PREFACE

In a bid to standardize higher education in the country, the University Grants

Commission (UGC) has introduced Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) based on five
types of courses viz. core, generic, discipline specific elective, ability and skill
enhancement for graduate students of all programmes at Honours level. This brings in the
semester pattern which finds efficacy in sync with credit system, credit transfer,
comprehensive continuous assessments and a graded pattern of evaluation. The objective is
to offer learners ample flexibility to choose from a wide gamut of courses, as also to
provide them lateral mobility between various educational institutions in the country
where they can carry their acquired credits. I am happy to note that the university has
been recently accredited by National Assessment and Accreditation Council of India
(NAAC) with grade "A".
(Open and Distance Learning Programmes and Online Programmes) Regulations,
2020 have mandated compliance with CBCS for U.G. programmes for all the HEIs in
this mode. Welcoming this paradigm shift in higher education, Netaji Subhas Open
University (NSOU) has resolved to adopt CBCS from the academic session 2021-22 at
the Under Graduate Degree Programme level. The present syllabus, framed in the spirit
of syllabi recommended by UGC, lays due stress on all aspects envisaged in the
curricular framework of the apex body on higher education. It will be imparted to
learners over the six semesters of the Programme.
Self Learning Material (SLMs) are the mainstay of Student Support Services (SSS)
of an Open University. From a logistic point of view, NSOU has embarked upon CBCS
presently with SLMs in English / Bengali. Eventually, the English version SLMs will be
translated into Bengali too, for the benefit of learners. As always, all of our teaching
faculties contributed in this process. In addition to this we have also requitioned the
services of best academics in each domain in preparation of the new SLMs. I am sure
they will be of commendable academic support. We look forward to proactive feedback
from all stakeholders who will participate in the teaching-learning based on these study
materials. It has been a very challenging task well executed, and I congratulate all
concerned in the preparation of these SLMs.
I wish the venture a grand success.

Professor (Dr.) Subha Sankar Sarkar

Vice-Chancellor
 First Print : February, 2022

Printed in accordance with the regulations of the Distance Education Bureau

of the University Grants Commission.
 Netaji Subhas Open University
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
Under Graduate Degree Programme
Subject : Honours in English (HEG)
Course Title : European Classical Literature
Course Code : CC-EG-02
Module Unit Course Writers Course Editors
No. No.
1 1 Dr Aditi Sengupta
Associate Professor of English
Azad Hind Fouz Smriti
Mahavidyalaya, Domjur, Howrah
2 Professor Himadri Lahiri
3 Dr Srideep Mukherjee
2 4 Dr Shyamasri Maji
5 Assistant Professor of English
Durgapur Women’s College
6 Professor Himadri Lahiri Dr Jayati Gupta
3 7 Dr Srideep Mukherjee Formerly Professor of
8 English West Bengal State
9 Piyali Das University
10 Assistant Professor of English &
11 Gour Mohan Sachin Mandal Member, PG Board of Studies,
Mahavidyalaya, 24 Parganas NSOU
(S)
4 12 Dr Sharmistha Chatterjee Professor Ashok
13 Professor of English
14 Aliah University, Kolkata Sengupta Dr Srideep
5 15 Dr Pritha Kundu
16 Assistant Professor of English Mukherjee
17 Hiralal Mazumdar
18 Memorial
College for Women, Kolkata
Timeline Dr Debamitra Kar
Assistant Professor of English
Women’s College, Calcutta
Formatted by:
Dr Srideep Mukherjee
 : Board of Studies :
Smt Sandhya Sen, Formerly Reader in English, Sarojini Naidu College, Kolkata
Dr Jaydeep Sarangi, Principal, New Alipore College, Kolkata
Dr Bristi Basu, Associate Professor of English, Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata
Pritam Bandopadhyay, Associate Professor of English, WBES
Professor Ashok Sengupta, Dept. of English, Netaji Subhas Open University
Professor Himadri Lahiri, Dept. of English, Netaji Subhas Open University
Dr Md. Intaj Ali, Assistant Professor, Dept. of English, Netaji Subhas Open University
Dr Srideep Mukherjee, Associate Professor & Head, Dept. of English, NSOU
Professor Manan Kumar Mandal, Director, School of Humanities, NSOU, & Chairperson

Notification
All rights reserved. No part of this Self-Learning Material (SLM) may be reproduced
in any form without permission in writing from Netaji Subhas Open University.
Kishore Sengupta
Registrar
 Netaji Subhas UG : English
Open University (HEG)

Course Title : European Classical Literature

Course Code : CC-EG-02

Module-1: Introduction to European Classical Literature

Unit 1  Ancient Greece : History, Culture and Ideas 9-28

Unit 2  The Primary or the Oral Epic : The Development

of a Genre 29-41
Unit 3  Introduction to Greek Drama 42-56

Module-2: The Iliad (Book 1)

Unit 4  Homer the Poet 59-66

Unit 5  An Overview of Homer’s Iliad 67-80

Unit 6  Book 1—Detailed Analysis 81-104

Module-3: Sophocles : Oedipus, the King

Unit 7  Poetics : Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy 107-129

Unit 8  The Myth of Oedipus 130-147

Unit 9  Sophocles’ Treatment of the Myth 148-155
Unit 10  Analysing the Play 156-167
Unit 11  Themes and Characteristics 168-182
 Module-4: Ovid : Selections from Metamorphoses,
‘Diana and Actaeon’ (Book 3)
Unit 12  Roman History, Literature and Culture 185-192

Unit 13  Roman Poetry and Ovid 193-199

Unit 14  Text and Analysis 200-226

Module-5: Plautus: Pot of Gold

Unit 15  Society and the Beginnings of Comedy in Rome 229-235

Unit 16  From Menander to Terence : The Tradition of

Roman Comedy 236-243
Unit 17  Plautus and his Plays 244-250
Unit 18  Understanding the Text 251-271
Timeline 272-299
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  7

Module-1
Introduction to European Classical Literature
Unit 1  Ancient Greece: History, Culture and Ideas
Structure
1.1.0 Introduction
1.1.1 Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece:
(a) From Indo-Europeans to Mycenaeans
(b) Archaic Period
(c) Classical Greece
(d) Hellenistic Greece
(e) Fall of Ancient Greece
1.1.2 Greek Culture:
(a) Daily life in Greek City-States
(b) Religion and Festivals
(c) Arts and Entertainment
(d) Heroic Codes and Warfare
(e) Death and Afterlife
1.1.3 Greek Ideas That Changed the World:
(a) Architecture
(b) Philosophy
(c) Politics
(d) Literature
(e) Theatre
(f) Medicine
(g) Sciences
(h) Sports
1.1.4 Some Famous People of Ancient Greece
1.1.5 Legacy of Ancient Greek Civilization
1.1.6 Summing Up
1.1.7 Comprehension Exercises
1.1.8 Suggested Reading
10  CC-EG-02  NSOU

1.1.0 Introduction
The Introductory Unit of this Course seeks to familiarise you with the origins and
development of the ancient Greek civilization, with special focus on the socio-cultural
and political life of the Greek people. It also explores some eminent personalities whose
ideas revolutionised the world. After reading this Unit you will know about the different
periods of ancient Greek history and the ancient Greek way of life. This background
information will help you to understand and appreciate the Greek classics in translation
in your syllabus.

1.1.1 Rise and Fall of Ancient Greece

a. From Indo-Europeans to Mycenaeans:
Greece, also known as Hellas, is strategically situated in South-east Europe at the
intersection of Asia, Europe and Africa. Over the centuries, the boundaries of Greece
have changed but in ancient times the country consisted of the following regions:
Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands,
Thrace, Crete and the Ionian Islands. The second millennium BC (late Bronze Age) saw
the rise of ancient Greek civilization comprising of the Minoan civilization on the island
of Crete and on other Mediterranean islands and the Mycenaean civilization on the
mainland.
According to available historical evidence, the Mycenaeans were the first people in
the Mediterranean region that spoke the Greek language. However, the origins of Greek
identity and language go back earlier in history than Mycenaean times. During the great
migrations of nations, a branch of the Indo-Europeans migrated into Europe and
transformed the lives of the indigenous inhabitants of the region between the Ionian and
the Aegean seas. The Greeks are considered to be the descendants of this group of
invaders. The synthesis of the earliest Greek-speaking people with the earlier
inhabitants of the Mediterranean region produced the Mycenaean civilization. Before
the rise of Mycenaean civilization in mainland Greece, the Minoan civilization
flourished on the island of Crete. The Minoans, who did not speak Greek, built a
flourishing civilization before the Greek-speaking Mycenaeans. The Minoans differed
from the Mycenaeans but because the Minoans had close contact and exerted great
influence on the Mycenaeans, it is appropriate to study them as part of the early
history of Greece.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  11

 Minoan civilization:
The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and
other islands of the Aegean Sea that flourished from 3000 to 1450 BC and, after a
period of decline, ended around 1100 BC. Named after King Minos, the legendary ruler
of the island, the Minoan was an advanced civilization which has left behind large
architectural complexes—“palaces”, works of art, writing systems, instruments and
weapons, and evidence of a maritime trade network. The major settlements of the
Minoan civilization were in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Kato Zakros. The early
palaces were destroyed possibly by earthquakes but they were rebuilt on a grander scale
marking the height of Minoan prosperity. The sprawling palaces were multi-storied with
large central courtyards which may have been used for public ceremonies. Living
quarters, storage rooms and administrative centres were constructed around the
courtyard. The walls were decorated with colourful paintings. The rulers and their
attendants lived in the palaces while the general population lived in houses around the
palaces. In Greek mythology, King Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, lived in the
palace at Knossos, the centre of the Minoan civilization. He is best known for
constructing the Labyrinth—a network of passages— for the Minotaur (literally, the
‘bull of Minos’), a half-man, half-bull monster born to his wife, Pasiphae. The Minotaur
devoured sacrificial victims thrown into the Labyrinth. It was eventually killed by the
Athenian hero, Theseus.
 Mycenaean civilization:
The Mycenaean civilization was the last phase of the Bronze Age that flourished in
ancient Greece approximately from 1600 to 1100 BC and ended around 1000 BC.
Named after its most famous archaeological site—Mycenae—it was the first distinctive
Greek civilization on the Greek mainland. Other major settlements were in Tiryns,
Pylos, Thebes, Argos, Sparta and probably Athens. Though all Mycenaeans spoke the
Greek language, the Mycenaean Greece was not an empire; it was a confederacy of
independent city-states, each with its own king, such as, Agamemnon of Mycenae,
Oedipus of Thebes and Menelaus of Sparta.
The close contact of the Mycenaeans with the earlier Minoans is evident from the
ruins of Mycenaean palaces, wall-paintings, pottery, jewellery, weaponry and their
writing system. Unlike the Minoan palaces, Mycenaean palaces were built on hills and
fortified with massive Cyclopean walls named after Cyclopes, the one-eyed giants in
Greek mythology. The later Greeks believed only giants could have built the massive
12  CC-EG-02  NSOU

hill-top fortifications. The palaces were built around a large hall or the ‘Megaron’.
There were living quarters in the palaces and separate spaces for administrative work,
storage and workshops. The palaces were decorated with fresco paintings on the walls
and floors. The Mycenaean palaces—with the exception of Pylos—were constructed for
defence against other Mycenaeans, or perhaps seaborne invaders. All of them were
located close to the sea because the Mycenaeans were a seafaring people. They
dominated the Mediterranean region in wars and commercial rivalry and probably put
an end to the Minoans of Crete. The Mycenaean civilization reached the height of its
prosperity between about 1300 and 1200 BC and collapsed around 1100 BC owing to
natural disasters like earthquakes and volcanic explosions or internal strife and invasion
from foreign tribes.
Both the Minoans and the Mycenaeans remained unknown to the modern world for
centuries before their archaeological discovery in the 19 th century. They existed in the
writings of later Greeks, like the poet Homer, a native of Ionia (Asia Minor), who
composed The Iliad and The Odyssey in 8th century BC. You can go through the links
given below for better understanding:
Sources:
Ancient Greece: From Indo-Europeans to Mycenaeans—Brewminate
The Minoan Civilization (penfield.edu)
The Mycenaean Civilization (penfield.edu)
b. Archaic period:
The collapse of the Mycenaean civilization was caused by the Dorian invasion and
led to the Greek Dark Ages (1100 to 800 BC). The Dorians were wild northern Greek
tribes that migrated to settle in the southern Aegean region. Culturally, they were
probably inferior to the Mycenaeans, but they ushered in the Iron Age of Greece and
influenced the later development of Greek art. However, by 800 BC there was a revival
of Greek civilization and new settlements appeared marking the end of the Dark Ages
and the transition into the Greek Archaic Period.
The Archaic period (800 to 480 BC) saw a significant increase in the Greek
population and changes in Greek language, culture, society, art, architecture and politics
and international relations. New socio-political ideas and organizations emerged, the
most important of which was Democracy. Draco, the first legislator of Athens, wrote
laws that were to be enforced by a court. However, Draco’s rather harsh laws were
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  13

abolished later by Solon, a Greek statesman. Solon wrote another code of laws that
equalized political power and laid the foundation of Athenian democracy.
The process of “synoecism” or urbanisation i.e. the merger of several small
settlements into one urban centre took place during this period. Initially, the polis (city-
state) was a hill-top citadel which offered protection during war; later the poleis (plural
of polis) evolved into urban centres that exerted control on surrounding regions which
provided resources and paid taxes. Some of the most important city-states were Athens,
Sparta, Thebes, Corinth and Delphi. All Greek city-states functioned independently and
followed different forms of governance, such as monarchy, oligarchy and proto-
democracy. But the Greeks were unified by traditions like the Pan-Hellenic games i.e.
athletic competitions among representatives of different city-states, such as the
Olympics which emerged around 776 BC. The increasing population of the city-
states led to colonization and hundreds of Greek settlements were established in Ionia
on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black seas. Greek colonies led to the spread of
the Greek language and Greek culture, but it also resulted in conflict with the
neighbouring Persian Empire, culminating in the series of Persian Wars in the 5 th
century BC. The Archaic Period came to an end with the expulsion of the Persians from
Greece after the battles of Plataea and Mykale in 479 BC. You can go through the
links given below for better understanding:
Sources:
Greek Dark Age—World History Encyclopedia
Greek Archaic Period—World History Encyclopedia
c. Classical Greece:
The Classical Period of ancient Greece (480 to 323 BC) began with the Greek
victory over the Persians when Athens emerged as the most powerful city-state under
the leadership of Pericles, an Athenian general and statesman. The Athenian leader,
Cleisthenes introduced the political system of demokratia, or “rule by the people”
(demos, “the people,” kratos, “power”) in 507 BC. It is believed to be the first known
instance of ‘democracy’ in the world. Pericles strengthened democracy by
providing salaries to public officials which allowed all Athenian citizens to participate
in governance irrespective of their socio-economic status. Pericles also rebuilt parts of
Athens that were destroyed by the Persian invaders, such as the magnificent Parthenon,
dedicated to the goddess Athena. Under Pericles, Athens entered a golden age known
14  CC-EG-02  NSOU

for great artists, philosophers and writers. Historians like Herodotus and Thucydides,
philosophers like Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, Hippocrates, the physician, Phidias, the
sculptor, Democritus, the scientist and playwrights like Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles
and Aristophanes all lived and worked in and around Athens during this period.
Athens organized a confederacy of allies called the Delian League (478 BC) to
protect faraway Greek settlements from Persian attacks. However, resistance to Athens’
growing power among the other Greek city-states, particularly Sparta and its allies
Corinth and Thebes, led to the Peloponnesian War (431 to 404 BC). The war ended with
the complete defeat and fall of Athens which was absorbed into the Spartan Empire.
Conflict soon broke out between Sparta and her allies and after a series of battles
none of the southern city-states were in a position to take control over Greece. A new
power started gaining influence in northern Greece—Macedonia. Hitherto a small
kingdom, it came to dominate the entire Hellenic world and beyond owing to the
personality and policy of Philip II and his son, Alexander. Phillip II politically unified
the Greek city-states by creating the League of Corinth or the Hellenic League (337
BC). He wished to conquer the Persian Empire but was assassinated in 336 BC. His
son, Alexander the Great, one of the greatest military generals in history, fulfilled his
father’s vision. Alexander led the Hellenic League in a long military campaign and
conquered the Persian Empire, making Macedonia the most powerful empire in the
world. Alexander’s Macedonian Empire extended from Greece to India. Alexander died
in 323 BC without an apparent heir. Consequently, the Macedonian Empire
disintegrated soon after his death. However, Alexander’s conquests brought people of
diverse cultures residing around the Mediterranean and South-west Asia under Greek
influence and led to the emergence of a distinctive Hellenistic culture. You can go
through the links given below for better understanding:
Sources:
The Classical Age (500-336 BC) (penfield.edu)
Classical Greece—HISTORY Macedonia
—HISTORY
d. Hellenistic Greece:
Alexander ushered in the Hellenistic Period of ancient Greece (323 to 31 BC) when
Greek culture spread across Europe, Asia and Africa. The word “Hellenistic” comes
from the word Hellazein, which means “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.”
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  15

