual
230 ii. display units) are used. The problem is often
Width: (2 x 1.87 m) +3.75m = 7.5m overcome by using luminaires with opal plastic
diffusers or by installing luminaires recessed within
Figure 4.10 is a diagram of the layout. suspended ceilings. Prismatic controllers or low-
The above example has been made simple to brightness plastic parabolic louvres which direct
explain the basic procedure involved in the lumen the light straight downwards provide a high degree
method calculation. In practice, several other fac- of glare control (see Fig 4.12).
tors may need to be considered in the layout, not It could also be achieved by using a system of
least the task area to be illuminated and individual
rooms.

Lighting systems
Lighting systems can be classified as:
a) general lighting
b) localised lighting and
c) local lighting (see Figure 4.11).
General lighting is mostly seen as an arrange-
ment of ceiling luminaires intended to provide

General lighting | Localised lighting Local lighting

Figure 4.11 Interior lighting schemes

71
 uplighting which is a form of indirect lighting Different types of lamp in general use are
reflected from the ceiling. The luminaires can covered in Part I Studies, Theory book, by the
either be floor standing, wall mounted or sus- same author. This explained the operation and
pended types and are best installed within the characteristics of several types of lamp together
system’s furniture hidden from view (see Figure with wiring diagrams of their control circuits.
4.13). A lighting designer will almost certainly consider
In localised lighting, careful positioning of the the following points when deciding a type of lamp
luminaires is of prime consideration in order to for a particular lighting scheme:
reduce glare and shadow. The method has to pro-
vide the necessary illuminance over the required 1) colour rendering (the lamp’s colour quality);
working area and give only about 50% illuminance 2) colour appearance (the lamp’s apparent
to the immediate surroundings. It finds consider- colour based on its correlated colour tem-
able use in supermarket stores for display lighting perature — warm, intermediate, cool or cold);
over rows of food products and it can be designed 3) knowledge of the run-up time to full bright-
to use less energy than general lighting by offering ness and also its re-strike time;
independent control. 4) suitability, efficacy, life, and need for starting
Local lighting can be regarded as task lighting, control gear;
providing the necessary illuminance over small 5) protection from substances in the environ-
areas, such as desks, machines, display areas etc. ment (internal or external);
The luminaires chosen must provide a higher 6) energy costs and lamp maintenance/replace-
illuminance than those used for general lighting ment costs.
(about three times as much) and they can incorp-
orate adjustment facilities to avoid any possibility A luminaire is a combination of lamp and lighting
of glare. The use of spotlights for display purposes fittings and its purpose is to redirect the light from
and for special effects offers personal control of the the lamp ina particular direction, preferably with
area being illuminated. It should be seen as being the least glare possible. A classification for general
quite independent from general lighting. interior lighting considers the total light output of a
luminaire in the upper and lower hemispheres. For
example, direct lighting is regarded as producing
90-100% light shining downwards and only 0-10%
Choice of lamps and luminaires light shining upwards, whereas semi-direct lighting
It is said that a good lighting scheme can raise the produces 10-40% light upwards and 60-90% light
quality of life, not only by improving the environ- downwards. The percentages for indirect lighting
ment in terms of comfort and pleasure but also by and semi-indirect lighting are opposite to the direct
increasing productivity, reducing accidents, im- and semi-direct percentages.
proving security and reducing maintenance costs. Figure 4.14 illustrates these methods together
with general diffuse lighting which produces be-
tween 40-60% upwards and downwards.
A major factor in selection, apart from cost, is
the luminaire’s protection properties. It may need
mechanical protection to protect the lamp against
(b) Wall mounted
vibration or vandalism or it may be designed for

