Structure of Plant Cell

Generally, plant cells are a lot bigger than animal cells, coming in more similar sizes and they
are typically cubed or rectangular in shape. Plant cells also have structural organelles that
are not found in the animals’ cells including the cell wall, vacuoles, plastids e. g Chloroplast.
Animal cells also contain structures that are not found in the plant cells such as, cilia and
flagella, lysosomes, and centrioles.

The typical characteristics that define the plant cell include cellulose, hemicellulose and
pectin, plastids which play a major role in photosynthesis and storage of starch, large
vacuoles responsible for regulating the cell turgor pressure. They also have a very unique
cell division process whereby there is the formation of a phragmoplast (a complex made up
of microtubules, microfilaments, and the endoplasmic reticulum) all assembling during
cytokinesis, to separate the daughter cells.
These organelles most of them are similar to the animal organelles performing the same
functions as those of the animal cell. Organelles have a wide range of responsibilities that
include everything from producing hormones and enzymes to providing energy for a plant
cell.
Plants cells have DNA that helps in making new cells, hence enhancing the growth of the
plant. the DNA is enclosed within the nucleus, an enveloped membrane structure at the
center of the cell. The plant cell also has several cell organelle structures performing a
variety of functions to maintain cellular metabolisms, growth, and development.

“Endoplasmic Reticulum is a complex network of tubular membranes exclusively present

in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell.”
The endoplasmic reticulum transpires in two forms: a type with a ribosome-studded surface
and another with a smooth surface. The latter is called the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, and the former is called the rough endoplasmic reticulum. These membranes
form continuous folds, eventually joining the outer layer of the nuclear membrane. Except
for sperm cells and red blood cells, the endoplasmic reticulum is observed in every other
type of eukaryotic cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum Diagram
The below diagram shows the variants of the endoplasmic reticulum:
 Rough ER
 Smooth ER
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes embedded within its structure, giving a
“rough” appearance. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have these ribosomes,
hence appearing “smooth.”
Structure of Endoplasmic Reticulum
The structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is shaped like a sac. Since ER is of two types,
each has its own distinguishing features:
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum is named so because of its appearance.
 It is a series of connected flattened sacs having several ribosomes on its outer
surface, hence the name.
 It synthesizes and secretes proteins in the liver, hormones and other substances in
the glands.
 Rough ER is prominent in cells where protein synthesis happens (such as
hepatocytes)
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Structure
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum, on the other hand, does not have ribosomes.
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum has a tubular form.
 It participates in the production of phospholipids, the chief lipids in cell membranes
and are essential in the process of metabolism.
 Smooth ER transports the products of the rough ER to other cellular organelles,
especially the Golgi apparatus.
Functions of Endoplasmic Reticulum
As stated above, the endoplasmic reticulum is categorised into two types, and both these
types of ER perform specific functions:
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:
 Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of essential lipids such as phospholipids
and cholesterol.
 Smooth ER is also responsible for the production and secretion of steroid hormones.
 It is also responsible for the metabolism of carbohydrates.
 The smooth ER store and releases calcium ions. These are quite important for the
nervous system and muscular systems.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Function:
 The majority of the functions of rough ER is associated with protein synthesis.
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role in protein folding.
 Also ensures quality control (regarding correct protein folding).
 The second most important function after protein synthesis and protein folding is
protein sorting.
 The Golgi apparatus is an organelle in eukaryotic organisms that moves molecules
from the endoplasmic reticulum to their destination. The organelle also modifies products
of the endoplasmic reticulum to their final form. The Golgi apparatus is comprised of a
series of flattened sacs that extend from the endoplasmic reticulum.
The main function of the Golgi apparatus is the ability to deliver vesicles, or packets of
various cell products, to different locations throughout the cell. The Golgi also has
important functions in tagging vesicles with proteins and sugar molecules, which serve as
identifiers for the vesicles so they can be delivered to the proper target. The organelle is
also called the Golgi complex or Golgi body.
Typically, proteins and cellular products are manufactured in the endoplasmic reticulum.
The rough endoplasmic reticulum has a number of ribosomes, which assemble proteins
from instructions contained in messenger RNA. Throughout the rest of the endoplasmic
reticulum, these protein products are folded and modified. As they reach the Golgi
apparatus, more modifications are made. Finally, the products are packaged within vesicles
which are “labelled” by other proteins and molecules. The vesicles are released and based
on their tags or labels they are carried to the appropriate location within the cell by
the cytoskeleton.
The Golgi apparatus has many discrete functions. But, all functions are associated with
moving molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum to their final destination and modifying
certain products along the way. The multiple sacs of the Golgi serve as different chambers
for chemical reactions. As the products of the endoplasmic reticulum move through the
Golgi apparatus, they are continuously transferred into new environments, and the
reactions that can take place are different.
”Chloroplast is an organelle that contains the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll that
captures sunlight and converts it into useful energy, thereby, releasing oxygen from
water”
Chloroplasts are found in all green plants and algae. They are the food producers of plants.
These are found in mesophyll cells located in the leaves of the plants. They contain a high
concentration of chlorophyll that traps sunlight.