The Hellenistic period saw the Wars of the Diadochi (“Successors”) or the ambitious
generals of Alexander who divided the Macedonian Empire into three major kingdoms.
Ptolemy established his control over Egypt and parts of the Middle-East; Seleucus took
over Syria and the remnants of the Persian Empire, while Antigonus brought
Macedonia, Thrace and parts of Asia Minor under his authority. Most of the city-states
of the classical Greece such as Athens, Corinth and Thebes continued to flourish
independently.
Though marked by war and conflict, the Hellenistic period saw the spread of Greek
culture and language and the flourishing of the arts, science and philosophy. This era
also saw the rise of New Comedy, Alexandrian poetry and the philosophies of Stoicism
and Epicureanism. Alexandria in Egypt emerged as a great centre of learning and
scholarship. The Library of Alexandria, one of the important libraries in world history,
with its vast collection of scrolls attracted some of the greatest Greek thinkers of the
time, such as Archimedes, Aristarchus, Hero, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus and Euclid. The
socio-cultural religious life of Hellenistic Greece was marked by syncretism. Although
ancient Greece was at the height of its power in the Hellenistic Period, this era also
marked its decline and eventual conquest by the Roman Empire.
Source:
Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age (penfield.edu)
e. Fall of ancient Greece:
Like all civilizations around the world, ancient Greece fell into decline and was
conquered by the Romans. The Hellenistic era showed signs of both socio-cultural and
political decline. Firstly, the Greek city-states failed to maintain democratic ideals.
Democracy transformed into imperialism and gradually faded out after 400 BC. Greek
society became polarised into rich and poor, privileged and exploited, citizens and non-
citizens (slaves and resident aliens), leading to class-struggles. Politically, years of
conflict between the Greek city-states weakened them and also destroyed the sense of
community among Greeks. In a way, the conflicts between Alexander’s successors can
be regarded as repetition of the conflicts between the city-states on a larger scale. The
Greek colonies functioned independently and were not strong allies of Greece any more.
Consequently, Greeks failed to unite against common enemies. Conflicts with Persia,
Macedonia and Rome, were the three stages of the decline of ancient Greece. Finally,
the Roman Empire emerged as the greatest threat to the Greeks during the late
Hellenistic period. There were a series of conflicts between the Roman Republic and
16  CC-EG-02  NSOU

various Greek city-states until the Romans decisively defeated the Greek Achaean
League and ransacked the city of Corinth (146 BC). The Roman control over Greece
was established after the Battle of Actium (31 BC) and the conquest of Alexandria (30
BC).
However, Greece did not decline as a culture after the Roman conquest. The spirit
of Greek civilization exercised a great influence upon Rome. The Romans adopted
Greek culture as their own and spread it all over Europe.
Source:
The Causes of Greek Decline on JSTOR.

1.1.2 Greek Culture

a. Daily life in Greek city-states:
Although Greek city-states functioned independently, the way of life was quite
similar across Greece. In Greek society, men enjoyed the legal status of a citizen, right
to vote, hold public office and own property. Other social groups—women, children,
slaves and foreigners—often made up the majority of the population and had defined
roles within the community. Women’s roles were largely confined to managing the
household. The only exception was Sparta where women could own and manage
property. Slaves were essential to the Athenian economy for cultivation and
construction work. A sense of solidarity was fostered among the citizens through
socialising in common public spaces (agora) and festivities.
While Greek men took an active part in the public life of the polis, their daily
lives were centred on the home. They left home each day to work in their fields or in
the town. The prosperity of the Greeks was based on agriculture and trade. The Greeks
lived in simple houses made of mud bricks, built around an open courtyard with an altar
at the centre. The men and the women had separate living spaces. Food was cooked over
a fire in the kitchen. Both men and women dressed in tunics and used shawls and cloaks
while travelling. Greeks usually went barefoot at home, but wore leather sandals
outdoors. The ancient Greeks kept themselves busy in work, public duties and
entertainment in their daily lives.
b. Religion and festivals:
Ancient Greek religion originated from a collection of beliefs and rituals. The
ancient Greek pantheon consisted of twelve major deities of Mount Olympus led by
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  17

Zeus, the king of the Gods. The Greeks also worshipped deities of nature, the
underworld, heroes and revered ancestors. Gods were worshipped at sacred sites and in
massive temples in Greek city-states, like the temple of Athena in the Parthenon of
Athens and the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Offerings and sacrifices were essential acts
of worship. The Greeks believed in oracles which were believed to be portals through
which the gods spoke directly to people. The oracles of Apollo at Delphi and Zeus at
Dodona were the most famous in ancient Greece. The sibyls (female oracles) and seers
were believed to have the ability to predict the future or speak for the gods. Pan-
Hellenic games were held as part of worship, such as the Olympics in honour of Zeus,
Pythian Games in honour of Apollo, Isthmian Games in honour of Poseidon and
Nemean Games also in honour of Zeus. Besides community worship, the Greeks built
shrines in their homes for household deities.
The Greeks deities were anthropomorphic or created in human forms. The god and
goddesses displayed human qualities, interacted with humans, and even had children
with them. They also competed and fought among themselves. In The Iliad, Hera,
Athena, Thetis favoured the Greeks in the Trojan War; Aphrodite, Apollo, Poseidon
supported the Trojans, while Zeus remained uncommitted.
c. Arts and entertainment:
Ancient Greek art emphasized the accomplishments of craftsmen. Through their
temples, sculpture and pottery, the Greeks exhibited the fundamental principle of their
culture – arête or ‘excellence’. The art of pottery, particularly the decorative vase
paintings dating from the 7th century BC are of special significance as they provide
information about the culture of ancient Greece. Archaeologists believe that the vase
paintings were inspired by the earlier wall paintings in the Minoan palaces.
The Greeks led a relaxed life when they were not fighting wars and enjoyed a
variety of entertainments such as the symposium, athletics and the theatre. The
symposium was a ritualised drinking occasion accompanied by music, dancing, recitals
or intellectual conversation. They were hosted by wealthy men in their homes.
Plato’s Symposium and Xenophon’s Symposium refer to these events. Athletic competitions
were an important part of Greek culture. The most important athletic contests were the
four Pan-Hellenic festivals – the Olympic Games in honour of Zeus at Olympia; the
Pythian Games in honour of Apollo at Delphi; the Isthmian Games in honour of
Poseidon at Corinth; and the Nemean Games, also in honour of Zeus at Nemea. Theatre,
18  CC-EG-02  NSOU

an integral part of religious festivals, was a major source of entertainment in ancient

Greece. The oldest theatron (“theatre”) was that of Dionysus on the south slope of
the acropolis of Athens built in the 6 th century BC. Apart from these special occasions,
the ancient Greeks enjoyed visits to the agora (“gathering place”) in the city-states and
the gymnasiums which were the focal points of Greek community life.
d. Heroic code and warfare:
The ancient Greeks were driven by a desire for glory and a fear of shame for Greek
society valued heroic success in battles above everything else. The ultimate goal of
Greek heroes was kleos or everlasting fame and glory that could be achieved by dying
violent deaths on the battlefield. Homer sums up the Greek heroic code in three words:
aristos, arete and aristeia i.e. the hero’s single-handed success whereby he displays his
fighting skills. By following this code, a Greek warrior earned his glory that ensured his
place in the memory of his community.
The ancient Greeks were regularly engaged in warfare both at home and overseas
for a variety of reasons—defence of autonomy, territorial expansion and honour. The
Greek warrior was heavily armoured with a long spear, a sword and a circular bronze
shield and sometimes a bronze helmet (with brightly coloured horsehair crest),
breastplate, leg and ankle guards. Combat was bloody and lethal giving the warrior a
chance to display his heroism. The ancient Greeks developed a new style of warfare: the
hoplite phalanx. Hoplites were armed infantrymen and the phalanx was a rectangular
formation of these soldiers with their shields locked together and spears pointed forward
over the first row of shields that made them almost a single impenetrable unit.
e. Death and afterlife:
The ancient Greeks treated death as a rite of passage from this world into the next.
They believed in an afterlife and had elaborate burial rituals. There were three stages of
the burial: the preparation and laying out of the body for friends and relatives to mourn
and pay respect, the pre-dawn funeral procession and the cremation or burial. The
Athenians cremated their dead and placed their ashes in an urn. In earlier times animal
and even human sacrifices were made at the graveside. Grave monuments were often
erected in memory of the deceased. Slaves were given a simple burial because it was
believed that slaves did not have an afterlife. Greek heroes dying in the battlefield were
buried with impressive rituals, though ordinary soldiers were cremated.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  19

The ancient Greeks believed all human beings were mortal and after death the soul
(psyche) entered Hades, the world of the dead. In Greek mythology, the boatman
Charon ferries the souls delivered to him by Hermes across the water (the river Acheron
or Styx) to Hades. Cerberus, a three-headed dog guards the gates of the Underworld. In
the early Mycenaean civilization all the dead went to Hades, but during the Archaic Age
the Greeks conceived the underworld in terms of the Tartarus and the Elysium. Tartarus
was a place of torment for the wicked, while Elysium was the place of pleasures for the
virtuous. Greek heroes like Achilles, who fought in the Trojan War, were believed to
live in Elysium.
Some Greek philosophers had different ideas of death and afterlife.
Pythagoras and Plato preached the idea of reincarnation, while Epicurus rejected the
possibility of afterlife and the concepts of reward or punishment after death. However,
these ideas were accepted only by a few Greeks. You can go through the links given
below for better understanding:
Sources:
Daily Life in Ancient Greece (Collection) - World History Encyclopedia
Common Beliefs and Practices in Ancient Greek Religion—Brewminate
ANCIENT GREEK ART, PAINTING AND CRAFTS | Facts and Details
Ancient Greek Warfare—World History Encyclopedia

1.1.3 Greek Ideas That Changed The World

a. Architecture:
The ancient Greek architectural styles were of three prominent types: Doric, Ionic
and Corinthian orders. The Doric order originated during the Archaic Period when
monumental temples were built, the most famous being the Parthenon of Athens. The
Ionic order originated in in Ionia. The Temple of Hera on Samos and the Temple of
Artemis at Ephesus were splendid specimens of this style. The Corinthian order derives
its name from the city of Corinth and was adapted in the Indian sub-continent creating
the Greco-Buddhist Gandhara School of art.
b. Philosophy:
Ancient Greek philosophy arose in the 6th century BC and continued to develop
even after the Roman invasion when Greece became a part of the Roman Empire. Greek
20  CC-EG-02  NSOU

philosophers thought about and expressed their ideas about human nature, ethics and
morality. Pre-Socratic philosophers, like Pythagoras, investigated natural phenomena.
The Socratic philosophers—Socrates, Plato and Aristotle – were the most well-known
of all Greek philosophers. Socrates taught his pupils by asking thought-provoking
questions. Xenophon and Plato wrote down Socrates’ teachings which contain his views
related to ethics, virtue, justice and other aspects of human behaviour. Plato had political
aspirations and regarded any political system devoid of philosophy as fundamentally
corrupt. His works such as the Republic, describes a wise society run by a philosopher.
Plato established his Academy at Athens for imparting education. Aristotle was Plato’s
student, and under his guidance studied ethics, science and politics. However, Aristotle
disagreed with Plato on many points. Nicomachean Ethics, Poetics and On the Soul are
some Aristotle’s famous works. Aristotle established his own academy, the Lyceum in
Athens. The Post-Socratic philosophers focused their attention on the individual rather
than on community and established four prominent schools of philosophy:
Cynicism, Skepticism, Epicureanism and Stoicism.
c. Politics:
The ancient Greek city-states were independent self-governing entities. The word
‘politics’ comes from Greek politiká, “affairs of the cities” or activities associated with
power structures and relations among people residing in the Greek city-states. The very
notion of democracy was derived from the Athenian political system called demokratia,
or “rule by the people” (demos, “the people,” kratos, “power”). The Athenian system
was a direct democracy—all male citizens were allowed to vote and debate on state
affairs. However, not all Greek philosophers believed in the democratic practices.
Socrates defended the democratic system but objected to the democracy that was
practised in Athens for which he was put to death. Plato distrusted democracy and
proposed an aristocracy i.e. the rule of philosopher-kings. Aristotle feared that
democracy could degenerate into mob rule and favoured rule by polity or political
groups.
Another ancient Greek concept that influenced the modern political systems was the
written constitution. Aristotle researched and recorded the constitutions of 158 ancient
Greek city-states and used them to write his Politics. This work is a major source of
knowledge of the development of Athenian democracy and the workings of the
Athenian city-state.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  21

d. Literature:
Ancient Greek literature consists of the oldest surviving written works from the
Archaic Period till the 5th century AD. Homer’s epics The Iliad and The Odyssey (8th
century BC) are considered to be the oldest extant works of Western literature. The Iliad
recounts some of the significant events of the final weeks of the Trojan War and the
Greek siege of the city of Troy while The Odyssey is the story of Odysseus, king of
Ithaca, who wanders for ten years after the Trojan War. Homeric epics enshrined the
heroic ideals of Greek culture and civilization. Homer’s contemporary, Hesiod, is
generally regarded as the first poet in the Western tradition. The Greeks invented the
drama, both tragedy and comedy. Aeschylus (The Oresteia), Sophocles (Oedipus Rex)
and Euripides (Medea) are the famous Greek tragedians whose works inspired
Aristotle’s Poetics, the famous study of Greek dramatic art. Aristophanes (The Frogs)
was the greatest writer of ancient Greek comedy who made fun at politicians,
philosophers and fellow artists through his plays. Though very little of it survives; the
ancient Greek plays are regarded as some of the greatest literary achievements till
this day.
e. Theatre:
Greek theatre began in the 6 th century BC in Athens with the
performance of tragedy plays at religious festivals. Annual theatre festivals were held to
honour Dionysus, the god of theatre, to promote peace between individuals and city-
states. Theatre buildings or the theatron were large, open-air structures with the seating
built on the natural slopes of hills pointing down towards the stage. The oldest theatre
of ancient Greece was that of Dionysus on the south slope of the acropolis of Athens.
The popular forms of theatre were the tragedy and the comedy. Initially, only one actor
was allowed on the stage at a time. Later, Aeschylus introduced the second actor and
Sophocles the third one. Professional actors emerged when theatre became competitive
festivals lasting several days. Thespis was the first known actor to appear on stage;
hence ‘actors’ are sometimes referred to as ‘thespians’ after him. Ancient Greek actors
were always men, even if they were playing female roles. Women were excluded from
the theatre in ancient Greece. The actors dressed in elaborate costumes and masks were
an important part of their performance. Actors were held in high regard in the ancient
Greek world.
f. Medicine:
Ancient Greek philosophy led to the development of medicine as Greeks learnt to
rely more on natural solutions instead of divine grace for healing. Two factors that
22  CC-EG-02  NSOU