Upwards

(a) Floor standing

2]-O- Cae,

a des
Downwards

A - direct; B — semi-direct; C — semi-indirec

t; D — indirect;
E — general diffusing
Figure 4.13 Up-lights Figure 4.14 Luminaire classifications
72
 quite common. GLS lamps are relatively cheap
Lux (Beam angle 80°) and various shapes, colours and lamp caps exist.
Metres
Among the range in use today can be found rough
60w 75w 100w
270 360 530 service lamps used where shock and vibration are
unavoidable and reflector lamps for spotlighting
and floodlighting application. The pressed glass
lamp, known as the PAR lamp (parabolic anodised
reflector) has its filament placed in the focus of the
reflector so as to provide a directional beam.
In the TH lamp, the bulb is made of quartz (a
Figure 4.15
very hard transparent mineral) instead of glass.
Beam spotlight luminaire
This means that it can safely operate at high
temperature. This allows the internal gas pressure
strength of support fixing. It may also need pro-
tection against corrosion or explosion, heat, dust, of the halogen to be raised, reducing filament evap-
oration and by doing this the average life of the
water or chemical contamination. Some luminaires
lamp and its efficacy can be considerably increased
may be designed with a reflector to obtain a
(a 100 W TH lamp hasa life expectancy of around
brighter beam.
4000 hours). With a much improved light output
Figure 4.15 shows a bowl reflector spotlight suit-
and good colour rendering properties, as well as
able for commercial interior display lighting often
warm appearance, the TH lamp is ideal for com-
used in hotels, shops and galleries, etc. The body of
mercial use such as display lighting and exterior
the luminaire is heat-resistant and flame-retardant
floodlighting as well as specialised automobile
and incorporates a 100 W, Crown Silvered, ES
lighting.
lamp which gives high performance and minimum
A second type of artificial light source is the
glare. At the side of the luminaire is a beam cone
fluorescent lamp, called a low pressure mercury
diagram giving the lux values based on the inverse
vapour lamp (MCF). The lamp is a form of two-
square law calculation. These values have been tak-
action process light source, since ultra-violet
en at the beam centre for the distances shown.
radiation emitted from the internal discharge is
converted into visible light by the use of phosphors
Types of lamp coated on the inside of the tube. The lamp is
filled with argon and krypton gas as well as
Common lamps and their control circuits are dis- small amounts of liquid mercury. By mixing
cussed in Part 1 Studies: Theory by the same various phosphors (halophosphates) a wide choice
author. Only a summary of their operation will be of colour is available. You will come across
mentioned here. It is generally accepted that lamps fluorescent tubes called: white, warm white,
for artificial lighting can be classified according to cool white (daylight), natural, kolor-rite (tru-
the way they produce light. For example, the tung- colour), northlight (colour matching) and artificial
sten filament lamp (GLS) and tungsten halogen daylight.
lamp (TH) produce their light from incandescence, Some of these lamps have been superseded by
that is, light from a heated filament. Tungsten is an the development of triphosphors, now in ‘pluslux’
ideal material for the filament because of its lamps and ‘polylux’ lamps. These lamps produce
high melting point (3380°C). In the GLS lamp, gas good colour rendering to give coloured objects a
filling is used to improve life expectancy and will be natural look. Their high light output is in the
either argon or nitrogen to stop filament evapora- red, green and blue wavelengths and they are
tion from the high internal temperature. In some designed to save energy. Standard T8 krypton-
projector lamps, a blend of both gases is used but filled lamps are used in all new installations with
in low wattage lamps below 25 W no gas filling is T12 argon-filled lamps a second choice. in older
required. The actual bulb of the lamp can be made installations, mainly for lamp replacement. The life
‘clear’ or it can be internally ‘etched’ to give a pear! and lumen depreciation of fluorescent lamps is, in
finish to reduce glare and soften shadows. Coiling a general, extremely good with triphosphor lamps
lamp’s filament increases both life expectancy and losing only 90% of their light output after 12 000 h
efficacy and double life lamps of 2000 hours are of use.
73
 Another range of smaller fluorescent lamps U-shaped arc tube gradually become vapourised
slowly replacing GLS lamps because of their energy and the lamp’s colour characteristics change to yel-
saving costs are fluorescent compact lamps. Power low. The lamp has an outer glass envelope and the
consumption of the 2D and SL lamps is about 25% space between this and the arc tube is completely
of the GLS lamp and the average life is about 5—10 evacuated. To keep the discharge at its optimum
times longer. With no starting control gear needed temperature (270°C) the internal surface of the
an ‘SLOW’ lamp with BC cap is equivalent to a outer glass envelope is coated with a layer of indi-
40 W GLS lamp and an ‘SL25W’ lamp is equivalent um oxide. This oxide allows light to pass through
to a 100 W GLS lamp. These type of fluorescent but reflects infra-red radiation back to the arc tube.
lamps produce good colour rendering using triphos- The efficacy value of this type of lamp is around
phors. Today there are several different versions of 170 lm/W. All lamps are fitted with BC lamp-
the compact fluorescent. One type, called the PL holders. Lower wattage lamps can operate in any
‘cluster’ lamp has a built-in electronic quick start position but the higher wattage lamps are only
unit and is fitted with standard BC or ES cap.
Over recent years there have been major
advances in lamp starting methods. Switchstart
circuits using glow-type and electronic-type starters
are still widely used and while relatively cheap, MBF
suffer a number of minor problems. In glow-type
starters the internal bi-metal contacts often stick
and it leads to problems of lamp flicker and the
eventual overheating of the choke. Today, the
starting of fluorescent tubes is often achieved using MBFR
high frequency electronic ballasts which operate
between 20 kHz and 40 kHz. Not only does this
raise the efficacy of the luminaire by reducing
ballast losses but it also reduces energy consump-
tion. There are numerous other advantages, such as
no lamp flicker or stroboscopic effect problems; MBIF
silent starting and silent running operation; easier
maintenance with no additional controlgear;
improved circuit power factor, longer life expect-
ancy as well as reduced ballast weight and low
ambient temperature within the enclosure of the
luminaire.
The third type of artificial light source is known
as the discharge lamp. Several types of lamp are
commonly used but basically they obtain their light
from the passage of electricity through a gas or
vapour, notably sodium or mercury vapour. Nearly
all these lamp require control gear. One type,
known as the low pressure sodium vapour lamp
(SOX), is characterised by its monochromatic
yellow light as seen from the lamp’s spectural dis-
tribution in Figure 4.4(c). Because of this it has
poor colour rendering properties and is mostly
used for lighting highways, car parks, construction
sites and security areas. Figure 4.16 shows the con-
struction of this lamp. When it is first switched on
the initial discharge occurs through a mixture of
neon and argon gas giving a reddish appearance.
Sodium globules on the inside of the inner Figure 4.16 Common discharge lamps
74
allowed to operate up to 20° above or below the SONDL-E and SONDL-T lamps operate at
horizontal. The control gear for these lamps often higher pressures than ordinary SON lamps and are
requires a ‘leaky’ reactance transformer ballast or available in tubular or diffused elliptical shapes.
electronic ignitor to assist starting. The sodium The lamps are rated at 150 W, 250 W and 400 W
lamp takes about 8-9 minutes to reach full bright- and have improved colour rendering. They take
ness and if temporarily switched off its re-ignition about 8 minutes to reach full brightness but can
time (which may be instant for a low wattage lamp) restrike in less than 1 minute.
can take 10 minutes for the higher wattage lamp Another type of discharge lamp is the high pres-
(90 W and 135 W lamps). sure mercury vapour lamp (MBF). Standard MBF
A further development of the SOX lamp is lamps are well established and Figure 4.16 shows a
the SOX-E lamp which is more economical typical lamp style. The discharge operates in a
having improved thermal insulation and increased quartz arc tube which is coated with a fluorescent
efficacy. Lamp wattages between 26 W and 131 W phosphor to improve colour rendering. The arc
have replaced the SOX lamp standard wattages tube contains argon gas and a small quantity of
between 35 W and 180 W. Increasing the internal mercury. The initial discharge takes place between
pressure mside a sodium-vapour lamp by 100000 an auxiliary electrode and one of the lamp’s main
times increases its colour rendering. electrodes. It then spreads across both main elec-
This improvement has led to the development trodes, taking several minutes to reach full bright-
of the SON lamp which is called a high pressure ness producing a cool white light that provides
sodiunr vapour lamp. These lamps operate in a acceptable colour rendering. Lamp efficacy values
sintered alimina arc tube containing sodium dosed range from 38 Im/W to 56 Im/W and wattages range
with mercury and argon or xenon as initial starting from 50W to 1000W and the restrike time is
gases. The arc tube (see Figure 4.16) is sealed into between 4 and 7 minutes. They find considerable
an evacuated outer jacket to reduce power loss and use in road and street lighting, public buildings and
also to prevent oxidation. Once started from high general amenity lighting. Other lamps of this type
voltage pulses the sodium vapour takes over, are: MBFR (internal reflector), MBFSD (internal
reaching full brightness within a few minutes. The phosphors ‘Super Deluxe’ to give improved colour
light produced is a pleasant golden-white light with rendering), and MBI (metal halide).
warm appearance and adequate colour rendering. There are several versions of metal halide lamp.
Several versions of the lamp are in use today, such The arc tube contains metal halides such as sodium
as the SON-E, SON-H, SON-R, SON-T, SON-TD, and gallium which have the effect of subduing the
SONDL-E and SONDL-T. mercury spectrum and increasing the light output
One development of this lamp, known as the and colour rendering of the lamp. The lamp is
SDW-T lamp is only 145 mm in length. It is a fitted with a GES cap and requires a high starting
single-end lamp with an efficacy of 40 Im/W and voltage from an ignitor. It reaches full brightness
a life expectancy five times longer than the GLS in 3-5 minutes but its restrike time may take up to
lamp. It produces a warm white light and finds con- 7 minutes. With efficacy values around 90 lm/W
siderable use in display lighting. and wattages between 250W and 2kW typical
The SON-E lamp, has a diffused ellipsoidal outer application of this lamp is in fashion stores, print-
bulb and is a single-ended lamp. This and the ing rooms, studio lighting and floodlighting.
SON-T lamp which has a clear tubular shaped outer
bulb have wattages ranging between 50 W and 1000
W. They are used mostly in warehouses, for road Lighting control
lighting, floodlighting and security lighting.
The SON-H lamp is a self-starting plug-in lamp It is often a requirement in general lighting
fitted with a GES cap. It is available in two sizes, schemes and special lighting installations such as
210 W and 350 W and takes about 5 minutes to stage lighting, television rooms, auditoriums, con-
reach full brightness, producing a golden white ference rooms, etc, to provide facilities for chang-
light to give fair colour rendering. Its efficacy is ing illuminance levels, not simply by the manual
about 90 Im/W and it takes 3 minutes to restrike switching of rows of luminaires ‘on’ or ‘off as and
after being temporarily switched off. It finds use in when required but by means of manual dimming
sports halls and public buildings. or automatic control. Dimming is a process of
75
 converting the stable a.c. supply into a variable out- With regard to discharge lamps, if a high-pres-
put voltage. In most incandescent lamp circuits it is sure mercury lamp refuses to light, it could be a
achieved by varying the potential difference across faulty lamp or no supply voltage or even open
a resistor connected in series with a capacitor. circuit wiring. It sometimes signifies the end of a
Increasing the value of the resistance increases the lamp’s life but it may be caused by insufficient
time taken for the capacitor to reach the necessary restrike time. If the lamp has a poor light output, it
switching voltage to allow a solid-state device to could mean end of life or that it is not connected to
conduct. A description and diagram of a simple the correct ballast tapping. An unstable or flicker-
dimmer circuit is given in Appendix 2.5. ing light may also mean the end of life approach-
In more complex lighting schemes where day- ing. A low pressure sodium lamp which does not
light linking is of prime consideration, one method light, generally means that the lamp has failed or
is to use photo-cells or sensors linked with high there is no supply voltage. It may be a problem
frequency regulation ballast (HFR). This can allow with the ignitor or with the ballast. Low light out-
the lighting levels of the installation to be varied put is a sign that its life has been reached. High
between 10% and 100% of full light output. pressure SON lamps have similar problems.