Chloroplast has its own extra-nuclear DNA and therefore are semiautonomous, like
mitochondria. They also produce proteins and lipids required for the production of
chloroplast membrane. Chloroplasts are found in all higher plants. It is oval or
biconvex, found within the mesophyll of the plant cell. The size of the chloroplast usually
varies between 4-6 µm in diameter and 1-3 µm in thickness. They are double-membrane
organelle with the presence of outer, inner and intermembrane space. There are two
distinct regions present inside a chloroplast known as the grana and stroma.
 Grana are made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures known as thylakoids or
lamellae. The grana of the chloroplast consist of chlorophyll pigments and are the
functional units of chloroplasts.
 Stroma is the homogenous matrix which contains grana and is similar to the
cytoplasm in cells in which all the organelles are embedded. Stroma also contains
various enzymes, DNA, ribosomes, and other substances. Stroma lamellae function
by connecting the stacks of thylakoid sacs or grana.

The chloroplast structure consists of the following parts:
Membrane Envelope
It comprises inner and outer lipid bilayer membranes. The inner membrane separates the
stroma from the intermembrane space.
Intermembrane Space
The space between inner and outer membranes.
Thylakoid System (Lamellae)
The system is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous sacs called
thylakoids or lamellae. The green coloured pigments called chlorophyll are found in the
thylakoid membranes. It is the sight for the process of light-dependent reactions of
the photosynthesis process. The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana and each
granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
Stroma
It is a colourless, alkaline, aqueous, protein-rich fluid present within the inner membrane of
the chloroplast present surrounding the grana.
Grana
Stack of lamellae in plastids is known as grana. These are the sites of conversion of light
energy into chemical energy.
Chlorophyll
It is a green photosynthetic pigment that helps in the process of photosynthesis.
Functions of Chloroplast
Following are the important chloroplast functions:
 The most important function of the chloroplast is to synthesise food by the process
of photosynthesis.
 Absorbs light energy and converts it into chemical energy.
 Chloroplast has a structure called chlorophyll which functions by trapping the solar
energy and is used for the synthesis of food in all green plants.
 Produces NADPH and molecular oxygen (O2) by photolysis of water.
 Produces ATP – Adenosine triphosphate by the process of photosynthesis.
 The carbon dioxide (CO2) obtained from the air is used to generate carbon and sugar
during the Calvin Cycle or dark reaction of photosynthesis.
“Mitochondria are membrane-bound organelles present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells, that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the main energy molecule used by the
cell.”
Popularly known as the “Powerhouse of the cell,” mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion)
are a double membrane-bound organelle found in most eukaryotic organisms. They are
found inside the cytoplasm and essentially function as the cell’s “digestive system.”
They play a major role in breaking down nutrients and generating energy-rich molecules for
the cell. Many of the biochemical reactions involved in cellular respiration take place within
the mitochondria. The term ‘mitochondrion’ is derived from the Greek words “mitos” and
“chondrion” which means “thread” and “granules-like”, respectively. It was first described
by a German pathologist named Richard Altmann in the year 1890.
Structure of Mitochondria
 The mitochondrion is a double-membraned, rod-shaped structure found in both
plant and animal cell.
 Its size ranges from 0.5 to 1.0 micrometre in diameter.
 The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like
material called the matrix.
 The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and
phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space.
 The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has a large
number of special proteins known as porins.
Cristae
The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather complex in structure. It has many folds that
form a layered structure called cristae, and this helps in increasing the surface area inside
the organelle. The cristae and the proteins of the inner membrane aid in the production of
ATP molecules. The inner mitochondrial membrane is strictly permeable only to oxygen and
ATP molecules. A number of chemical reactions take place within the inner membrane of
mitochondria.
Mitochondrial Matrix
The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins.
It also comprises ribosomes, inorganic ions, mitochondrial DNA, nucleotide cofactors, and
organic molecules. The enzymes present in the matrix play an important role in the
synthesis of ATP molecules.
The most important function of mitochondria is to produce energy through the process
of oxidative phosphorylation. It is also involved in the following process:
1. Regulates the metabolic activity of the cell
2. Promotes the growth of new cells and cell multiplication
3. Helps in detoxifying ammonia in the liver cells
4. Plays an important role in apoptosis or programmed cell death
5. Responsible for building certain parts of the blood and various hormones like
testosterone and oestrogen
6. Helps in maintaining an adequate concentration of calcium ions within the
compartments of the cell
7. It is also involved in various cellular activities like cellular differentiation, cell
signalling, cell senescence, controlling the cell cycle and also in cell growth.