encouraged the Greeks to keep healthy and seek healing were warfare and sports.
Hippocrates, who is regarded as “the father of medicine,” established a medical school
at Cos. He developed the theory of the four humours—blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and
black bile—which needed to be kept in balance for good physical and psychological
health. It was believed that illness would occur when the humours were not in balance.
This theory remained popular in Western Europe until the 17th century. Hippocrates and
his followers were the first physicians to describe and document several diseases in the
Hippocratic Corpus which is a collection of around sixty ancient Greek medical works.
However, many Greek physicians still appealed to the gods if their treatments did not
work. Asclepius, the Greco-Roman god of medicine was the son of Apollo (God of
healing). He learnt the art of healing from the centaur, Chiron. The temples dedicated
to the worship of Asclepius were later transformed into gymnasiums, public baths and
stadiums.
g. Sciences:
The Greeks made major contributions to mathematics and science that influenced
Western ideas about astronomy, geography and mathematics for centuries to come.
Early Greek philosophers were also scientists who observed and studied the natural
world – the earth, seas and mountains, as well as the solar system, planetary motion, and
astral phenomena. Pythagoras proposed the idea of a spherical Earth around 500 BC
which was validated later by Aristotle. Eratosthenes calculated the circumference of the
Earth around 240 BC while Aristarchus presented the heliocentric model of the
universe with the Sun at the centre and the Earth revolving around it once a year and
rotating about its axis once a day. In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes invented the
science of mechanics; hydrostatics and one of the most fundamental concepts of physics
i.e. centre of gravity. The basic ideas about geometry and the concept of mathematical
proofs were propounded by Greek mathematicians such as Pythagoras (500 BC) and
Euclid (300 BC). Hypatia (350-415 AD), the first woman teacher of mathematics and
philosophy of the Hellenistic school, had a social ranking equal to Alexandria’s most
important men. But she was killed by a mob of Christian men which marked the end
of paganism and the triumph of Christianity. Thus, many ideas and inventions that are
used in the modern world have their origins in ancient Greece.
h. Sports:
Games in ancient Greece were held as parts of religious festivals. The earliest
record of Greek athletics is from Homer’s The Iliad which describes how Achilles
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  23

organized funeral games for his dead friend, Patroklos. By the Archaic Period Greek
athletics were associated with competitions for glory and status. Before participating in
these events, the athletes prayed and dedicated their performances to deities. The Greek
Olympics began in 776 BC as a way of paying tribute to Zeus, every four years in
Olympia. Pentathlon (“five events” – running, long jump, discus throw, javelin throw,
and wrestling) and chariot racing were some of the earliest events. The winners were
honoured with crowns or olive leaves. The Olympics inspired similar athletic
competitions elsewhere, like the Pythian Games sacred to Apollo at Delphi, the Isthmian
Games sacred to Poseidon at Corinth and the Nemean Games also sacred to Zeus at
Nemea. Besides these events, the city-states organised Olympic-like local games
offering valuable prizes. Winning was important for a Greek athlete for victory brought
glorious fame. As the prominence of athletics increased in ancient Greece, as part of
religious festivities, they were eventually suppressed by Christian emperors out of
concerns about pagan piety. You can go through the links given below for better
understanding:
Sources:
Ancient Greek Philosophy | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (utm.edu)
Greek Theatre—Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek Science—World History Encyclopedia
Greek Athletic Competitions—A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and
Roman Antiquity—Wiley Online Library

1.1.4 Some Famous People of Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece was one of the greatest civilizations in human history. This section
is dedicated to some of the famous Greek personalities whose actions and contributions
in various domains such as, philosophy, arts, war, literature, science and politics exerted
an enormous impact on subsequent cultures of the world.
1. Alexander:
Alexander III of Macedon, popularly known as Alexander the Great, was one of the
greatest military generals in history. He was born in Pella in central Macedonia in 356
BC. He ascended the throne in 336 BC after the assassination of his father, Philip II.
Alexander led the Hellenic League in a long military campaign and established a
24  CC-EG-02  NSOU

powerful empire that extended from Greece to India. Alexander was taught by Aristotle
and established the city of Alexandria in Egypt which became a great centre of learning
and scholarship. He died in 323 BC without an apparent heir and the Macedonian
Empire disintegrated soon after his death. However, Alexander’s conquests brought
people of diverse cultures residing around the Mediterranean and South-west Asia under
Greek influence and led to the emergence of a distinctive Hellenistic culture.
2. Archimedes:
Archimedes was the greatest mathematician and inventor in ancient Greece. He was
born in the city of Syracuse in Sicily in 287 BC and travelled to study in Alexandria in
Egypt. After his return he helped King Hiero II with his numerous inventions. Many
fantastic tales are associated with Archimedes, such as his exuberant cry, “Eureka!”
after discovering the way to measure the volume of gold in the king’s crown. As per
legend, Archimedes devised a mechanism to defend Syracuse during the Roman
siege. It was a crane-like mechanism—“the Claw of Archimedes” – that could lift
enemy ships and throw them back into the sea. Archimedes defended Syracuse for two
years before it was captured by Roman forces. The modern world remains indebted to
Archimedes for his works on mathematics, mechanics, hydrostatics and one of the most
fundamental concepts of physics i.e. centre of gravity.
3. Aristotle:
Aristotle was one of the most important philosophers of ancient Greece who was
tutored by Plato and later on taught Alexander the Great. He was born in 384 BC in
Stagira in northern Greece. At a young age he was sent to Plato’s Academy in Athens
where he spent twenty years. He studied matters of ethics, science, and politics like
Plato but disagreed with his teacher on many points. Later, Aristotle established his own
school, the Lyceum. Nicomachean Ethics, Poetics and On the Soul are some his famous
works. Aristotle was forced to flee Athens after the death of Alexander and his works
were lost. They were rediscovered in the 1 st century BC and since then Aristotle’s
philosophy has been the subject of academic research till this day. You will read about
him in more detail in a subsequent Unit.
4. Euclid:
Euclid was an important mathematician of Greco-Roman antiquity, best known for
his treatise on geometry called Elements. He is often referred to as the “Father of
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  25

Geometry” for collecting and reworking the mathematical concepts of his predecessors
into a consistent whole. This work laid the foundation of Euclidean geometry. Almost
nothing is known of Euclid’s life except that he ran a school in Alexandria around 300
BC.
5. Herodotus:
Herodotus was an ancient Greek historian who was born in 485 BC in the city of
Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor. He is often referred to as the “Father of History,” for
collecting and systematically documenting events into his work known as The Histories.
His main source was oral tradition. Though Herodotus focused on the Greco-Persian
Wars (499–479 BC), he also wrote about other events of the contemporary
Mediterranean world. However, he was criticised by later historians like Thucydides,
for including familiar legends and fanciful stories in his historical account for
entertainment.
6. Homer:
Almost nothing definite is known of Homer, not even whether he really existed.
Going by legend, Homer was born at Smyrna in the Ionian region of Asia Minor
between 750 and 700 BC. He is often depicted as a blind poet wandering around the
coastal region of Greece. Homer is regarded as the author of the ancient Greek
epics, The Iliad and The Odyssey, dating from the 8th century BC. The poems are set in
Mycenaean Greece. The Iliad narrates the events of the final weeks of the Trojan War,
while The Odyssey tells the story of the travels of Odysseus, king of Ithaca, after the
Trojan War. Homeric epics belong to the oral tradition; his works were likely written
down at a later age by others. The Iliad and The Odyssey offer insights into the ideals
of Greek culture and civilization. Being the earliest literary works of the western world,
Homer’s works set the foundation of the Western literary tradition.
7. Pericles:
Pericles was an ancient Greek statesman who ushered in the Golden Age of Athens.
He was born into an aristocratic family of Athens in 495 BC. He was a patron of the
arts from an early age and sponsored Aeschylus and his play The Persians. The success
of the play made Pericles a popular figure in Athens. He led several successful military
campaigns which further increased his popularity. His outstanding oratory skills also
helped him to gain considerable influence in Athenian politics. Pericles
strengthened democracy by providing salaries to public officials which allowed all
26  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Athenian citizens to participate in governance irrespective of their socio-economic

status. Pericles also rebuilt parts of Athens that were destroyed by the Persian invaders,
such as the magnificent Parthenon, dedicated to the goddess Athena. Under Pericles,
Athens entered a glorious period becoming the political and cultural centre of Greek
world.

1.1.5 Legacy of Ancient Greek Civilization

Ancient Greece was a glorious civilization that left behind a rich socio-cultural and
political legacy that provides the foundation of “western civilization”. The Greeks made
important contributions to philosophy, politics, mathematics, astronomy and medicine.
The notion of Democracy was derived from the Athenian political system called
demokratia, or “rule by the people”. Though the idea of Athenian democracy is quite
different from its present-day form, undoubtedly the world remains indebted to the
ancient Greeks for introducing the concept. Literature and theatre were integral aspects
of Greek culture which influenced modern drama. The Greeks were famous for their
innovative sculpture and architecture. Greek culture influenced the Roman Empire and
many other civilizations, and continues to influence modern cultures today. As the
Roman poet, Horace put it, “Captive Greece took captive her fierce conqueror and
instilled her arts in rustic Latium” (Epistles II). The Roman Empire adopted the Greek
culture and spread it all over the Western world.

1.1.6 Summing Up
It is never easy to approach a culture and civilization long removed from our times,
and this Course is a challenging one exactly because that is what it demands. To make
your journey smooth, in this Unit we have given you a detailed view of the ancient
Greek civilization, its glorious development and its fall when it was conquered by
the Romans. The Classical and Hellenistic eras of Greece were undoubtedly the most
splendid, however the eras that preceded and succeeded this glorious period, have left
a rich a legacy. This Unit also gives an idea about the ancient Greek way of life: the
socio-cultural political aspects and the contributions of some ancient Greek personalities
whose ideas and activities influenced the world. We hope this Unit will help you to
understand the background of the classical texts in this paper and appreciate them better.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  27

1.1.7 Comprehension Exercises

 Essay Type Questions:
1. Write an essay tracing the rise and fall of the ancient Greek civilization.
2. Briefly describe a few characteristics of ancient Greek culture.
3. Discuss three ancient Greek ideas that changed the world.
 Mid-length Questions:
1. Write a short note on the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations of ancient
Greece.
2. Write a note on the Classical Age of ancient Greece.
3. Trace the origins of Democracy in ancient Greek politics.
4. Comment on the importance of ancient Greek theatre.
5. Discuss the contributions of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle to ancient Greek
philosophy.
 Short Answer Type Questions:
1. Write a short note on Alexander the Great.
2. Discuss the importance of Homer in the Western literary tradition.
3. What made the culture of Hellenistic Greece unique?
4. What did the ancient Greeks contribute to the development of medicine?
5. Discuss the contributions of ancient Greek scientists.
6. Comment on the heroic code and belief in afterlife in ancient Greece.
7. Give a few reasons for the fall of the ancient Greece civilization.

1.1.8 Suggested Reading

Cartledge, Paul. Ancient Greece: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP, 2011.
Garland, Robert. Daily Life of the Ancient Greeks. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2009.
Kitto, H.D.F. The Greeks. 1951. Routledge, 2017.
Kyle, Donald. “Greek Athletic Competitions”. A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in
Greek and Roman Antiquity. 2013. Albany: State University of New York, 2014.
17- 35.
28  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Retief, Francois & Cilliers, Louise. “Burial customs, the afterlife and the pollution of
death in ancient Greece”. Acta Theologica, Supplementum 7: 26.2 (2006): 44-61.
Web. 1 May 2021.
Richard, Carl J. Twelve Greeks and Romans who changed the World. Rowman and
Littlefield, 2003.
Said, Suzanne and Monique Trede. 1990. Trans. Trista Selous. A Short History of Greek
Literature. Routledge, 1999.
Sansone, David. Ancient Greek Civilization. 2004. Wiley Blackwell, 2017.
Soupious, M.A. The Greeks who made us who We are: Eighteen Greek Philosophers,
Scientists, Poets and Others. McFarland and Co., 2013.
Walbank, F.W. “The Causes of Greek Decline.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. 64
(1944): 10-20. JSTOR. Web. 1 May 2021.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  29

Unit 2  The Primary or the Oral Epic: The Development of

a Genre
Structure
1.2.0 Introduction
1.2.1 Scope of the Genre
1.2.2 Defining the Genre
1.2.3 Classification of Epic
1.2.4 Primary Epic Poetry
1.2.5 Secondary Epic Poetry
1.2.6 Summing Up
1.2.7 Comprehension Exercises
1.2.8 Suggested Reading

1.2.0 Introduction
This Unit attempts to explore how the epic as a creative genre evolved over the
centuries and how it developed, incorporating innovating elements that suited the new
age. It tries to define the term ‘epic,’ and see how critics divide it into categories. It
specifically discusses, with suitable examples, the two broad categories—primary epic
poetry and secondary epic poetry. It is necessary to understand the basic features of both
the primary epic poetry and secondary epic poetry. That is what we shall do in this unit.

1.2.1 Scope of the Genre

Many critics believe that the days of the epic are over, that the resurgence of the
genre is no longer possible as we have entered the age of the fragmented life and
developed the philosophy of individualism, leaving the community ethos behind. In The
English Epic and Its Background E. M. W. Tillyard, for instance, states that the epic as
a literary tradition “expired at the end of the eighteenth century” and that it has been
replaced by the new genre called ‘novel’ (530). In Heroic Poetry C. M. Bowra too
seems to subscribe to the same view. There are many readers and critics who share
this view.
30  CC-EG-02  NSOU

One need not necessarily agree with the view expressed by the critics mentioned
above. A genre goes through transformations in content and form as it travels through
time. Innovations and imitations take place during the journey. It takes new turns and
the old forms of the genre transform and appear in new guises. That is why one may
be tempted to announce the death of the genre prematurely. The same thing happens in
the case of epic as well. Since its birth in the ancient times, the epic is conceived in
terms of its length,features (such as heroism), motifs (such as travel motif), and generic
conventions (such as ‘in medias res’ and ‘Invocation to Muse’).However, you must
have observed how the use of the term ‘epic’ is no longer limited to the long,
conventional poetry such as Homer’s the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is now being applied
to a wide range of works such as Tolstoy’s War and Peace (published serially during
1865-69), Derek Walcott’s Omeros (1990), D. W. Griffith’s pioneering Birth of a
Nation (1915) or Cecil B. DeMille’s The Ten Commandments (1923). The last two
examples are from the film genre where discourses related to the epic have also left its
mark. Critics have noted down epic qualities in certain films having “extravagant
demonstrations of spectacle and special effects first in the mid-twentieth century and
then at the beginning of the twenty-first” (Johns-Putra 9). Literary epic and epic film,
Adeline Johns-Putra argues, share elements of heroism and grandeur of scale (9) and
she has included a whole chapter on film in her book The History of the Epic (2006).
These qualities are shared in other genres such as novel. That is why Tolstoy’s War and
Peace has been mentioned above. Richard P. Martin thus argues that “[the term] ‘epic,’
applied to similar categories across cultures, plays a necessary role that transcends genre
(thus making fruitless the attempt to pin it down as any single genre)” (9). All these
suggest that it is difficult to impose a strict definitional boundary on the epic, or on any
other genre for that matter, and that genres tend to have continuous dialogues with one
another.
While you should remain alert to the porosity of generic borders and the flexibility
of definitions, you should also be aware of the history of the birth and growth of the
epic as a genre and how it developed some specific kind of epic themes, conventions,
and styles. Traditional definitions are built on these. If we know how a genre is
traditionally defined, we can trace the history of innovations as well. That is one reason
why we should also try to define a genre at a given point of time.This can be helpful
in understanding the classical European epics which you will have to read.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  31

1.2.2 Defining the Genre

From the conventional point of view, the epic is defined as a long poem that
narrates the heroic deeds of great men having a great sense of honour. This is how
Professor Tom Sienkewicz defines the epic, “An epic is a long narrative poem
presenting characters of high position in a series of adventures which form an organic
whole through their relation to a central figure of heroic proportions and through their
development of episodes important to the history of a nation or a race.” Abrams
defines it as: “…epic or heroic poem is applied to a work that meets at least the
following criteria: it is a long verse narrative on a serious subject, told in a formal and
elevated style, and centred on a heroic or quasi-divine figure on whose actions
depends the fate of a tribe, a nation, or (in the instance of John Milton’s Paradise
Lost) the human race” (Abrams 76). The actions of epic heroes are often directed
towards the preservation of the honour of the communities, countries or ‘nations’ they
represented. These heroes were held in great esteem by their people and even by the
enemies. This sense of honour constitutes an important feature of the epic of the
classical times. Speaking of the Greek concepts of ‘honour’ and honourable heroes,
C.M. Bowra observes,
[T]he early Greek philosophers gave a special place to those men who live for
action and for the honour which comes from it. Such, they believed, are moved
by an important element in the human soul, the self-assertive principle, which is
to be distinguished equally from the appetites and from the reason and realises
itself in brave doings. They held that the life of action is superior to the pursuit
of profit or the gratification of the senses, that the man who seeks honour is
himself an honourable figure; …The Greeks of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.
regarded the men whom Homer had called heroes…as a generation of superior
beings who sought and deserved honour. (1)
During the earliest stages of civilisation, poets and bards composed and recited/sang
about such heroes and heroic spirit and the members of the audience were greatly
influenced by their performances. These songs/recitations were mostly about some
historical events such as war and they conveyed patriotic spirit.
You will see later how this sense of honour and the spirit of valour motivated the
epic poets to tell their stories and portray their characters. Homer’s epic poem the Iliad
which is included in your syllabus is one such example. It is a story based on Trojan
32  CC-EG-02  NSOU

war and you will see spectacular scenes of valour on display here. Greek leaders came
together to preserve their honour which was slighted by Troy’s abduction of Menelaus’s
wife Helen. The long temporal span of the Trojan war and the sustained spirit of
heroism of the leaders reinforce the epic spirit in the Iliad.
Sienkewicz mentions the following characteristic features of the epic poetry:
(1) It deals with stories from ancient times when ‘a superior race of men’ lived for
‘action and for the honor and renown which it brings.’
(2) consolidation of minor details to form a ‘solid [narrative] background.’.
(3) ‘the use of the single line, instead of the stanza, as the metrical unit.’
(4) use of speeches, often quite long, by mostly important characters.
(5) ‘literary devices to vary or assist the narrative, such as similes, repeated
passages, and incidental stories.’
(6) ‘the reluctance of the poet to assert his own personality.’
(7) ‘the dependence on a tradition which is passed from generation to generation,
and from poet to poet, and [which] supplies stories, themes, and language.’