Lamp circuit faults EXERCISE 4

Incandescent lamp faults are not too difficult to 1. a) Figure 4.17 shows sketch of a GLS lamp.
trace since they do not require control gear. Faults Without reference to any other sources
are often due to lamp failure or enclosure damaged of information, label the components indi-
or perhaps the lampholder broken or loose con- cated.
nections. A GLS lamp is often near the end of its b) Explain why a GLS lamp is filled with an
useful life when the outer glass bulb looks black on inert gas.
top. To avoid the filament shorting out the lead-in c) A coiled-coil GLS lamp of 40 W produces
wire is fused. In the TH lamp, especially the linear 390 lighting design lumens. What is the
type, vibration or mis-alignment of its contacts may lamp’s efficacy?
be the reason why it is not working. It is important
to read lamp literature because some linear lamps
must only be operated within a few degrees of their
horizontal mounting position. With this lamp and
single-ended lamps, care must be taken to avoid
grease (from fingers) touching the outer quartz,
otherwise it will crack during operation at the high
internal temperature. It is important to see that the
wiring insulation directly connecting the lamp is
covered with high temperature sleeving.
In the MFC lamp, a number of causes of failure
could be attributable to lamp failure. For example,
a lamp that fails to strike, showing no signs of life,
could have a ruptured fuse, faulty tube or even
open circuit choke. If it appears to glow brightly at ee
both ends it is likely to be crossed connections or
short-circuit across the lampholder. If it only glows Figure 4.17. GLS lamps
brightly from one end then the problem is in the
starter switch. This is also a symptom of a lamp that 2. a) Briefly describe the following terms:
flashes ‘on’ and ‘off’ but it could also mean the end (i) luminous intensity;
of the lamp’s life or even low voltage. If both ends (ii) luminous flux;
of the lamp are blackened, it is probably the end of (iii) illuminance.
its life. Most problems are found by trial and error b) A SOX lamp has a poor colour rendering.
and the remedy found by replacing components. Why is this?
76
 c) With referefice to other sources of informa-
tion, draw a fully-labelled circuit diagram of
the SOX and its control gear.
- a) An incandescent lamp of luminous inten-
sity of 100 cd in all directions is to provide
40 lux on the surface of a bench directly Auxiliary
below the lamp. electrode
Determine the lamp’s distance from the Main electrode