1.2.3 Classification of Epic

Epic poetry is usually classified into two types: primary/oral epic poetry and
secondary/ literary epic poetry. The former comprises heroic poetry composed for the
purpose of performance. During the performance, a particular poem usually receives
additions and alterations. Literary epic poetry, on the other hand, is in written form and
intended for the reading public. Unlike the oral epic poetry, it exclusively belongs to the
literate world.
In A Preface to Paradise Lost C.S. Lewis divides epic poetry into two broad
categories—Primary Epic and Secondary Epic. This categorisation, which has been
widely accepted by the scholars in the field, closely corresponds to the oral and literary
epics mentioned above. Primary epic is defined as a long poem “which stems from
heroic deeds and which is composed in the first instance, in order that such deeds may
not be forgotten.” It is usually based on some important events which are historical in
nature. Secondary epic is defined as “poetry which may deal with heroic legend or with
more abstract themes than the type available to primary epic, and which is composed,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  33

not as an historical record of the past, but as the poet’s artistic interpretation or
recreation of legend or theme. The combination of the poet’s ‘seeing eye’ and his
personal style together create something which is not based on reality but has a life of
its own to be transmitted to the mind of the reader.”
 Activity for the Learner:
1. What is the relationship between oral epic poetry or primary epic poetry on one
hand and literary epic poetry or secondary epic poetry on the other?
2. Who are the critics who believe that epic poetry cannot be written now?
3. Do you feel that genre boundary is basically flexible?
4. Mention some more examples (not mentioned in this unit) of primary and
secondary epic poetry?
5. Mention some films (not mentioned in this unit) which may be called ‘epic’?
What are the features for which they may be called ‘epic’ films?

1.2.4 Primary Epic Poetry

There are some well-known primary epics in different parts of the world. It is not
possible to discuss all of them in this unit. Only three early epic poems will be discussed
in this section to help you understand the basic features of this genre. These three poems
are Gilgamesh, the Iliad and the Odyssey.
Gilgamesh, a Sumerian work, is the earliest extant primary epic. This oral epic is
usually dated back to a period between 3000 BC and 2000 BC. It is a narrative of grand
heroic deeds against the background of historical events. Gilgamesh is widely regarded
as the forerunner to Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey which are also regarded as primary epic.
Among other primary epics, Beowulf (presumed to have been written sometime between
the 8th century and the late 10th century) is well-known to you.
Gilgamesh’s narrative which includes ‘creationist stories’ has its origin in the Near
East region of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) and in its oral form it was very much
popular among the people of the area for about two thousand years (from approximately
2200 BC to about 200 BC). It was later put down in written form in Sumerian and
Akkadian languages. The protagonist Gilgamesh was a brave king. He had the temerity
to reject the marriage proposal from the goddess-like Ishtar. He undertook many
34  CC-EG-02  NSOU

perilous adventures. In the process, as the introduction of the written book states, he
‘learnt of everything the sum of wisdom’ (qtd. in Johns-Putra 16). His friendship with
Enkidu constitutes an important part of the story. Enkidu was originally created by God
to challenge and contain Gilgamesh’s rash behaviour. Subsequently, both became
friends and jointly participated in heroic adventures such as killing of the monster
Humbaba (or Huwawa) and the Bull of Heaven. Enkidu’s death during an encounter
was greatly mourned by Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh’s last adventure involved a quest motif,
that of discovering the secret of immortality. He encountered Uta-napishti who had this
knowledge. He is a Noah-like figure who survived a deluge, a close parallel to that told
in the Old Testament. He, however, failed to gather the secret from Uta-napishti. The
poem ends with the description of his return to his kingdom. While it is striking to note
the close resemblance between Uta-napishti in Gilgamesh and the Biblical figure of
Noah and their experience of the divine deluge, there are also parallels with Homeric
stories. Johns-Putra states that “many scholars point to a number of thematic, structural
and narrative parallels between the texts, such as the friendship between Gilgamesh and
Enkidu and that between Achilleus and Patroklos, or the power dynamics that underlie
Ishtar’s attempted seduction of Gilgamesh and Kalypso’s and Circe’s relationships with
Odysseus” (17).
Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey are also based on oral narratives which circulated for a
long time. These narratives were spontaneously composed by anonymous singers and
contained many formulaic expressions that helped the process of composition. Such a
singer was known as aiodos. Johns-Putra points out that “the question of the orality of
the Homeric poems is complicated by the coincidence of their composition and the
invention of writing in Greece” (19). She also asserts that ‘at the heart of Homeric epic’
lies ‘its heroic function’ which is ‘captured in the phrase klea’ which means ‘glorious
deeds’ (25). Referring to Nagy, she points out that “the word kleos, or ‘fame’ (literally,
‘that which is heard’), refers not simply to the fame that is achieved by the hero who
is sung” (Johns-Putra 25) but also to “the formal word which the Singer himself
(aiodos) used to designate the songs which he sang in praise of gods and men, or, by
extension, the songs which people learned to sing from him” (Nagy qtd. In Johns-Putra
25). Pointing out that “the heroic deeds are inseparable from the song that immortalises
them,” she observes,
Underpinning kleos, then, is the notion that glory is about reputation, heroism
about public honour. The Homeric poems do not simply demonstrate this heroic
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  35

code, they rigorously interrogate it, exploring and exposing its limits. It is to this
close to ironic nature of Homeric verse—its doubleness or self-awareness of its
own inherent contradictions—that we shall turn our attention. (25)
Homer’s Iliad projects its protagonist Achilles’ ménis (wrath) which results from
Agamemnon’s flouting of the codes of kleos. By demanding Briseis, a woman awarded
to Achilles as a prize in observation of the code of heroism, Agamemnon dishonours the
very convention of the heroic age, and this angers Achilles who withdraws from the
war. “Agamemnon’s selfish actions are incompatible with, indeed incomprehensible to,
Achilleus’ value system: ‘this thought comes as a bitter sorrow to my heart and my
spirit/when a man tries to foul one who is his equal, to take back/a prize of honour,
because he goes in greater authority’ (XVII.52–4)” (Johns-Putra 28). This has a
disastrous effect on the Achaian army. Achilles does not participate in the war till his
dear friend Petroklas is killed by Hector. He has the foreknowledge that his end is near
but devastates the army of Troy till he succumbs to death (See details of the story in
Module 2, Unit 6).
The Odyssey, like the Iliad, contains 24 books. It opens in medias res. It is the
narrative of Odysseus’s return home from the Trojan war and has the epic motifs and
themes such as wandering and return, participation of gods and goddesses in the actions
of the poems, prophecies and omens, and encounters with supernatural creatures.The
return journey takes about ten years. During his journey he encounters a series of
adventures from which he comes out unscathed by means of valour, wiliness, and
resourcefulness. He and his men meet lotos-eaters, and have encounters with Cyclops,
Circe, Scylla. He was a captive of the goddess Calypso whose offer of marriage and
immortality he rejected. Many of his comrades, however, died during these adventures.
Returning home, he deals with his wife Penelope’s suitors who took advantage of his
long absence from his kingdom. In fact, he was assumed to have died because of his
failure to return during the long intervening period of twenty years. Upon his return,
Ulysses, with the help of his son Telemachus, killed Penelope’s unruly suitors. Thus, as
in the Iliad, the spirit of kleos is very much present in the Odyssey.
Based on our discussion above, we may identify some common features of the
primary epic. These features have been neatly pointed out in the following extract from
an essay entitled “English Language and Literary Types: A Study of Primary and
Secondary Epic”:
36  CC-EG-02  NSOU

These primary epics have features in common–a central figure of heroic, even
super-human caliber, who undertake perilous journeys, face various
misadventures, show intellectual capacity, and have a strong element of the
supernatural forces that shape the action. There are conflicts in the form of
battles or other physical combat. The epics show repetition of fairly long
passages of narrative or dialogue, have elaborate greetings that add to the
grandeur of the heroes, their plots show digressions and the narrative takes
recourse to elaborate or epic similes. There are long speeches, vivid and direct
description of actions and in general there is a lofty tone, which often resembles
the tone of classical tragedy, in other words a larger than life world forms the
staple of the epic. Commonplace details of everyday life may appear, but they
serve only as background for the story and are described in the same lofty style
as the rest of the poem.
We may now proceed to discuss the secondary epic poetry in the next section.

1.2.5 Secondary Epic Poetry

Unlike primary epic poetry, secondary epic poetry is literary in nature. It is written
by a poet who is identifiable, and not sung by a singer or carried down as an oral
narrative. It is a self-conscious composition, and the poet is aware of the intricacies of
the literary composition. It employs a lofty style in imitation of the primary epics. As
part of literary innovation, the elevated style can also be employed to represent a trivial
object or incident to achieve satiric effects. This is known as mock-epic poetry.
Speaking in the context of Virgil’s Aeneid, Johns-Putra argues that secondary epics
follow the Homeric features: “Gods were inescapable, and funeral games, descents to
Hades, catalogs of tribes and heroes, ornamented shields, night raids, aristeai, and duels
were hardly less so” (41). Opening the poems in medias res (‘in the midst of things’)
is a convention that too is followed in the secondary epics (41). There are many
secondary epic poems such as Virgil’s Aeneid, Lucan’s Pharsalia, Tasso’s
Gerusalemme, Aristo’s Orlando Furioso, and Milton’s Paradise Lost. We shall discuss
three such poems in this section.
The first of the notable secondary epic poems to have been written is Virgil’s Aeneid
which appeared in about 29 BCE at the request of Emperor Augustus. Although there
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  37

were some epic poets such as Apollonius and Ennius who appeared in between Homer
and Virgil, he was chiefly influenced by Homer. Aeneas, the protagonist, is a Trojan
warrior who fled to Italy and was responsible for the foundation of the Roman empire.
The son of the goddess Venus, he has a divine lineage. In the poem Aeneas is seen
crossing the sea and encountering several hurdles. These were caused by the Roman
goddess Juno who, we will see in our module on the Iliad, was ill-disposed towards the
Trojans. Subsequently, however, he is able to reach Italy where the king Latinus
proposes his daughter Lavinus’ marriage with him. Turnus, Lavinus’s betrothed,
however, challenges Aeneas. In the war that follows Aeneas defeats Turnus’s army.
After some hesitation when he is overtaken by a spirit of kindness and piety, Aeneas
kills Turnus. The path for the foundation of a new nation is made smooth in this way.
Critics note two neat divisions in the epic– the Odyssean and Iliadic halves. “Aeneas’
quest to find a new home to replace the ruins of Troy corresponds to the lengthy and
difficult nostos experienced by Odysseus” (41). His challenge to Turnus, his subsequent
killing of him, his “gaining the hand of Lavinia and settlement of Latium [that] echoes
the Achaians’ invasion of Troy” (41) constitute the Iliadic half which “allows Aeneas to
display his aristeia and achieve kleos” (41). Johns-Putra also discovers two selves in
Aeneas—a romantic self and an imperialist self. The former gives in to the latter. This
is, for example, clearly manifested in his relationship with Dido, the Carthaginian
queen, who woos him. He declines it with great difficulty: “Aeneas, mindful of Jove’s
words, kept his eyes / Unyielding, and with a great effort repressed his feeling for her”
(qtd. in Johns-Putra 41). Such a sacrifice of the personal happiness at the altar of the
greater duty “defines Aeneas as a leader of his people rather than just a brilliant warrior.
His respect for the gods is a prerequisite for Roman imperial glory, since his obeisance
to Jupiter’s decrees, not to mention the behests of his mother, Venus, lead directly to his
founding an empire in Italy” (44). Aeneid clearly marks a shift in the genre’s journey
forward: “Virgil’s Aeneid oversees the epic’s evolution from ancient Greece to
imperialist Rome as a transition from a mythical narrative of a ‘history of the world’ to
a vehicle for nationalist ideology” (44).
The next example that we shall discuss now—Milton’s Paradise Lost—marks yet
another shift—the genre shows a distinct turn towards Christian values. In this
‘conventional heroic epic’, originally published in 1667 in ten Books (twelve Books in
the second revised edition published in 1674) Milton chose a biblical theme and adopted
heroic conventions from Homer and Virgil. The theme revolves round conflicts, war,
38  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and heroism.The poem tells the story of Adam and Eve, how they were created, why
they disobeyed God’s instructions and their subsequent fall. It recreates the story of
Genesis, enlarging it, and giving Satan (Lucifer) a privileged focus.It talks about his
rebellion against God, his expulsion, his recuperation from the effects of defeat and how
he, in the form of a serpent, foils God’s design by tempting Eve to eat the forbidden
fruit.Thus, Paradise Lost has the entire cosmos as the background and Milton embeds
his story of God, archangels, and men amid this vast space. To suit the loftiness of the
theme, he employs an elevated style. Milton adopts blank verse, which he describes as
“English heroic verse without rhyme, as that of Homer in Greek and of Virgil in Latin;
rhyme being no necessary adjunct or true ornament of poem or good verse” (qtd. in
Johns-Putra 73). Following epic conventions, he also invokes the Muse, begins the story
in medias res, and uses motifs such as descent into the underworld. Indeed “Milton
brings back into focus a range of epic motifs.…[He] reintroduces the epic catalogue, the
war council, and the heavenly scales. Thus, his list of fallen angels in hell echoes those
of the Achaian ships in the Iliad and of the Italian chieftains in Book VII of the Aeneid;
the devils’ war council at Pandemonium recalls those of both Agamemnon and Aeneas
before the main attack, and God, like Zeus and Jupiter, indicates his judgment with a
divine set of scales” (Johns-Putra 73). Milton assigns a privileged focus to the character
of Satan who unmistakably shows heroic qualities. Northrop Frye rightly says, “It is to
Satan and his followers that Milton assigns the conventional and classical type of
heroism. Satan, like Achilles, retires sulkily in heaven when a decision appears to be
favouring another Son of God, and emerges in a torrent of wrath to wreak vengeance.
Like Odysseus, he steers his way with great cunning between the Scylla-like Sin and the
Charybdis-like Death; like the knights errant of romance, he goes out alone on a
perilous quest to an unknown world” (qtd. in Johns-Putra 75).
The last work we shall discuss briefly here is Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the
Lock. The poem in two cantos first appeared in 1712, a revised edition in 1714, and the
final version in 1717. Pope’s venture was quite in conformity with the spirit of the
eighteenth century which saw vigorous literary activities related to the epic in two new
forms.The century witnessed the growth of translations of epic poetry as well as the
development of mock-epic forms. John Dryden and Pope were the two main
practitioners of these forms. Dryden translated Aeneid in 1697, six volumes of Pope’s
translation of the Iliad reached the English readers in between 1715 and 1720 (Pope
also collaborated
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  39

in the translation of Odyssey). Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681) and Mac
Flecknoe (1682), as well as Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712-14) and The Dunciad
(1728-42) are mock-heroic poems.
The Rape of the Lock, as we have just mentioned, is a satiric representation of the
eighteenth-century English society. It represents the satiric variety of the genre, one that
takes small events and treats them as ones having epic dimensions. The poem narrates
the fictional version of a true incident that involved two aristocratic families.Pope wrote
the poem at John Caryll’s request, Caryll was Pope’s patron and the main purpose of
writing the poem was to revive friendship between the families by pointing out their
follies. Enmity between them developed out of an incident involving cutting of a portion
of Belinda’s lock of hair.This event is blown out of proportions and described in terms
of a great war in which even the supernatural beings such as sylphs and gnomes who
protect Belinda participate in the true epic tradition of wars. The environment of conflict
and war is created through card games and the exchange of ‘glares and frowns.’ The
“decisive battle-scene is the assault on Belinda’s lock and the fight that ensues” (Johns-
Putra 102). This poem, along with those of Dryden, thus created a new trend in the epic
tradition.
 Activity for the Learner:
1. Consult relevant sources to find out the meanings of the following words:
(a) aiodos; (b) nostos; (c) kleos; (d) aristeia; (e) klea
2. Mention some works which were influenced by Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.
3. During which period did the following authors write?
Homer, Virgil, Milton, Pope, Dryden.
4. Consult relevant sources to find out whether Homer wrote any work/s other
than the Iliad and the Odyssey.
5. Mention some other works (not spoken about in this unit) of Milton, Pope, and
Dryden.

1.2.5 Summing Up
Going through the above sections, we can understand that the epic poetry has really
taken new innovative turns. It was oral in the beginning, sung by local bards, and
40  CC-EG-02  NSOU

embraced as its theme heroic deeds of great men of bygone days. To them honour of
the self and of the people was of great importance. Gradually, literary epic poetry
emerged as a new form which retained some of the features of the oral epic poetry but
introduced new elements as well. This new form celebrated the heroic deeds of great
men but inducted new motives such as imperialist desires or Christian values. The term
‘epic’ has now transcended the strict generic boundary of poetry and is being
increasingly used in the fields of novel and film. That is why we need to trace the
trajectory of the development of the epic poetry as a genre. We have exactly done this in
the unit. It will help you contextualise the epic poems which are included in your
syllabus.

1.2.6 Comprehension Exercises

Broad Questions:
1. Attempt a definition of epic poetry. Do you think that defining the genre is
difficult? If so, why?
2. What are the characteristics of epic poetry?
3. Define primary epic poetry. What are its basic features? Mention any two
examples of primary epic poetry and analyse them.
4. Define secondary epic poetry. How is it different from primary epic poetry?
Explain with examples.
5. Choose any two secondary epic poems and critically analyse them.
6. Do you think that Milton’s Paradise Lost marks a shift in the history of the
genre of epic? Give suitable arguments for your answer.
Middle-length Questions:
1. Do you think that the epic poetry is dead now? Explain your position with
proper arguments.
2. Explain the importance of Gilgamesh as an early epic poem.
3. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Iliad; (b) Odyssey; (c) Aeneid; (d) Paradise Lost; (e) Rape of the Lock
4. Comment briefly on the role of ‘honour’ in the epic poetry.
5. Write a brief note on the impact of earlier epics on Virgil’s Aeneid.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  41

Short Questions:
1. Who is the author of The English Epic and Its Background?
2. Mention a book written by C.M. Bowra.
3. Mention any motif usually employed by an epic poet.
4. Mention at least two examples of epic conventions.
5. In which genre will you place Birth of a Nation (1915)?
6. Which is the earliest extant epic poetry?
7. Who is Turnus in Virgil’s Aeneid ?
8. Is Milton’s Paradise Lost a primary or secondary epic?

1.2.7 Suggested Reading

Abrams, M.H. “Epic.” A Glossary of Literary Terms. 7th ed. Singapore: Thomson Asia,
1999. 76-78.
Bowra, C.M. Heroic Poetry. London: Macmillan, 1952.
“English Language and Literary Types: A Study of Primary and Secondary Epic.”
https://www.elearning.panchakotmv.in/files/1C4B9AEE15874030370.pdf.
Johns-Putra, Adeline. The History of the Epic. Houndmills, Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2006.
Lewis, C.S. A Preface to Paradise Lost. London: OUP, 1942.
Martin, Richard P. “Epic as Genre.” A Companion to Ancient Epic. Ed. John Miles
Foley. Malden: Blackwell, 2005. 9-19.
Sienkewicz, Tom. “Epic Poetry.” https://department.monm.edu/classics/courses/CLAS210/
CourseDocuments/Epic/Epic.Primaryvssecondary.htm
Tillyard, E.M.W. The English Epic and Its Background. London: Chatto and Windus,
1954.
42  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 3  Introduction to Greek Drama

Structure
1.3.0 Introduction
1.3.1 Origins of Performance
1.3.2 The Performance Arena
1.3.3 Greek Tragedy
1.3.4 Greek Comedy
1.3.5 Sociopolitical Significance of Greek Drama
1.3.6 Renaissance in Europe and Greek Drama
1.3.7 Influence of Greek Drama on World Theatre
1.3.8 Summing Up
1.3.9 Comprehension Exercises
1.3.10 Suggested Reading

1.3.0 Introduction
The Greeks, specifically from Athens, were the pioneering group of people who
introduced one of the earliest theatres in the world. You already have an overview of
how drama originated in Greece, here we shall see in detail how it developed.
Eventually you will also be acquainted with some of the great Greek Tragedies and
Comedies, along with the ancient theatre forms in Greece. Greek plays are the root of
all kinds of drama originating in Europe, and therefore, learning about the Greek drama
tradition is very important for you as students of English literature. This Unit will enable
you to-
 learn about the origin of drama in ancient Greece;
 know about the important forms and examples of Greek drama;
 understand the infrastructure of ancient theatres;
 become familiar with great Greek dramatists.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  43

1.3.1 Origins of Performance

As you’ve already learnt, Greek drama originated as part of religious observances
in honour of Dionysus, the ancient Greek god of wine, winemaking, grape cultivation,
fertility, ritual madness, theatre, and religious ecstasy, who personified both spring and
the vintage. In his Roman avatar, you will see Dionysus as Bacchus. Vintage is
particularly of great importance to a vine-growing country like Greece, and Dionysus
was an important and popular figure in mythology. He may have been worshiped as
early as 1500-11000 BCE by Mycenean Greeks. The root point to note here is that there
are close connections between drama as performance and religion as part of daily life,
more so the life of agrarian communities.
Greek plays were simpler than modern plays, as there were fewer characters, and
usually only three speaking actors were allowed on the stage at once. Only one story
would be told and there was nothing to divert the attention of the audience, and thus
the drama became a special form of entertainment. As far as is known, there was a
tradition of recitation of stories of Dionysus’ life at the religious festivals held in his
honour, and then stories of other gods and of the ancient heroes were told as well.
Drama originated from these as the stories were told in the form of songs. Such songs
would be chanted at first by everyone taking part in the festival, and later it would be
performed by a chorus of about fifty performers, and at intervals in the song the leader
would recite part of the story himself. Gradually, the recitation became of greater
importance than the song, and it grew longer. In a developed stage of the tradition two
people used to take part in it, and then from Sophocles’ time three people would
participate in it. The chorus became smaller and of less importance in the action of the
drama, until at last it could consist of only fifteen performers.
The great dramatic festival of Athens was held in the spring in the theatre of
Dionysus, to the south-east of the Acropolis. There would be competition between
dramatists. Several plays would be staged in one day, and a prize was awarded to the
best. The Athenian audience was enthusiastic and very critical. They would start at
dawn and remain in the theatre until sunset, keeping the theatre arena warm with shouts
and applause. Their jeers showed approval or disapproval of a play being acted. The
performances would be preceded by a sacrifice.
The festival was only held once a year, and it would be public holidays during the
time of the festival. Initially admission to the theatre was free, but as the crowds became
44  CC-EG-02  NSOU

unmanageable, because as there were rows and fighting over the possession of seats, the
state authority decided to charge an admission fee and tickets had to be bought
beforehand. Even then there were no reserved seats, except for certain officials who sat
in the front row. In the time of Pericles, complaints were made that the poorer citizens
could not afford to buy tickets, and so important was the drama then considered, that
it was ordered that tickets should be given free to all who applied for them.

1.3.2 The Performance Arena

The Greeks developed a special performance space for the festival of Dionysus, which
was calledan amphitheatre. The term ‘amphitheatre’ in ancient Greek means “a place for
viewing on both sides or around”. It is thus an open-air venue used for entertainment,
performances, and sports. The Romans developed the amphitheatres to their latest
designs. Even today the ruins of these performance spaces can be visitedin Greek and
Italian cities like Athens and Rome. The Greek Amphitheatre is a great semi-circle on
the slope of the Acropolis, with rows of stone seats. Each amphitheatre could
accommodate about eighteen thousand spectators. The front row consists of marble
chairs with backs, and these used to be reserved for the priests of Dionysus and the chief
magistrates. Beyond the front row, would be a circular space called the orchestra, where
the Chorus used to sing. In the centre of the orchestra stood the altar of Dionysus. The

Image: The ancient structure of an Amphitheatre (Photo source: Internet)

 NSOU  CC-EG-02  45

stage on which the actors would act, would be behind the orchestra. At the back of the
orchestra used to be a building painted to look like the front of a temple or a palace,
to which the actors would retire when they were not needed on the stage or they would
change their costumes.
As seen in the images, there would be no roof, and overhead was the deep blue
European sky. The Acropolis could be seen behind with its olive-laden hills in the
distance. There was no room for curtains in the plays, as the plays were not divided into
different acts. When there was a pause in the action, the Chorus used to fill up the time
with their songs. In a tragedy, we would not see the catastrophe on the stage, but a
messenger would most often impart a bloody account of death or what had happened.
We must not be beguiled by the simplicity of the outward surroundings, as we know
that some of the greatest tragedies and comedies were produced here by the Greeks
more than two thousand years ago.

1.3.3 Greek Tragedy

Tragedy as a dramatic genre flourished in ancient Greece in the hands of mainly
three classical playwrights—Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. All three of them
lived in 5th-century Athens. Aeschylus, the seniormost, was born near Athens in 525

Image: The Odeon of Herodes Atticus, the Amphitheatre existent in Acropolis of Athens
today (photo source: internet)
46  CC-EG-02  NSOU

BCE. He was a prolific writer; had written between seventy and ninety plays by the time
of his death in 456 BCE, as is surmised today. Most of his plays were written for the
annual Athenian drama competition mentioned in the earlier section, the City Dionysia
as it was called, which Aeschylus won thirteen times. At this festival, three chosen
dramatists would perform three tragedies and a satyr play. The Oresteia by Aeschylus
is the only complete Greek tragic trilogy existing today. Only seven of Aeschylus’ plays
have survived till date: Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers, The Eumenides (these three
plays compose the tragic trilogy known as The Oresteia), The Persians, Seven Against
Thebes, The Supplicants, and Prometheus Bound. Some scholars discount Prometheus
Bound and hold that it is wrongly attributed to Aeschylus. The first time he won at the
drama festival (City Dionysia) was perhaps in 484 BCE, although the title of the trilogy
is unknown. The known title of his winning trilogy for the festival in 472 BCE is The
Persians. This trilogy deserves mention because it is about the Persian defeat at
Salamis, which is unusual as at the festival the topics of the pantheon of Greek myth
were usually dealt in the festival.
The second, Sophocles, is considered to be the greatest among the three, as his work
took Greek tragedy to its peak. He was born near Athens perhaps in 496 BCE in the
town of Colonus. It is told that in his ninety-year lifespan he witnessed the rise and fall
of the Athenian Golden Age. His breakthrough in the festival of Dionysus happened
dramatically. It is said that Aeschylus had left Athens in 471 BCE to attend the court
of a great tyrant called Hieronat Syracuse. Hieron is known as a famous patron of the
arts. When Aeschylus returned to Athens for the festival in 468 BCE, Sophocles, then
twenty-eight-year-old and competing for the first time, won the first place defeating the
great Aeschylus.
Sophocles never lost his popularity in Athens, and as is known, he remained in this
city throughout his life although he was invited by many rulers to visit other cities in
the surrounding regions. He wrote around one hundred and twenty-three plays for the
Athenian theatre, and won twenty-four festivals—had he not won all of them he was at
least placed second in every festival. However, only seven of his plays have survived.
These are (in the order in which they are thought to have been written): Ajax, Antigone,
The Women of Trachis, Oedipus the King, Electra, Philoctetes, and Oedipus at Colonus
—all tragedies. Of these, Oedipus the King is syllabised as a text for you in this course.
All the same, as eager enthusiasts, you would do good to try and access the other plays
on internet archives.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  47

Oedipus the King is perhaps Sophocles’ most famous play in which he deals with
the mythological figure of Oedipus and explores several important issues of the time.
You will read this play thoroughly. Its sequel, Antigone (c. 442 BCE) is another of his
most famous works, and in this the lead character is a female though the presence of
female actors is debated. She antagonises her maternal uncle King Creon of Thebes by
burying her brother Polynices against his wish, and has to receive his punishment. It is
a very complicated play as it deals with the moral right of a sister seeking to rescue the
soul of her dead brother by giving him a proper burial, and at the same time it talks
about the political right of the king having the traitor Polynices denied burial rites. The
play is quite modern in that sense. From the existing wreckages of Sophocles’ works or
references to his lost plays, scholars have discovered that he wrote on many issues, but
he was mostly revered by his contemporaries as well as by modern scholars for his
treatment of the individual and for the complex issues that his tragic plays address.
Sophocles was an innovator, as it is believed that he introduced several key changes in
the theatre practices of the time. He ended the tradition of writing trilogies on connected
topics at the City Dionysia, and introduced elaborate painted background scenery,
changed the number of speaking actors from two to three, and enlarged the chorus from
twelve to fifteen men.
The third great Greek tragedian is Euripides. Eighty titles of Euripides’ plays are
known today, of which nineteen tragedies are extant. Among these the famous ones are
Medea, Hippolytus, Trojan Women, The Bacchae, and Iphigenia in Aulis. Some scholars
think that he is not as great as he is considered to be, because they find his plays filled
with too many unrelated ideas that misrepresent the Greek religion. They argue that had
he been as great he would not lose in so many of the drama competitions. According
to information, Euripides staged his plays in the drama festival (the City Dionysia)
twenty-two times, but he only won five times. He was, however, bold and irreverent as
he could look beyond religious orthodoxy and criticize Greek culture and religion. It is
remarkable that many of the protagonists in his plays are female, and he was able to
examine well-known stories in a completely new way through his vision of the world
from a female’s perspective. He used to delve deep into the psychology of his
characters.
48  CC-EG-02  NSOU