surface using the inverse square law

method of finding illuminance.
b) If the lamp was lowered by 0.58 m, what
Main electrode
would now be the illuminance received on
the bench?
- a) A room measures 10 m x 8 m and requires
to illuminate to a level of 500 Ix by fluor-
escent luminaires each having lighting Figure 4.18 MBF discharge lamp
design Jumens of 4000 Im. Calculate the
total luminous flux and total number of b) What is the burning position of this lamp?
luminaires required if the maintenance c) State TWO applications.
factor and utilisation factor are 0.8 and 0.5 . a) Figure 4.19 is a circuit diagram of lamp dim-
respectively. mer circuit. What are the components X
b) What is meant by the term ‘maintenance and Y?
factor’? b) What is the connection called between X
- a) Describe how you would reduce glare from and Y?
an open type luminaire. c) What is the purpose of the resistor R and
b) What is the difference between localised capacitor C?
lighting and task lighting? 10. A high-pressure mercury vapour discharge
c) State TWO important factors to be consid- lamp (MBF) shows symptoms of light fluctuat-
ered in lamp selection. ing. State some of the possible causes.
. Explain with the aid of a circuit diagram the
operation of a fluorescent lamp started with a
glow-type starter switch.
. Figure 4.18 shows a high-pressure mercury
vapour discharge lamp.
a) What is the purpose of the auxiliary elec-
trode?
b) Why does the lamp refuse to light up im-
mediately after it has been switched off?
N
. a) Explain how the discharge occurs in a low-
pressure sodium lamp. Figure 4.19 Dimmer circuit

tM
 Appendix
Multiple-choice questions

Objective A ¢= 30d =20) 9 CC. Ga iO!

dia 0
B. ¢=40,4d=060 4. D%=20 di=4G
After reading this book you should be able to com-
plete the following multiple choice questions. . Which one of the following transposes the
A multiple-choice question comprises either a direct equation to find I from:
question or a statement followed by several sug- S = Vit
gested answers or completions called responses.
k
Only one of these responses is correct, the others are
distractors and are aimed at being plausible. In A 1=S*k2/t C 1l=Ske
general, four responses are provided and the reader B I= VSk/t D Il=VS*k/t
is required to select the letter A, B, C or D which
represents the correct response. . The earth fault loop impedance Z, for a
consumer’s circuit is given by the equation
Z,=Z,+ R, + R,. Which one of the following
INTRODUCTORY MATHS gives the equation for finding R,?

1. Which one of the following is the value of y POR She tein, CR 4e= 2a
when a = 5 and b = 2? B R= 2 7 re DR, SZ Z eR

y = (a + 3)(4.5 — b) . Using your calculator, which one is the solution

A 72 Cap to the problem, rounded off to two significant
B 54 D 18 figures?
V1.9 x 7.5 x 10 x 100
2. Which one of the following is the value of y for 222290325
the equation:
A 120 C 65
—2 B 83 D 47

A 5.0 C310 . Using your calculator, which one is the solution

B 45 ee to the problem to three decimal places?

3. Which one of the following is the value of: V3

x 415 x 18 x 0.7
0.85
10? x02
LO axel A 55365.882 C 6950.454
B_ 10655.169 D 2050.588
A 10° C1)
Bgl b- D 10° - Using your calculator, which one is the solution
to the problem to two decimal places?
4. Which one of the following is the value of c and
d for the simultaneous equation? 1 +
i
c-d = 10 (1] Oty 3.625?
c+d = 50 [2] A 0.64 C 0.44
B 052 D 0.41
78
- 10. What is the value of x? 16. Which one of the following is equal zero?

A sin 90° Cc tan 90°

B_ cos 90° D sin 45°

17. The ratio V3/2 is equal to:

A sin 60° C sin 30°
B sin 45° Dersinulios

R =0.03 18. The length of BC is:

A 0.04 C 0.02 Cc
B_ 0.03 DD Q01

11 With reference to the above figure the angle

A 750) EB
phi (¢@) is: ee
100 m
Pa o1° 369°
B 45.0° Dat?
A 100.0 m Cae 4am
12 B 86.75 m D 50.00 m
If the radius of a circle is 15 cm, its circum-
ference in metres is:
1; What is the length of side b?
A 1.00m € 04/m
B 0.94m D 030m
A
13 Which numerical ratio is equal to cos 45°?
A 3N2 C 1/2
B 2N2 D ON2
@) = Oe an
14. In a right-angled triangle, the ratio adjacent/
hypotenuse is called:
A 9.90 C590
A tand C. sec@d B_ 6.90 D 3.90
B sing D cos¢

15 What is the length of the hypotenuse side in 20. What is the length of side c in the above figure?
the right-angle triangle with two sides equal?
A 9.985 3.996
A-~3 Cc w3 Bw9,652 D 8.548
B 2 D v2

_ ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS

21. In Figure 2.1 the line indicated by the value
0.707 touches the sine wave in the positive
direction at:

A 50° and 140° Ce-45 7andleae

B 45° and 130° D502 and35-

79
22. The unit of all the following circuit quantities is 30. If the line current taken by a delta connected
the ohm EXCEPT: load is 20 A, the phase current 1s:

A resistance ¢ reactance A 1155A C 666A

B_ capacitance D impedance B_ 10.00A Dy 3248 4

23. A component with a zero power factor condi- 31. An a.c. connected load at unity power factor
tion consumes: takes a current of 12.5 A. What current does it
take at 0.5 power factor?
A 100% power C_ unity power
A 50.00 A © 027A
B 50% power D no power
B 25.00A D 0.00 A
24. An inductor is a component possessing:
32. Which type of component on a.c. provides a
A_ resistance and inductance leading power factor?
B_ resistance and capacitance A motor windings
C capacitance and inductance B fire-bar element
D resistance only C capacitor
D_ discharge lamp ballast
25; Increasing the supply frequency to an inductor
makes its reactance: 32. The value of Q is:
A smaller C larger
B- unchanged D oscillate P=12 kW

26. The total power taken by a 3-phase, 415 V

balanced load handling a supply current of 2A
with a power factor of 0.8 lagging is:

A 1992 W Cr Sa W.
B 1150 W D 664W

27. A SkW motor has a power factor of 0.7 lag-

ging. The effect on the circuit with a 6 kVAr A 28kVAr C 18kVAr
capacitor bank connected across its terminals is B 20kVAr D 16kVAr
to create a condition of:
34. The power factor in the above figure is:
A lagging power factor
B_ leading power factor ASP OS0 OFS
C. unity power factor B 0.85 D_ 0.60
D zero power factor
JD. An a.c. circuit most likely to produce this
28. The current taken by a 6 kW/240 V induction phasor diagram is:
motor having a power factor of 0.75 lagging is:

A 33.33A G 18.75 A
B 25.00A D 1111A

29. The power factor of a purely resistive compo-

nent connected to an a.c. supply is:
A resistance in series with capacitance
A unity C leading B_ inductance in series with resistance
B_ lagging D zero C_ resistance in parallel with capacitance
D capacitance in parallel with inductance
80
36. The current taken by the circuit is: 42. A motor develops an output power of 5 kW
when running at 24 rev/s. The torque it pro-
duces is:
R= 100 x,=509 X,=500
A 42.53 Nm C- 21.98 Nm
B 33.16 Nm Deis3rNm
/

43. The efficiency of a motor having a rated output

of 10.5 kW and total losses of 800 W is:
120 V A 92% C 775%
eae B 80% D 61%

A 12A C79 A. 44. The rotating magnetic field inside the stator of
B 10'A D2 Al a three-phase induction motor travels at:
A asynchronous speed
37. The power factor in the circuit above is: B- slip speed
C synchronous speed
A “unity¢ c D_ rotor speed
B leading D
45. A centrifugal switch is used in a single-phase
38. If the frequency of supply in the circuit for motor to:
question 36 were 50 Hz the inductance of the
coil would be: A open or close an auxiliary winding
B protect it from unintentional starting
A 15.90H C 159.0 mH C short circuit rotor bar conductors
Beet et D 15.9 mH D_ introduce reactance in the running winding

39. The potential difference across the capacitor in 46. An a.c. motor having a synchronous speed of
the above figure is: 25 rev/s and rotor speed of 24 rev/s produces a
per unit slip of:
A 600 V C 400 V
B 500V D 100 V A. 40,05 © 20.03
B 0.04 DP 0:02
40. The particular frequency which causes X, to
equal X‘. is called: 47. Which one of the following motors requires a
wound rotor?
ultra high frequency
A Universal series motor
very high frequency
B_ Capacitor-start motor
medium frequency
C Shaded-pole motor
al
Cheresonant frequency
D_ Slip-ring motor

48. To reverse the direction of rotation of a three-

phase cage induction motor, you should:
ELECTRIC MOTORS AND STARTERS A create a delta connection for the stator
41. A straight conductor of length 0.1 m is placed windings
in a magnetic field of magnetic flux density B_ create a star point at one end of the stator
20 T. When a current of 50 mA is passed windings
through it, it exerts a force of: C change the connections of two supply
phases
A 100N C1. EN D_ change the connections of all three stator
BAi0.N D 0.1N windings

81
 49. In the control circuit of a direct-on-line contac- Rotating magnetic field direction at synchronous
tor starter, stop buttons are connected in: speed
PTE ae eR eas
parallel with the no-volt coil
series with the no-volt coil Be
eye
eye
“e)
parallel with the overload trip
>
UQW
series with the main windings

50. A reason for giving a motor starter no-volt Rotor bar

conductor
protection is to avoid the motor:
1 2 3 4
A. restarting after a supply failure
B_ taking excess current in its windings be When a 415 V a.c. motor is connected to a star-
C_ running at different speeds delta starter, its star windings receive:
D_ running at excessive temperature
A 87% of the supply voltage
B 58% of the supply voltage
51. Figure 3.10 shows The circuit diagram is of a
C 45% of the supply voltage
three-phase:
D 10% of the supply voltage
A. star-delta-start, cage rotor induction motor
56. A three-phase cage induction motor has capac-
B_ direct-on-line-start, cage rotor induction
itors connected across its windings in order to
motor
improve the circuit:
C autotransformer-start, cage rotor induction
motor A power losses C_ voltage drop
D_resistance-start wound rotor induction B- power factor D_ protection
motor
S7. Which one of the following circuits shows the
correct connections for a split-phase resis-
52. Except where stated in a relevant British Stan-
tance-start induction motor?
dard, the IEE Wiring Regulations require every
motor exceeding 0.37 kW to be provided with A (a) C i
control equipment incorporating a means of: B (b) Dm
A surge control
B_ speed control
C_ reversing direction
D_ overload protection

53. To allow a motor to be stopped and started

remote from its working:
A start buttons are wired in series and stop
buttons wired in parallel
B _ start buttons and stop buttons are all wired
in series
C start buttons are wired in parallel and stop
buttons wired in series
D start and stop buttons are all wired in par-
allel

54. Which one of the following diagrams is correct

for the rotor direction of an induction motor?

A (1) C (3)
B (2) D (4)
82
58. The turning effort of a motor’s shaft is called: each lamp produces 5000 lumens, the efficacy
A torque C_ force of the whole luminaire is:
B - slip D acceleration A 71.43 lm/W C 58.84 Im/W
B_ 66.67 Im/W D_ 35.97 Im/W
2). Which one of the following would protect a
motor winding from overheating? 67. Which one of the following is called a SON
A residual current device lamp?
B_ thermistor A High-pressure sodium vapour discharge
‘C_no-volt coil lamp
D_ fuse B_ Low-pressure sodium vapour discharge
lamp
60. The winding end connections of a three-phase C High-pressure mercury vapour discharge
induction motor are: lamp
re Aten ee Re hc Res D Low-pressure mercury vapour discharge
B M,N,O Sc. lamp

68. A fluorescent tube fails to strike and there is no

ELEMENTS OF LIGHTING DESIGN end glow from the tube. All the following are
possible causes EXCEPT:
61. Which one of the following is not a colour of
the visible light spectrum? faulty tube
open-circuit choke
A yellow 2 green faulty starter
B- brown D red Cio
low voltage

62. A GLS incandescent lamps mostly emits: 69. A low-pressure SOX lamp produces a poor
A ultra-violet energy light output which appears mostly red. All the
B_ infra-red energy
following are possible causes EXCEPT:
C radio wave energy A failing lamp
D gamma-ray energy B_ wrong lamp ballast
Clamp voltage too high
63. The colour of a light source which reveals the D_ lamp voltage too low
colour of an object is called colour-
70. All the following lamps have excellent colour
A matching . rendering
rendering qualities EXCEPT:
B- appearance D visibility
A GLS lamp C MBF lamp
64. Which one of the following is used in the deter- B- SON lamp D MBI lamp
mination of utilisation factor?
A room index
B- maintenance factor
C_ working plane
D_ ceiling cavity

65. The ratio lumens/watt is called:

A. efficiency c efficacy
B~ luminous flux D illuminance

66. A lighting luminaire has controlgear losses of

10 W and twin lamps rated at 70 W each. If
83
 Appendix
Written questions

1. Figure A2.1 shows a block diagram, of some . Figure A2.3 shows a block diagram of some
important components in the control of a of the important components in the speed
washing machine. Briefly describe the oper- control of a motor. Briefly describe the opera-
ation of the components marked A, B, C, D, E tion of the components marked A, B, C, D
and F. and E.