1.3.4 Greek Comedy

During the 5th century BCE, at major religious festivals such as the City Dionysia
mentioned in the earlier section on tragedy, comedies used to be performed in
competitions that would last over three days. Initially five comedies used to be taken in
for competition in the festival, and afterwards three comedies would be performed in a
festival. At the end of each day a comic play would be in the line after the tragedy and
satyr plays. Notice that while classical imagination had place for both tragic and comic
forms, they could never think of mixing the different genres.
Aristotle’s Poetics refers to some comedies and their creators, and it is believed that
comedies had a very old tradition in Greece. The activity of men dressing as others and
mimicking them goes back a long way before written records. Greek pottery has a very
old history and the first signs of men’s dressing as horses, satyrs, and dancers in
exaggerated costumes are found in the pottery decoration of the 6th century BCE. Some
even suggest that another early source of comedy is the poems of Archilochus (7th
century BCE) and Hipponax (6th century BCE) that contained overt sexual humour. A
third origin that Aristotle refers to is in the phallic songs sung during the Dionysiac
festivals. Therefore, it is obvious that comedy was a popular and influential form in
ancient Greece. The most famous playwrights of the time were Aristophanes and
Menander. Their works and most other contemporary comedies are usually critiques of
politicians, philosophers, and fellow artists of the time. The Greeks produced two major
comedy forms-Old and New. Old Comedies refer to plays written in the 5th century
BCE, and the earliest complete play that survives today is Aristophanes’ Acharnians,
first performed in 425 BCE. Not much is known about Aristophanes; He was from
Athens and from the dates of his plays we may guess that he lived from 460 to 380
BCE. Eleven of his plays survive in their complete form, and these are the only extant
examples of the Old Comedy genre. The plays reveal Aristophanes’ sharp wit. They
comment on the discrepancies and ludicrous aspects of the Greek society. They also
ridicule important public figures like the politician Cleon, the philosopher Socrates, and
the tragedian Euripides who appear in his comedies. Aristophanes lampooned Socrates
in The Clouds, and in his anti-military farce Lysistrata. In The Birds he ridiculed
Athenian democracy. In some cases, he named the plays after the chorus, e.g., The
Wasps. The
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  49

Frogs had a more serious tone than some of Aristophanes’ other comedies, and it is
about dramatists, poets and competitors in the festivals.
The comedies often used satire, parody, puns, exaggeration, colourful language, and
crude jokes. The plot of these comedies usually challenged reality as they would jump
incredible geographic distances, break the limit of time and space and there would be
rapid changes of scenes. Fantastical elements were part of these: giant creatures would
walk on the stage in their improbable disguises.
Menander was quite popular at that time, and his works were frequently adapted by
later Latin playwrights. His plays were popular for their imaginative situations, fast-
moving dialogues and suspense. Unlike Aristophanes’ middle-aged heroes, he often
presented a young romantic protagonist, who would be single. There were quite many
comedy playwrights of the time, among whom Epicharmus of Kos (540-450 BCE),
Cratinus (520-420 BCE), Eupolis (446-411 BCE), Hegemon of Thasos (Fifth
century BCE), Pherecrates (Fifth century BCE), Cantharus (422 BCE), Antiphanes
(408- 334 BCE) can be mentioned. Cratinus’ Cheimazomenae (426 BCE), Satyrs (424
BCE), and Pytine (423BCE) and Eupolis’ Numeniae (425 BCE), Maricas (421 BCE),
Flatterers (421 BCE) and Autolycus (420 BCE) are remarkable and these two dramatists
were multiple winners at the most prestigious festivals of the time.
Sometime in the late 4th century BCE, New Comedy arrived. Some scholars
suggest that there was an intermediary stage called Middle Comedy. The division
between Old and Middle Comedy is not very clearly marked. For instance,
Aristophanes and some other writers of the Old Comedy were the earliest writers of the
Middle Comedy. Indeed, Menander is counted as one of the Middle comedy writers.
Middle Comedy was an offshoot of the Old Comedy, as it stands, only differing in some
essential particulars like the Middle Comedy had no chorus; public characters were not
personified on the stage in these like the Old comedies, and the objects of ridicule were
more general and literary rather than being personal and political. Therefore, some
scholars suggest that Old Comedy was more like lampoon while Middle Comedy was
criticism and review. Aristophanes’ final plays provided a transition towards this newer
style.
The period of the Middle Comedy extended from the closing years of the fifth
century BCE to nearly the middle of the fourth century BCE. It was a productive time
for plays, as many plays were produced at that time, but the quality of plays declined.
Popular themes of comedies were literary and social peculiarities of the day, which were
50  CC-EG-02  NSOU

treated lightly instead of with serious criticism. The Middle Comedy also parodied the
grand tragedies and parts of epics. Parts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Homer, or
beautiful lyrics of Pindar and Simonides would be parodied regularly. Myths were
treated in the same way. Eubulus, Epicrates of Ambracia, Anaxandrides and Alexis are
some of the important playwrights of the time.
Compared to Old and Middle Comedies, New Comedy focused more on the plot,
and would often employ recurring stock characters such as cooks, soldiers, pimps, and
the cunning slave. The chorus became less important to the plot. There would be only
musical interludes between acts by the chorus. Plays of this time were of five-act
structure. There was already a legislation made to curb the practice of personal attacks
in plays, and there were indeed fewer of such invectives in the New Comedies. Instead,
New Comedy showed concerns for people, classes, and family relations. The most
important playwright of this period was the poet Philemon (c. 368/60-267/3 BCE), who
wrote about 97 comedies, Diphilus who wrote around 100 plays, and Philippides.
Philemon won more festival victories than Menander, but Meander is the one
considered to be the greatest poet of New Comedy. He wrote around 100 plays that
survived up to the 7th century CE, but after that they were lost. The Dyskolos (316
BCE) is the most complete surviving play of Meander and significant portions of six
other plays also survive till date. Other playwrights of the time were Apollodorus of
Carystus (300- 260 BCE), Diphilus of Sinope (340-290 BCE), Machon of Corinth
(Third century BCE), Poseidippus of Cassandreia (316-250 BCE), Laines or Laenes
(185 BCE), Philemon (183 BCE), Chairion or Chaerion (154 BCE).

1.3.5 Sociopolitical Significance of Greek Drama

Greek plays were like the magic mirror of the Greek society, as they would uphold/
criticise/ridicule the manifestations of society. These would often criticize political and
social institutions of the time. Religion and cult, Athenian democracy and imperial
ideology would often surface in these plays. Plays would represent the tensions, class
difference, clash between the elites and the masses, concerns of gender and sexuality
and even the representation of the Other would be treated in these plays. We know that
plays were specifically commissioned for competition during religious and other types
of festivals, but those were re-performed and copied into scripts for publication. Those
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  51

scripts, particularly by the three great tragedians, are now classics. The plays that took
part in the festivals were kept by the state as official and unalterable state documents.
The study of the ‘classic’ plays has become an important part of the school curriculum.
The sociopolitical impact of the plays was great. In addition to entertainment with
their comic touch, the plays gave invaluable insights into Greek society. They ridiculed
the government, political institutions, legal systems, religious practices, education, and
so on. Today the plays reveal to us the specific interests of the Greek audience, as those
show the Greeks’ sense of humour of the time. They represent the relationship between
the domestic and the public phases of Greek life and comment on the individual and the
community lives in Greece. They teach us how to comment on a society with its
nuances. Individuals, great or less important, get equal importance in these; kings,
statemen, courtesans, parasites, revelers, the self-conceited cook, all become so alive in
these plays that we can say here is ‘God’s plenty’.

1.3.6 Renaissance in Europe and Greek Drama

With new plays continuously being written and performed, Greek plays formed the
foundation upon which all modern theatre is based. In the 3rd century BCE, the actors’
guilds or actors’ associations were formed that ensured the mobility of professional
troupes. Thus, Greek plays continued to spread across the Greek world, and theatre
became a common feature of the urban landscape from Magna Graecia to Asia Minor.
Magna Graecia was the name given by the Romans to the coastal areas of Southern
Italy that were occupied by Greek settlers.The settlers who began arriving in the 8th
century BC brought with them their Hellenic civilization which left a lasting imprint on
Italy such as in the culture of ancient Rome. In the Roman world, Greek plays were
translated and imitated in Latin.However, the most influential time for Greek drama was
the European Renaissance that started in Italy in the 15 thand 16thcenturies and gradually
came to England and other European countries.
The events of Italy that gave cultural and artistic recognition to Renaissance during
the 16th century are collectively referred to as the Cinquecento. One single important
trait was the development of neoclassical drama in Europe that was a consequence of
the “rediscovery” of Classical literature in early Renaissance Italy. Greek drama, as it
seems, never lost its currency. In Byzantium, that was an ancient Greek city and is
52  CC-EG-02  NSOU

known as Istanbul today, Greek texts were copied and read. The three tragedians
mentioned in the earlier section, together with the comedy playwright Aristophanes,
were part of the Byzantine school curriculum. In Western Europe, Classical drama was
known mainly through Latin authors, and through Seneca, whose plays influenced
English dramatists like Thomas Kyd. The knowledge of Greek was never lost in Europe,
and especially in Southern Italy, where Greek manuscripts were being copied in the
thirteenth century. However, other Europeans did not know ancient Greek and thus
could not have access to the original texts. Some Italian intellectuals such as Petrarch,
Boccaccio and a few Italian teachers started teaching Greek. After the fall of
Constantinople to the Turks in the middle of the 15th century, a handful of Byzantine
intellectuals took shelter in Italy and taught Greek there. They brought Greek
manuscripts with them, and thus Greek drama became available to Italian humanists.
The rediscovery of Classical texts played an important role for Latin drama as well. As
European intellectuals learned Greek, throughout the second half of the 15th century in
Italy and in the rest of Europe,Latin translations of Greek texts followed. One particular
event was the publication of several plays by Aristophanes, Sophocles, Euripides, and
Aeschylus by Aldo Manuzio (1449-1515) in Venice. You will learn in greater detail
about this phase in subsequent Units.
Greek, and later Roman tragedies came as a viable model to follow for the rest of
Europe, and all tragedies written in Renaissance Italy were fundamentally neoclassical,
because they formally complied with Classical rules. Many tragedies of the time
borrowed from Greek myths, and also used Roman myths or history. Renaissance
thinkers who were thinking man as the centre of creation and questioned the supremacy
of God and fate, found affinity in Greek classics that dealt with complicated issues like
man’s predicament in a world dominated by uncertainties where fate needed to be
treated as the ultimately powerful. In that sense, there is a line of continuity to be traced
between pre-Christian classical dramaturgy and post-Renaissance humanistic strain in
literature and culture. Some tragedies often focused on blood and revenge or on tragic
love stories, often included supernatural elements, but would often have a moralistic
undertone about human destiny. For the Renaissance playwrights, tragedy had a didactic
function. An idea that by staging the fall of great nobles or tyrants, tragedy could teach
rulers how to govern with justice flourished in Renaissance Italy. Kingship and power
were also recurrent themes alongside man’s inability to control his destiny. Renaissance
playwrights borrowed the theme of destiny from Greek tragedy and expanded it. The
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  53

Prince written by Machiavelli was also an influential text of the time. The
unpredictability of human fortune initiated the Machiavellian idea of the necessity of
exploiting it, and Renaissance tragedies used to depict Senecan tyrants as Machiavellian
princes and rulers.
Neoclassical tragedy was strongly dependent on Greek models, but Greek comedy
did not thrive much during the Renaissance. Neoclassical comedy took its inspiration
from Roman comedy. Perhaps the crude political humor of ancient Greek comedy was
not easy for the Renaissance dramatists to adapt for their audiences, while the family
based humor of Roman comedy was much easier to follow. Though Aristophanes was
known and appreciated, Plautus and Terence were imitated during the period.
Another form of drama called the Pastoral flourished during the Renaissance. A
Pastoral is basically a love story enacted in an idealized rural setting, and showing the
interaction between romanticized characters such as shepherds and shepherdesses,
nymphs and satyrs, etc. The Renaissance Opera also attempted to re-create Greek
tragedy. Apart from borrowing themes and styles for drama, Renaissance architecture
also developed the Terrence Stage that used Perspective Painting (for comedy-regular
houses; for tragedy-palaces; pastorals-woods) that had Greek influence. So, Italian
Renaissance followed Greek plays to a large extent to give an artistic expression to the
new thoughts of the time, and it was transferred to the rest of Europe soon and inspired
many great dramatists like Marlowe, Shakespeare, Jonson, Rabelais, Cervantes, Swift,
Voltaire, and many others.

1.3.7 Influence of Greek Drama on World Theatre

World drama, both for its tragic and comic forms, is largely indebted to Greek
drama for having strengthened its basics. The themes and styles of Greek plays inspired
many playwrights to translate, adapt and imitate them in all corners of the world. Great
Greek playwrights like Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides and Aristophanes are regularly
staged in almost all theatres of the world. Apart from British and American theatres,
even in cultures in which theatre is not practiced very seriously, Greek plays have made
their way.For example, Debra Caplan comments in her study of adaptations of Greek
tragedy on Yiddish stage that Jewish teachers felt some antipathy towards Greek
culture, believing it to be fundamentally opposed to their moral values and religious
practices.
54  CC-EG-02  NSOU

The Greek theatre was viewed as a manifestation of Greek culture and, therefore, was
forbidden by the Rabbinic authorities. However, when early in the nineteenth century,
Yiddish stage introduced European-style drama into Jewish literature, some Greek plays
were translated, adapted and staged. Similarly, in many cultures of the world, Greek
plays found thematic relevance and were either directly staged in English translation or
adapted to their own languages in their sociopolitical milieus. In Africa, Greek plays
became quite popular in the 1970s. Oedipus the King is a play that had paramount
prominence. Apart from different direct staging attempts, The Gods Are Not To Blame is
a 1968 play and a 1971 novel by the Nigerian writer Ola Rotimi that became famous
in the African setting. The story centres on Odewale, an African king, who is lured into
a false sense of security, only to get caught up in a somewhat consanguineous trail of
events by the gods of the land. The impact of the source text is clearly perceptible here.
In the Indian Subcontinent too, Greek plays became very popular during the
colonial period, for the obvious parallels that could be drawn and lessons that could be
imparted in sync with nationalist aspirations. The trend has continued unabated even
after national independence in India. In Bengal there were several adaptations of
Oedipus the King and Agamemnon. One popular example is Raja Oedipus, translated,
directed and acted by Shambhu Mitra as Raja (King) Oedipus, that was produced by
Bohurupee at New Empire in 1964. The play’s audio recording is available, and you can
listen to it on YouTube using this link https://youtu.be/ILlnfadICJ8.
Greek plays brought new tragic genre to modern plays, and also gave birth to new
forms of art. For example, Old Comedy can be traced in contemporary political satires.
New Comedy gave rise to a new art form called pantomime from the 1st century BCE,
which drew inspiration from the Greek tragedy.

1.3.8 Summing Up
Greek plays are considered to be the root of European drama. For their thematic
richness and stylistic versatility Greek plays found paramount prominence in
Renaissance Europe, and through colonial connections, they reached almost all parts of
the globe. These plays have given rise to theatre architecture, innovative acting space
and style, the idea of theatre as a form of social criticism, and so on. Greek plays not
only defined the European theatre genre, rather gave birth to modern urban theatre in
many parts of the world.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  55

1.3.9 Comprehension Exercises

Essay Type Questions
1. Illustrate the general features of Greek tragedies with reference to different
tragedians.
2. Trace the development of the Greek Comedy in its different phases.
Mid-length Questions
1. Critically examine the role of the Greek comedies as social criticism.
2. Comment on the influence of Greek plays on European Renaissance.
3. How would you differentiate between Old and New Comedies?
Short Answer Type Questions
1. Comment briefly on the Middle Comedy.
2. Write a short note on the City Dionysia.
3. What and how was the amphitheatre?
4. What do you know about the costumes and masks used in Greek plays?
5. Write briefly of the impact of Greek plays on world theatre.

1.3.10 Suggested Reading

Aeschylus. Prometheus Bound, The Suppliants, Seven Against Thebes, The Persians
(Trans. Vellacott P.). Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1970.
Aeschylus. The Oresteia, trans. By R. Fagles. Penguin, 1975.
Anonymous. The Oxford Handbook of Hellenic Studies. Oxford University Press, USA,
2009.
Bates, Alfred. The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization, volume
1. Historical Publishing Company, 1906.
Burn, A.R. The Penguin History of Greece. Penguin Books, 1966.
Carter, D.M. The Politics of Greek Tragedy. Bristol Phoenix Press, 2007.
Cartwright, Mark. “Ancient Greek Tragedy.” World History Encyclopedia, 16 Mar 2013.
Web. 16 Apr 2021.
56  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Easterling, P.E. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge

University Press, 1997.
Euripides. Electra and Other Plays, trans. J. Davie, introduction and notes by. R.
Rutherford. Penguin, 2004.
Gould, T.F. and C.J. Herington (eds.). Greek tragedy. Yale Classical Studies. Vol. XXV,
1977.
Hornblower, S. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press, 2012.
Sophocles. The Theban Plays, trans. Watling E.F. Penguin, 1951.
Sophocles. The Three Theban Plays, trans. By R. Fagles, introductions and notes by B.
Knox. Penguin, 1983.
Zimmermann, Bernhard and Thomas Marier. Greek Tragedy: An Introduction. The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  57

Module-2
Iliad (Book 1)
58  CC-EG-02  NSOU
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  59

Unit 4  Homer the Poet

Structure
2.4.0 Introduction
2.4.1 Who was Homer?
2.4.2 Homer’s Works in brief
2.4.3 The ‘Homeric’ Style
2.4.4 Summing Up
2.4.5 Comprehension Exercises
2.4.6 Suggested Reading

2.4.0 Introduction
In Module 1 Unit 2, you have already been introduced to the classical epic as a
genre, and have contextually come across the name of Homer. In this Unit, we intend
to bring about:
 some basic knowledge of Homer’s life and works that will guide you through this
Module
 to have an idea of the ancient Greek world
 to understand the significance of the Homeric style in epic poetry

2.4.1 Who was Homer?

Little has been known about the biographical details of Homer, also known as
Homeros, the Greek poet to whom the epics of the Iliad and the Odyssey are attributed.
The Oxford Concise Companion to Classical Literature offers the following details:
Many cities claimed to be Homer’s birthplace, most possibly Smyrna and Chios,
the home of the Homeridae. The ancient Greeks thought of Homer as a blind
minstrel, suffering poverty and hardship in the course of a wandering life before
his eventual death and burial on the Aegean island of Ios. (275)
Homer’s representation of the blind bard Demodocus in the Odyssey is often taken as
a representation of his own person. There is no other evidence to certify his blindness
60  CC-EG-02  NSOU

except for a marble bust, the image of which is available widely on the internet. This
statue dates back to 2nd century AD and is said to be a Roman copy of the Hellenistic
original sculpted in 2nd century BC.
Homer had a strong influence not only on Greek learning and literature in the
classical age but also on the European culture in the later ages. Ancient philosophers
such as Plato and Aristotle referred to the lines of Homer in their treatises on different
branches of knowledge. Though a miasma surrounds his biography, most of the
historical records show that Homer was born in Ioniain Asia Minor (located in modern
day Turkey), and probably lived during 7th century BCE or 8th century BCE. Herodotus,
a historian of 5th century BCE, affirms that both Homer and Hesiod, a contemporary
poet, lived not more than four hundred years before him.
Homeric poems precede the compositions of Hesiod, the author of Theogony or
Genealogy of the Gods and Works and Days. In Works and Days, Hesiod describes the
life of the farmers and glorifies their hard work on the land. It is written in Homeric
verse, which shows the influence of Homer’s style on Hesiod. However, it seems
apparent that Hesiod suffered from the anxiety of Homeric influence. In Theogony, he
says that while tending the flock on Mount Helicon, the abode of the Muses, he received
orders from the Muses to become a poet and to sing of the gods. In Works and Days,
he refers to a contest between two poets, in which he wins a tripod by defeating the rival
poet. Although Hesiod does not mention the name of Homer as his rival, in another
biographical narrative called Certamen Homeri et Hesiodi or Contest of Homer and
Hesiod, this imagined contest is represented as taking place between Homer and Hesiod,
in which the latter wins because his works on agriculture and peaceful life is considered
thematically superior to Homer’s war narratives.
The Trojan War features as the backdrop in both the epics of Homer. It is said to
have taken place in the eleventh or twelfth century BCE, which is approximately three
to four hundred years before Homer’s lifetime. For a long time, many scholars
considered the war and the city of Troy as fictional but later, in the nineteenth century,
archeologists confirmed the existence of the city in Hisalrik, a place in Turkey. Since
Homer is one of the forefathers of ancient Greek literature, his take on the war is
important not only in understanding a long poetic tradition but also in knowing the
Mycenaean world, the first civilisation of Europe. Richard Jenkyns says that the
Mycenaean civilisation was “at its peak in the middle of the second millennium BC, and
the Iliad retains some memory of that time” (1). Jenkyns also points out that the
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  61

“Mycenaeans spoke Greek and they knew the use of writing, although they may have
employed it only for practical purposes, but with the decline of this culture writing
disappeared, not to be introduced again until in the eighth century” (1-2). In this
context, the interesting facts presented in his observation raise a question in our minds
whether

Source: https://blog.britishmuseum.org/who-was-homer/

Homer’s epics had evolved through writing or they belonged purely to the oral tradition.
It may be possible that it was partially written either by the poet himself or by a scribe
at different points of time. Many have challenged the authenticity of single authorship
and have argued that the Iliad and the Odyssey are perhaps works of collaboration.
 Activities:
1. Consult relevant books and authentic sources on the internet, gather information
on the authors mentioned below and write short notes on them: Plato, Aristotle,
Hesiod and Herodotus.
62  CC-EG-02  NSOU

2. The names of the four authors mentioned in Activity no. 1 are not necessarily
arranged chronologically. Arrange them chronologically, giving the dates of
their life period, wherever possible, against brackets.
3. Consult appropriate sources to find out the locations of the places mentioned on
the modern map of the world.

2.4.2 Homer and His Works

Daisy Dunn, a historian and writer, says that “the word ‘Homeros’ could mean
hostage in Greek, so some imagined that he was a captive.” Perhaps, this is the reason
why he chose to sing of warfare and war heroes in his major works: the Iliad and the
Odyssey. It is important to gather elementary information about the fall of Troy before
reading any of these epics. Priam was the king of Troy when the war took place. His
son Paris had abducted Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus, the king of Sparta. In
order to take revenge of this dishonor and to recover her, Agamemnon, the elder brother
of Menelaus, attacked Troy and destroyed it.
The Iliad has a simple plot. Its story is fleshed out of a particular episode in the
Trojan War, wherein Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae, quarreled with Achilles, the
best warrior in his army, during the siege of Troy. Achilles feels humiliated when the
king takes away Briseis, his concubine. Achilles leaves the battle and refuses to return
even when Agamemnon calls him back through an embassy (Patroclus) and offers
compensation. Achilles returns to the battlefield with wrathful vengeance only when he
hears that Hector, elder son of King Priam, has killed Patroclus, his friend. He not only
kills Hector but also refuses to hand over the corpse to the Trojans, which annoys the
gods. King Priam comes to collect the body of his son and finally Hector receives a
stately burial. The poem ends with restoration of order in the society and in the life of
Achilles.
The Iliad represents a particular behaviour of the hero (wrath) during the Trojan
War, rather than the story of his life. The Odyssey dwells on what it is to be a man. It
looks back at the war in retrospect through the adventures of Odysseus.In twenty-four
books the Odyssey narrates the story of the return of Odysseus from Troy to his home
in Ithaca. Thereafter, it also tells us of the revenge he took on the suitors of Penelope,
his wife. The Odyssey was written later than the Iliad and is often considered as a sequel
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  63

to it. Ten years had passed after the fall of Troy but Odysseus could not return home.
Telemachus, his son, goes in search of his father and he is guided by Athena, the Greek
goddess of wisdom and warfare. For seven years, Odysseus is detained in the island of
Ogygia by goddess Calypso. Zeus orders Calypso to set Odysseus free. He makes a raft
and sails on it. Poseidon, the sea god, raises a storm to take revenge on Odysseus as
he had blinded Poseidon’s son Polyphymus, a cannibal giant. The adventures of
Odysseus describe his encounter with gods, goddesses, women, monsters and the spirits
of the dead. The most prominent motif in this epic is that of ‘journey’ and it has been
explored by Homer from both literal and metaphorical perspectives, thereby tracing the
growth of the hero’s perception of the perplexities and his perseverance in resolving
them. Considering these factors, the Odyssey is also read as a bildungsroman in which
identity, hospitality and test are the major themes.
The Homeric Hymns is another important work ascribed to Homer and the school
of poets who followed his grand style. The word ‘hymn’ is derived from the Greek term
hymnos meaning a song in praise of a divine figure. The Homeric hymns consist of a
collection of thirty three poems written in Greek hexameter.In epic style, these hymns
either invoke the gods and goddesses whose festivals were celebrated or describe events
from the lives of the deities. Particularly, two out of these—“Hymn to Demeter” and
“Hymn to Apollo”—are very popular. In Greek mythology, Apollo is an authority on
music, prophecy, medicine, sun and archery, and Demeter holds her claim over grain
and fertility. The “Hymn to Demeter,” presents a mother-daughter narrative of Demeter
and Persephone. It is based on the myth of Hades’ seizing of Persephone and Demeter’s
search for her. The pursuit ends with the establishment of Eleusinian mysteries, which
are associated with the annual rites of the ancient Greeks in the village of Eleusis in
Athens. The “Hymn to Apollo” is divided into two parts: the first part describes the
birth of the god on Delos; the second part deals with the establishment of his oracle at
Delphi. The hymns narrate the attributes of the concerned deity and often recapitulate
their great deeds in the past. These also describe the rituals and the rites that are
performed to please the deities.
 Activities:
1. Consult appropriate sources and write a short note on the Trojan War.
2. Prepare a list of gods, goddesses and monsters you have come across in the
above section (1.2) and write briefly on them after consulting relevant sources.
64  CC-EG-02  NSOU

3. What is a bildungsroman? Name some works which can be placed under the
category.

2.4.3 The ‘Homeric’ Style

Although Homer’s authorship has been debated for a long time, recurrence of
certain stylistic features in the epics shows that these have been produced by a single
mind. An example of this in the Iliad is the recurrence of adjectives such as ‘cloud-
gathering Zeus’, ‘noble Achilles’ and ‘swift-footed Achilles’. It is also evident that both
the poems “were composed in an Ionian speaking part of the Greek world” (Oxford
Concise Companion to Classical Literature 275). Although the art of writing was re-
established in Greece in 8th century BC the narrative structure of the works shows that
the poems were meant for oral delivery. Either the poet sang the epic in accompaniment
of a lyre, a stringed instrument, or he chanted the lines.
The Iliad is written in dactylic hexameter. Elaborating on its metrical structure,
Jenkyns makes the following observation:
There are six feet to the line; each of the feet may be either a dactyl (dum-di-di)
or a spondee (dum-dum), except for the last, which is always a spondee. The great
majority of feet are dactyls. So the verse moves lightly: the combination of ease
and speed with epic elevation is the essence of Homeric style. (5)
Homeric style is synonymous with a distinct poetic tradition. It was sincerely
emulated by the later poets, who chose to write of the existing heroic narratives in either
religious scriptures or in classical mythology. Homeric simile (also known as epic
simile), which is an extended simile, can be found in Virgil’s Aeneid (29-19 BC) and
John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667). These poets have, for example, used Homer’s
simile of tree leaves in their respective works for representing multitude. Like the Iliad,
the Aeneid is written in dactylic hexameter and like the Odyssey, it explores the journey
motif through the wanderings of Aeneas from Troy to Italy. Though Paradise Lost was
written much later it adheres to the epic conventions that were founded by Homer and
were innovatively carried forward by Virgil. When Milton presents a list of the fallen
angels through Satan’s roll call in Paradise Lost Bk 1,we are reminded of the long lists
of the Greek and Trojan fighters represented in Book 2 of the Iliad.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  65

2.4.4 Summing Up
Homer offers a panoramic view of the ancient Greek world through an extensive
representation of mythology in his works. Although the mythological tales were well-
known to the audience of his time, Homer re-viewed those narratives through an
experimental representation of the characters of the divine figures and the humans. At
times, Homer portrays his humans as demi-gods. Their wisdom, resilience and tenacity
to fight against the odds leave us awe-stricken. On the other hand, in the Iliad and the
Odyssey, we come across gods and goddesses, who are cunning, revengeful and
frivolous. Their character and temperament are more like the mundane human beings
than the celestial figures. Plato condemned such arepresentation of divinity because he
felt that it would have an ill impact on the common people. This was one reason why
he advocated the banishment of the poets from his ideal republic. Needless to say,
Homer would not have found an entry there. However, as readers, we cannot overlook
the beauty and grandeur in Homer’s treatment of the historical facts and the
mythological tales. He is indeed a great poet whose poetry can transpose us to a sublime
world of antiquity.
 Activities:
1. Watch the BBC documentary series In Search of the Trojan War (1985), written
and presented by Michael Wood.
2. Look into an Atlas or a map of modern Europe and try to locate the birth place/
s of Homer and the city of Troy

2.4.5 Comprehension Exercises

 Broad Questions:
1. Write a brief sketch of Homer’s biography.
2. Write a critical note on Homer’s creative oeuvre and his influence on later
writers.
3. What is your impression about Homer’s style? Write a critical note.
Middle-length Questions:
1. Will you consider the Odyssey as a sequel to the Iliad? Justify.
66  CC-EG-02  NSOU

2. Briefly narrate the theme of the Odyssey.

3. Write a brief essay on Hesiod.
4. What is Homeric simile? Give some examples.
 Short Questions:
1. Where is Ionia located?
2. Which character is considered as the self-representation of Homer?
3. How many books comprise the Odyssey?
4. Who is Telemachus?
5. Who are Apollo and Demeter?
6. What is a hymn?
7. Who was Plato? What was his attitude towards poets?
8. Where was Odysseus detained for seven years?

2.4.6 Suggested Reading

Dunn, Daisy. “Who was Homer?” Blog post. The British Museum. 22nd January, 2020.
https://blog.britishmuseum.org/who-was-homer. Accessed on 28th April, 2021.
Easterling, P.E. and B.M.W. Knox, eds. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature.
Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1985.
Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: The John Hopkins UP, 1987.
Howatson, M.C. and Ian Chilvers, eds. Oxford Concise Companion to Classical
Literature. Oxford: OUP, 1993.
Jenkyns, Richard. “Homer.” Classical Literature: An Epic Journey from Homer to
Virgil and Beyond. New York: Basic Books, 2016. 1-22.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  67

Unit 5  An Overview of Homer’s Iliad

Structure
2.5.0 Introduction
2.5.1 The Iliad: The Greek World
2.5.2 The Iliad: Background Information
2.5.3 Brief Summary of each Book of the Iliad
2.5.4 Conventions of Epic poetry in the Iliad
2.5.5 Summing Up
2.5.6 Comprehension Exercises
2.5.7 Suggested Reading

2.5.0 Introduction
While your syllabus specifically has Book 1 of the Iliad, it is important for you to
have an overview of Homer’s work in its entirety. So in this Unit, we briefly introduce
you to all 24 books of the Iliad, so that you are able to have a better understanding of
the classical epic mode in general and the Homeric work in particular. Apart from that,
we also acquaint you with the overarching themes, and the picture of the society in
which the text is set. As you go through this Unit, you are advised to keep referring back
to Module 1 Unit 2 where the features of epic poetry have been explained in detail. At
the end of this unit, you are expected to:
 have an idea of the ancient Greek world
 know the background of Troy and the Trojan War
 know the storyline of the Iliad
 have some idea about epic conventions

2.5.1 The Iliad: The Greek World

Many of you know that the battle of Troy was fought between the Greeks and the
Trojans. In the Iliad, however, Homer does not refer to the rivals of the Trojans as the
68  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Greeks. He addresses them mostly as the Achaeans, the Argives and the Danaans. Let
us try to find out who these people were and why we commonly refer to them as the
Greeks. During Homer’s time, which was specifically the late Bronze Age, the nation
of Greece did not exist as it does in the modern world map. The political demography
of the eastern and the western parts of the Mediterranean during that age, and
particularly, the period when the Battle of Troy had taken place, was divided among
four major empires, namely: the Mesopotamian Empire, the Babylonian Empire, the
Egyptian Empire and the Hittite Empire. With the Hittite Empire to its east, the Aegean
Sea and Mycenae in the west, the city of Troy was located in north-west Asia Minor
(modern day Turkey). The term ‘Achaeans,’ in the ancient times, referred to both the
region and the people in south-east Thessaly and north-east Peloponnese. It was in
South Thessaly that Achilles, whose wrath is the central theme of the Iliad, lived.
‘Achaeans’ also referred to the subjects of Agamemnon, the ruler of Mycenae, who
resided in the north- east Peloponnese. In an extended sense the term ‘Achaeans’
denoted the Greek world and the Greek people. At this point, it should be mentioned
that in the ancient times, particularly during the time of Homer, the concept of nation, as
we understand it today, did not exist.
The term ‘Argives’ is associated with ‘Argos’ (also called Argolis), a city in the
north-east Peloponnese. In Homer’s works, ‘Argos’ refers to the city of King Diomedes
and the kingdom of Agamemnon. Homer also used it to refer to “the whole of the
Peloponnese, as opposed to Hellas, i.e. Greece north of the Isthmus of Corinth”
(Howatson and Chilvers 53). “Danaans sometimes signifies Argives” (Howatson and
Chilvers, 159) and in this regard the term was applied widely to the Greek people living
in the Peloponnesian region. The Achaeans, the Argives and the Danaans—whom
Homer identified as the Greeks, lived in different parts of the Peloponnesian region. It
is a widely known fact that in the classical times, the Greek world was also known as
‘Hellas’ or ‘Hellenes.’ We should, however, note that Homer does not refer to the
besieging group in the Trojan War as the Hellenes. Although both, the Achaeans and the
Hellenes, represented the ancient Greek world, to Homer they were distinct groups.