O-fe
He hy]
B

Legend A - speed control

B - error detector
C — power amplifier
D - d.c. motor
E - tachogenerator
Legend A - water level sensor
B - water temperature sensor Figure A2.3 Motor speed control
C - controller
D —- pump
E — heater Figure A2.4 shows a block diagram of some
F — drum motor important components in the control of a d.c.
Figure A2.1_ Washing machine control power supply. Briefly describe the operation of
the components marked A, B, C and D.

. Figure A2.2 shows a block diagram of some

important components in the control of a space
heating system. Briefly describe the operation
of the components marked A, B, C, D, E, F,
and G. Legend A - transformer
B - rectifier
C - filter
D - stabiliser

Figure A2.4 Power supply

Figure A2.5 shows a block diagram of some

important components in the control of a
Legend A - room thermostat lamp dimmer. Briefly describe the operation
B - cylinder thermostat
C — programmer
of the components marked A, B, C, D, E, F
D - controller and G
E - fuel valve’
F —- pump
G — bolier

Figure A2.2 Space heating control

84
 a; (a) What is meant by the term ‘power factor’?
(b) The three-phase loads in a factory are as
follows:
(i) 120 kW of heating at unity power
factor
(ii) 240 kVA of inductive load at 0.8
power factor lagging.
Determine the total kVA and overall
power factor of the two loads assuming
they are balanced. Draw a phasor diagram.
Legend A - lamp (GLS)
B - variable resistor 10. (a) Explain the terms:
C - capacitor
(i) colour rendering and
D - diac
" E — triac (ii) discomfort glare
F — resistor (b) Figure A2.7 shows the lighting plan of a
G - capacitor room drawn to a scale of 1:100. Each lum-
Figure A2.5 Lamp dimmer inaire is fitted with a discharge lamp rated
* ¢ at 40 W/240V and having an efficacy of
. Figure A2.6 shows a block diagram of some 100 Im/watt. If the utilisation factor and
important components in the control of a secu- maintenance factors are 0.5 and 0.8 respec-
rity system. Briefly describe the operation of tively, determine the average illuminance
the components marked A, B, C and D. in the room.

Legend A - personal attack button

B - sensing devices
C - control unit
D — alarm
Figure A2.7_ Lighting layout
Figure A2.6 Security system

- (a) Draw a neatly labelled circuit diagram

of a single-phase capacitor-start induction
motor connected to the a.c. supply.
(b) State how reversal of direction is achieved.
(c) Describe the device inside a push button
type starter which can operate in the event
of a supply failure.

. (a) Draw the circuit diagram of a low-pressure

sodium vapour discharge lamp connected
to a single-phase supply.
(b) Describe how the discharge is started in
the SOX lamp.
(c) Explain why the SOX lamp is only suitable
for certain applications. State TWO of its
uses.

85
 Appendix
Answers

EXERCISE 1.1 9, AB =x-00A

1. ab(a’ + b) BC = 4-100A

2. a‘b? CD 32% =164

3. ABC = ABN + ACN DE =#—-123,4

ABNh + ZCNh EF = x%=199:4

%h (BN + CN) FG = 4+— 240%

but since 10. ate Py

BN+CN = BC OleX
= Vee Pe

ABC = 4BCh
4. A = Ilb—bh,A = 110 cm?
EXERCISE 1.2
Ly = 3
Ds cee
2. =
6. a,b, = ab,
ea 1S
but b, = b, +4,
4,.a=6
hence a,b, = a,(b, + 4)
5. eta 105
18b, = 16(b, + 4).
6. 9.106 x 10+
hence b, =o RCm
7. 5.209 So?
pees
2
OCI
8. 3.24 x 10°
The common area is 576 cm?
9. 145.67 or 1.46 x 10°
. Let the inside area of the conduit be mr? and
the outside area of the conduit be m7R?. Sub- 10. 9.21 x 10°
tract the inside area from the outside area,
11. x = 2,. y =-1
thus:
12% S11 y E76
A= TR = str?
13. SigseS ASS
= a(R? — r)
Tsp Ss ¢ 1
= 7(R+r)(R-71r)
VI = VALV A VAL wih) Dichgees Sed
= 71

16. AC = 52.82, CB = 113.288

= ULV ave tty)
The current cancels out on both sides of the
.R=2250, X= 19840
equal sign, leaving: . P = 146.97kW, $= 45.58°
Vo= VAY, + V, » b = 52.18°
86
20. S, = 4154 kVA, Q, =°33.175 kVAr
Sp = 2737 KVA
a= 2-2,
= 33,175 - 11.13
= 22.04 kVAr

EXERCISE 2
1. See page 116 of ‘Questions and Answers in
Electrical Installation Technology’ by same
author.
2. a) (i) X, = 62.840
(ii) Z = 65.950 Figure A3.2

(ii) 1 |= 364A 4.04) 20) Zee)

(iv) V, = 72.8V, V, = 228.7V Gi a 38
(v) cos d= 0.3 lagging (it) V, = 90 V, V, =*50V;
(vi) P 265 W Vi. = 270 V
b) see Figure A3.1 (iv) cos ¢ = 0.6 leading
(Oa = 210 W
b) see Figure A3.3

V, = 150V

f?\ her
2 V,=72.8V IreF

Figure A3.1

. a) (i) X, = 159.10
(ii) Z 166.8 ©
(iii) J = 144A
(iv) V, = 719 V, V, = 229V
(v) cos @ = 0.3 leading
(vi). P=. 103,05WV V, = 270V
b) see Figure A3.2 Figure A3.3

87
 . See page 117 of ‘Questions and Answers in
EIT’ by same author.
. See page 98 of ‘Questions and Answers in EIT’ YN Rotor

by same author.
. Your graph should be constructed along the

\\LIM) a
lines of Figure 2.2. Use a scale of 1cm = 1A
and 1 cm = 100 V. Answer: J = 2,12 A, V =
212 V
. See page 119 of ‘Questions and Answers in
EIT’ by same author
. See page 93 of ‘Questions and Answers in EIT’
by same author
' Flux
10. See page 90 of ‘Questions and Answers in EIT’ (first finger)
by same author.
| Motion ,
| (thumb)
EXERCISE 3 FAS are eee ae

1. See Figure A3.4

bomen
are ese = “Induced e.mf.
or current
(second finger)

Figure A3.5 Induced currents in rotor bar

conductors as a result of travelling magnetic field
(found by applying Fleming's right-hand rule). Note
the polarity of rotor.

4. a) Its main advantage is that it provides a

much higher starting torque. A disadvan-
Figure A3.4 Phase positions tage is in the extra cost of equipment
(more expensive motor and need for exter-
a) n, (rev/s) n, (rev/s) nal rotor resistance).

(i) 50 48.5 b) Start buttons are connected in parallel

while stop buttons are connected in series.
(iiyer $25 24.25
c) It mainly serves two purposes, namely:
(iii) 20 19
(i) acts as the main contactor coil and
b) The term is used to describe a fault condi-
tion resulting from an open circuit in a (ii) stops the motor from re-starting
winding of a three-phase motor. It is often automatically, immediately after a
caused by overheating and shorting out of supply failure.
the winding, leading to the rupturing of - (a) See Figure A3.6
line fuses.
(b).P = 135 kW. d= 794
- a) See Figure A3.5
n, = 47.5 rev/s
b) Anticlockwise
Note: For further information, see pages
c) Reverse the connections of its starting 109/110 of ‘Questions and Answers’ book by
"winding. same author.
 Manual / 9. The hoist is raised by pressing B1 which allows
start No volt coil current to flow through the normally closed
button contact B2 and coil HR to complete the control
Ppo\e22
eee:esi
22er
Accs: 2: circuit. This brings in contacts R1, R2 and R3
of the main circuit to operate the motor. To
lower the hoist, B2 is pressed and current flows
through the normally closed contact B1 and
Overload * coil HL to complete the control circuit. This
heater brings in contacts L1, L2 and L3 of the main
eee stop circuit to operate the motor. A similar proce-
ee dure operates the traverse motor. You should
notice the main contact wiring to see how
reversal of direction is achieved.
10. See Figure A3.7. The start button must be kept
Figure A3.6 Single-phase motor connections pressed until the switch is moved into the run
osition.
. P= 13.9kW ee
Hn # 0.82,p.u.
p.f-= 0.62 lagging EXERCISE 4
Note: For further information, see pages 1. a) See Figure A3.8
107/108 of ‘Questions and Answers’ book by b) See Chapter 4 text
same author.
c) 9.75 lm/W
- See Figure 3.32.
See chapter notes.
Glass bulb
Tungsten
L1 L2 L3 filament
Lead wire
Molybdenum
filament
supports
Dumet wire
Glass pinch
Fuse sleeve
Fuse
Cement
Exhaust tube
Lead wire
Cap
Soldered
contacts

Figure A3.8 GLS lamps

zZ. a) see Chapter 3

b) See Chapter 3
Stop C_ Start
c) a oee Figure A3.9
3. a) LSS in
Figure A3.7_ Hand-operated star-delta starter b) 100 Ix
showing contactor control
89
 Transformer
ballast
ANSWERS TO WRITTEN QUESTIONS
1. A-—The water level sensor is a pressure switch
which switches off the supply to the heater
element when sufficient water is obtained
SOX lamp
in the drum.
Capacitor
B — The water temperature sensor is a thermo-
stat which switches off the washing
N
machine heater elements when the desired
temperature has been reached. It provides
Figure A3.9 SOX lamp
a range of temperatures between 0-87°C.
- a 10° Im; 25 luminaires
C- The controller is a rotary timing device
incorporating electronic logic switching to
b) See Chapter 4 text sequence various washing operations such
as fill, agitation, spin, rinse and drain, etc.
- a) Enclose the luminaire with an opal plastic
diffuser. D — The drain pump is to remove water in the
drum of the washing machine after each
b) See Chapter 4 text wash or rinse.
c) See Chapter 4 text E — The heater is about 2.5 kW and is used for
raising the water to the correct operating
6. The operation and circuit diagram of this lamp temperature.
are described on page 53 of the Part 1 Studies F— The drum motor drives the drum at speci-
Theory book. fied speeds given to it by the controller.
7. See page 56 of Part 1 Studies Theory book. The motor is often a universal motor
designed to fast spin at speeds around or
8. See page 57 of Part 1 Studies Theory book. even higher than 16.67 rev/s.
9. The answer to this question is explained in
Appendix 2, Question 5. - A—The room thermostat operates on room
temperature changes. Once set to a
10. Low supply voltage, perhaps volt drop.
required level it will open or close the cir-
Faulty lampholder contacts
cuit according to the room temperature. If
End of lamp life
this is below the thermostat setting the cir-
Capacitor for p.f. wrongly connected. cuit will be closed and the heating pump
circulates hot water around the system.
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE B-The cylinder thermostat is the master
control thermostat of the boiler and oper-
QUESTIONS ates ‘on’ and ‘off’ at various selected tem-
1.C 15. D 29, A As NaS? peratures of heated water. It is normally
2 16. B 30. A 44, C 58. A set above the room thermostat and when
sak 17. A 21-8 45. A 59. B the correct temperature is reached it opens
4A. 18. C 32.0 46. B 60. A and closes a motorised flow valve which
SD lO) ott a, 47 2 Gt B switches off the pump.
6. C 20. A 34. D 48. C 62. B C-— The programmer is the user’s master con-
7 ar) a4 35. B 49. B 63°C trol box for selecting desired hot water and
8. B 59 8 RG Al 50. A 644 heating times. It incorporates a time clock
9. C 93.7) 37, A 51. D 650 for automatic operation of the heating SyS-
10. A 24, A au ara 50 F) 66. B tem every day of the week as well as sev-
11. A 5. ¢ 39, A Rae 67. A eral periods during each day. It also has
12-38 9650 40. D 54. D 68. D override facilities of the pre-set times.
Bc 39 Bp 41.. D 55. B 69. C D-—The controller is the device at the heart
14. D 28. A 42. B 56. B 70. B of the heating system, incorporating all
the electrical connections to operate the
oOoO
 boiler’s fuel feed system, motorised valves, The faster the shaft turns the higher the
pump, cylinder thermostat, etc. The feedback voltage will be.
switching functions of the controller are
often achieved electronically or through
various relays and coils. Voltage
E — The fuel valve control is a magnetic on/off Normal full-wave rectification
device for controlling the supply of fuel to
the boiler’s burner.
: : rE Z 3s Z ZN eee
voltage
F— The pump is used for circulating water \ \ 7 . pea
through the heating system’s radiators. It is ks Vel ey be smoothing
usually controlled by the room thermostat,
although the cylinder thermostat needs to
be closed to operate the boiler for heat.
G-The boiler provides the storage of the Tg
heated water. It incorporates the fuel burn- Figure A3.10 Results of using a filter in a power
er and safety control valve should the
supply
burner fail to ignite or suffer a fault.
4, A-—The secondary winding of the transformer
3. A-—The set speed component supplies a refer- reduces the a.c. supply voltage to a lower
ence signal to the error detector indicating value and feeds a full-wave bridge rectifier.
the deSired speed at which the d.c. motor B-The rectifier changes the transformed
should run. voltage into full-wave d.c. using four semi-
B — The error detector receives the reference conductor diodes. (For an explanation,
signal from the set speed component and see page 98 of Electrical Installation
also a feedback signal from the tachogen- Technology 2 by the same author.
erator. It compares both signals and feeds C-— The filter circuit smoothes out the unidi-
the difference into the power amplifier. rectional d.c. by eliminating the ‘lumpy’
C — The power amplifier, on receiving the error full-wave of the rectified d.c. It contains a
detector’s signal, drives the motor at the large capacitor called a reservoir capacitor
required speed. A small feedback signal and performs the function shown in Figure
would indicate that the motor was running A3.10.
too slow, whereas a large signal would indi- D —- The stabiliser is a voltage regulator used to
cate that the motor was running too fast. keep the d.c. output from the filter circuit
D — The d.c. motor is used to drive the mechan- at a fixed value and also reduce fluctua-
ical load. tions due to load changes (see page 61-62
E-The tachogenerator is coupled to the Part 1 Studies: Science book). Figure
driveshaft of the motor and the voltage it A3.11 is a typical power supply circuit
produces is fed back to the error detector. diagram.

Step down
Smoothing resistor Series resistor
transformer Bridge rectifier

Smoothing Zenner
diode

Figure A3.11 Power supply circuit

91
5. A-The GLS lamp has a tungsten filament passive infra-red detectors and wired in
which allows it to operate at about 2500°C. series or parallel back to the control panel.
It is wired in series with the triac compo- C- The control unit, in its simplest form, is
nent. often key-operated, incorporates a touch
B — The variable resistor is part of a trigger net- sensitive key pad, zone display, PA indica-
work providing a variable voltage into the tor, exit/entry and tamper facilities. Inside
gate circuit containing a series connected the unit will be a battery pack and the
diac component. Increasing the value of wiring connections to all the detectors,
the resistor, increases the time taken for visual strobe light and alarm bell.
the capacitor to reach its voltage level to D — The alarm bell is often housed in a box and
pass current into the diac circuit. Reducing placed in an inaccessible position high up
the resistance allows the triac to switch on on an outside wall. It will incorporate a
faster in each half cycle. By this adjustment tamper switch to stop the box cover from
the light output of the lamp can be con- being removed.
trolled from zero to full brightness. For further information of this circuit,
C- The capacitor is connected in series with see pages 63-65, Part 1 Studies Theor)
the variable resistor and both are designed book by the same author.
to produce a variable phase shift into the
gate circuit of the diac. When the p.d. 7. a) See Figure 3.23
across the capacitor rises, sufficient current b) See Chapter 3 regarding single-phase
flows into the diac to switch on the triac. induction motors.
D-The diac is a triggering device having a c) This is called the ‘under-voltage’ or ‘no-
relatively high switch-on voltage (35 V) volt’ release coil and is explained in
and acts as an open switch until the capac- Chapter 3 under the sub-heading of motor
itor p.d. reaches the required voltage level. protection.
E- The triac is a two-directional thyristor
which is triggered on both halves of each 8. See page 57 of Part J Studies Theory book by
cycle. This allows it to conduct current in the same author.
either direction of the a.c. supply. Its gate
is in series with the diac, allowing it to 9. (a) See ‘power factor’ in chapter 2 of this
receive positive and negative pulses. book.
F-A relatively high ohmic value resistor
(b) Answer 343.6 kVA. See Q152 of Questions
(100 () in series with a capacitor to reduce
and Answers in Electrical Installation
false triggering of the triac caused by mains
interference. Technology by the same author. Figure
G-—A relatively low value capacitor (0.1 uF) A3.12 is a phasor diagram of the circuit.
in series with F above and for the same
reason. The RC combination is called a 120 kW 192 kw
‘snubber circuit’.

27,144 kVA
6. A-—The personal attack button is intended to O
activate the alarm system when pressed fi
and is wired directly to the control panel.
It is fixed in an accessible position, near a
front door or adjacent to a bed.
Figure A3.12 Phasor diagram
B — The sensing devices are types of detector
used to initiate the alarm if an intruder
is present. They may be a combination 10. (a) See chapter 4 of this book.
of magnetic switches, pressure matts or (b) E = 400 Ix:

2:
 eee ee eek, Ge er ae
eee TERN ah le
erate tht A RR Se
NE Lae : Oe \ . a , - - Y = Las &

i
-
a
es
 LECTICRLSTALLATION
COMPETENCES.
Electrical Installation Competences: Part 2 Studies: Science
covers the underpinning science for the City and Guilds 236-8
Electrical Installation Competences scheme.

As well as giving a revision of the Part 1 course, Electrical

Installation Competences: Part 2 Studies: Science takes
students through and beyond the Part 2 syllabus.

The book provides an introduction to the mathematics required

for electrical installation, as well as sections on alternating
current circuits, electric motors and starters and elements of
lighting design, and prepares students for the Course C
Certificate.

Electrical Installation Competences: Part 2 Studies: Science

provides:
e alarge number of worked examples to demonstrate
principles clearly
e practical exercises that encourage students to learn for
themselves
e clear diagrams that assist learning
e comprehensive coverage of electrical principles at level 2.

Maurice Lewis is a well-known author of other Electrical

Installation titles and is currently an Electrical Safety
Consultant.