2.5.2 The Iliad: Background Information

The title of Homer’s epic is derived from ‘Ilion’ or ‘Ilium’ which is another name
of the ancient city of Troy. The name is also associated with Ilus, the legendary founder
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  69

of the city. In order to have a fair idea of the tale of Troy, you should have some basic
knowledge of the history of this city. It was famous for horses and textiles. Troy had
been attacked and occupied several times. In 1300 BC, the city was destroyed by an
earthquake. Ancient historians have differed about the year of Trojan War. From their
writings, we know that the War took place between 1280 BC and 1184 BC. The study
of the family tree of the Trojan rulers explains the nomenclature of the city: “Dardanus
[, the] son of Zeus ‘established Dardania’ (as Homer says), a district north-east of Troy,
and married the daughter of the local king Teucer (Teukros). He had as descendants
‘Tros’ (from whom the Troad and the Trojans were named) and Ilus, who founded the
city of Troy, sometimes called after him Ilium (Ilion)” (Howatson and Chilvers, 557).
King Priam, whose name you will come across in Iliad, is the grandson of Ilus and the
son of Laomedon. He is the father of Hector, Paris, Polydorus, Cassandra and Creusa.
In the Iliad he is represented as an old man. He laments the death of Hector and his
other sons, who died in the Trojan War. In Unit 4, you have already read about the
cause of the War. You must be curious to know why Paris, Hector’s brother, had
abducted Helen. She, the paragon of beauty, was married to Menelaus, the king of
Sparta. Abduction of the married woman, which apparently became the triggering factor
for the outbreak of the War, was an indirect consequence of a negotiation between Paris
and a goddess.
The background of the Trojan tale takes us to the Greek mythology. Zeus, the
supreme God of the Greeks, loved Thetis, a sea-goddess. However, he did not marry her
when he came to know that she will give birth to a son, who will be greater than his
father. Zeus decided to get her married to a mortal. Thetis was married to Peleus, king
of Phthia. In the wedding ceremony, all gods and goddesses were invited except Eris,
the goddess of strife. She was angry and had come to the banquet hall unexpectedly to
play a trick. She dropped there a golden apple on which was inscribed ‘For the Fairest.’
Soon this apple became an apple of discord between Hera, the wife of Zeus, and their
two daughters, Athena and Aphrodite (Find more about the family tree of the Greek
gods and goddesses by clicking on https://greece.mrdonn.org/greekgods/familytree.html).
All three women claimed the apple and went to Zeus to seek justice. Zeus, in turn,
told them to go to Paris. Each goddess offered a bribe to Paris in order to take
possession of the apple. While Hera promised to give him royal power, Athena offered
him the boon of military success. Aphrodite said that he would have the most beautiful
woman on earth as his wife. Paris was tempted by Aphrodite’s offer and awarded the
golden apple to her. Since Helen was the most beautiful woman in the Greek world,
70  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Paris sailed to Sparta to meet her. Not only did he woo her but also convinced her to
come along with him to Troy. Many years ago, at the time of Helen’s marriage, the
kings who courted her had vowed to protect her honour and the honour of the man she
chose to marry. Thus, when Menelaus came to know about the abduction of his wife, he
urged the Greek rulers to wage a war against Troy. And thus was formed a loose
confederation of Greek army which would ultimately launch a war against Troy.
 Activity for the Learner:
1. Try to find out the present location of Greece in the atlas and compare its
position with that of the old ‘Greece.’
2. Try to locate the ancient Troy in the map of modern-day Europe.
3. Look up the word ‘Hellenes’ in the dictionary and consult other relevant
sources and write a short note on it.
4. Who are referred to as the ‘Achaeans,’ the ‘Argives’ and the ‘Danaans’ in the
Iliad?
5. Read this unit and consult relevant sources and draw a family tree of Zeus.
6. Write short notes on Zeus, Athena, Aphrodite and Eris.

2.5.3 Brief Summary of each Book of the Iliad

BOOK I
Book I, which is on your syllabus, dwells on the incidents of the tenth year of the
siege of Troy. It deals mainly with the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles.
Chryses requests Agamemnon to release his daughter Chryseisis in exchange of a
huge ransom. Although Chryses invokes the name of Apollo, he is insulted by the
king. Apollo sends pestilence to the Greek camp which wreaks havoc there. In a
meeting of Greek kings called by Achilles, Calchas, a seer, reveals that Apollo’s anger
has caused the epidemic and that the solution lies in the release of Chryseisis.
Agamemnon gets angry with Achilles and threatens to take Briseis, the latter’s girl.
He thereafter frees Chryseis but forcibly takes away Briseis. In retaliation Achilles
withdraws from the War. His mother Thetis persuades Zeus to “grant victory to the
Trojans, till the Achaeans [Greeks] give my son his due and load him with riches in
requital.”
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  71

BOOK II
To keep his promise, Zeus sends to Agamemnon a dream which falsely assures the
latter that if he mounts attacks on Troy now, he will be victorious. Agamemnon then
assembles his army and wants to test their resolution by saying that he will give up
the war and return to Greece. Unfortunately for him, the troops are glad and start
embarking their ships. Alarmed at this, Hera, Zeus’s wife who nurtures grudge against
Paris and Troy (we have already discussed the reason earlier), comes to his help and
becomes instrumental in reassembling the troops and getting them mentally prepared
for the War. Then they march for the war. The poet, invoking the muse, offers details
of the Greek army and also of the Trojan forces.
BOOK III
Menelaus and Paris engage themselves in a duel. It is a fight between two equals
and none of them can claim advantage. At one point in the fight, Menelaus is able to
catch hold of Paris and drag him along. This is a point when he gains advantage over
his rival but it is neutralised when Aphrodite who favours the Trojans intervenes and
whisks Paris away to Priam’s palace. Helen meets him there. Since Paris cannot be
traced in the battleground, Agamemnon insists on Greek victory and demands Helen
back.
BOOK IV
A quarrel among the gods breaks out in Olympus. Zeus feels that the Greeks have
won the battle and there should be an end to the war. But Hera insists on the
continuation of the war. As she favours the Greeks, she wants the complete destruction
of the Trojans. Zeus gives in to her pleas. She employs a divine ploy to begin the war
afresh. As the battle rages, many lives are lost but the major characters remain
unharmed. The gods’ intervention, however, continues to affect the course of the war.
BOOK V
Athena empowers Diomedes with the power of seeing the gods and the goddesses
in the battlefield but instructs her not to disturb them except Aphrodite. Pandarus is
killed by him but Aeneas is saved by Aphrodite whom, however, Diomedes is able to
hurt. Aeneas later returns to the war. With divine help the Greeks are able to inflict
severe losses on the Trojans.
72  CC-EG-02  NSOU

BOOK VI
The battle continues, now without the direct participation of the gods. The Greeks
gain advantage over the Trojans. Hector returns to his mother Hecuba to request her to
arrange a big sacrifice for Athena so that the Trojans can rebuff the Greeks. Although
the sacrifice is given, Athena refuses to listen to their prayer. Hector and Paris join the
war.
BOOK VII
To avoid the continued slaughter, Hector proposes a duel with anyone from the
Greek camp. Ajax is chosen to fight Hector. The two warriors engage in the duel but
it remains inconclusive. The heralds call them back at the end of the day. Nestor
proposes a truce so that the burial of the dead can be arranged. They will also be able
to utilise this time in building a protective wall. The Trojans too send a proposal for a
temporary truce for the burial of the dead. They also propose to restore Helen’s property
to the Greeks and give some of Paris’s own. This proposal is meant as an alternative
to the return of Helen to Agamemnon. The latter accepts the proposal of the truce but
not the other one.
BOOK VIII
Zeus asks the gods not to interfere in the war. He goes to the Mount Ida to look at
the Trojan plane below. The Trojans give a spirited fightback and the Greeks retreat
behind their wall. Hera and Athena try to help the Greeks but are stopped by Zeus.
Hector and other Trojans camp outside the wall to retain the advantage of the day.
BOOK IX
The Greeks are crestfallen. Even Agamemnon breaks down and speaks of returning
home. The soldiers naturally feel demoralised. Diomedes, however, chides Agamemnon
for his negative attitude and reminds him that the Greeks are fated to win. This instills
some confidence in both Agamemnon and the common soldiers. Nestor reminds
Agamemnon of the absence of Achilles and Agamemnon confesses his own foolishness.
He agrees to return Briseis and offer gifts to Achilles if he agrees to join the battlefield.
But Achilles refuses the offer and says that he cannot be bought or sold by money and
wealth. Diomedes proposes that they should prepare for the fight next day and then all
retire for rest.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  73

BOOK X
Diomedes and Odysseus [in disguise] go out to the Trojan camp for spying. The
Trojans also send Dolan to spy on the Greeks. Dolan is captured and information about
the Trojan camp, their preparedness, Hector’s location and other sensitive information
is extracted from him. Then they kill him and some other Trojans. Apollo interferes and
then they return to their camps and take a ritual bath.
BOOK XI
The Greeks under the leadership of Agamemnon gain some initial advantage in the
battle but Agamemnon and several other Greek leaders are wounded. As they retire, the
Trojans make advances. Achilles, confined in his isolation, goes through a mixed
feeling of sorrow for the predicament of his comrades in the battle field and pleasure at
the plight of the Greeks for the injustice done to him. He sends his friend Petroklos to
Nestor for gathering information of the proceedings of the battle. As Nestor provides
Petroklos fresh information, he requests the latter to take initiatives for persuading
Achilles to participate in the war. If he fails to do so, he should wear Achilles’s famous
armour and join the fight.
BOOK XII
The Trojans storm the fortification under the leadership of Hector. As Hector and
Polydamas attempt to attack the wall, they see an omen which is interpreted by the latter
as the sign of their failure. Hector, however, ignores the interpretation and attacks the
weak fortification.
BOOK XIII
As Zeus takes his attention away from the battlefield, the sea-god Poseidon secretly
tries to help the Greeks. As the plundering Trojans advance and kill Poseidon’s
grandson, the sea-god becomes angry and helps the Greeks organise an attack against
the Trojans. This results in a huge casualty on the Trojan side. Reinforced by Paris’s
encouraging words, Hector regains his spirit. As Hector and his team move forward,
Ajax promises to offer a great fight. They engage in fights.
BOOK XIV
As Agamemnon, now injured like Odysseus and Diomedes, descends into
depression and speaks of returning home, leaders like Odysseus and Diomedes criticise
him and speak of the need for encouraging the soldiers. Poseidon also informs them that
the Trojan attacks will indeed be repulsed. Hera and others plan to put Zeus on sleep so
that
74  CC-EG-02  NSOU

he cannot pay attention to the battle. Counselled and aided by Poseidon, the Greeks now
attack the Trojans and injure Hector. Ultimately, the Trojans have to retreat.
BOOK XV
Zeus wakes up to discover the wreckage Hera and Poseidon had done to Hector. He
summons Iris and Apollo and informs them that his support for the Trojans is temporary
and is strategic in nature as it is intended to glorify Achilles. He further predicts that
Hector will kill Petroklas which will ultimately bring Achilles to the battlefield. Iris
goes to Poseidon to refrain him from helping the Greeks. The sea-god reluctantly agrees
to leave the field. Apollo gets into the act of curing Hector’s wounds and getting him
reinvigorated.
BOOK XVI
As the Trojans burn Greek ships, Petroklas requests Achilles to lend him his armour
so that he can repulse the attack. Achilles agrees but warns not to do any more than save
the ships as pursuing the Trojans back to their wall will spell his doom. Seeing Petroklas
join the fight in Achilles armour, the Trojans get scared. They believe that Achilles
himself has joined the war. As they retreat and as Petroklas follow them, Apollo strikes
him from behind and his armour comes out. He is ultimately killed by Hector.
BOOK XVII
This book deals with intense clashes that erupt around the corpse of Patroklas. The
Trojan soldier who speared him is killed by Meneleus. Hector arrives and strips
Patroklas of his armour which he then wears. Meneleus and Ajax, however, are able to
save the body from being desecrated and to send back Hector and his army.
BOOK XVIII
Achilles is informed of Patroklas’s death and he is grief-stricken. His cry attracts
the attention of his mother Thetis who arrives there to know the reason of his grief.
Achilles informs her that he wants to join the war and kill Hector to avenge Patroklas’s
death and that he wants an armour for the purpose. Thetis asks him to wait for a day so
that the divine smith can make a new one for him. Achilles appears on the battlefield
and lets out a cry that scares away the Trojan warriors. Patroklas’s body is
retrieved.
BOOK XIX
Achilles and Agamemnon are reconciled with each other. This causes jubilation in
the Greek camp. Achilles wants to join the war immediately but he is persuaded to wait
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  75

as the soldiers need refreshment and rest. Though Achilles knows that he is doomed to
die, he rushes to the battlefield with his team.
BOOK XX
As the Greek and the Trojan armies get locked in an intense battle, Zeus calls a
meeting of gods and permit them to assist their favourites. They are instructed to see
that the fate of the war which has been pre-determined should not be altered. The gods
get into action accordingly. Achilles fights the war ferociously and kills many Trojans.
While he is about to kill Aeneas, Poseidon intervenes and saves the latter.
BOOK XXI
Achilles continues his ferocious attacks on the Trojans and kills many of them. He
throws so many of the dead bodies on the river Scamander that it gets clogged and the
river-god protests and drags Achilles to the downstream. At this the gods intervene and
sets the plains on fire and ultimately the river-god relents. The gods also quarrel among
themselves. Achilles in the mean time pursues the Trojan soldiers back to wall of the
city and is about to seize it but fails because of Poseidon’s intervention.
BOOK XXII
Hector is the only Trojan hero who chooses to remain outside the city wall. He
confronts Achilles and in a fierce fight ultimately dies. Achilles drags his corpse
through the dirt as Priam witnesses his son’s misfortune.
BOOK XXIII
Back in the Greek camp, Achilles mourns Patroklas’s death. His friend visits him
in his dream and requests Achilles to arrange for his funeral so that he can enter the land
of the death. Achilles does so in the next morning and organises some competitions in
the honour of his dead friend.
BOOK XXIV
As Achilles continues to dishonour Hector’s corpse, Apollo protects it from dogs
and prevents it from rotting. Zeus settles that the corpse should be given back to the
Trojans in exchange for a ransom. Priam arrives to take his son’s body and Achilles
agrees to hand it over to Priam. Back in the Trojan camp, proper arrangements are made
for the burial.
 A Quick Recap Activity:
1. How many books does the Iliad have?
76  CC-EG-02  NSOU

2. Go through the book-wise summary of the Iliad and check whether the
abduction of Helen and the storming of the Troy find place in the epic. Consult
the original text and other relevant sources.
3. Write down the names of the major Greek and Trojan characters mentioned in
the epic.
4. What happened over the body of Patroklas?
5. What is the significance of Achilles’s armour?
6. Which event, according to you, turn the tide of the war in the favour of the
Greeks?
7. Mention at least one Book where the gods engage themselves in quarrel.
8. In which Book are Achilles and Agamemnon reconciled with each other?
9. In which book is Hector killed?
10. How does the epic end?

2.5.4 Conventions of Epic Poetry in the Iliad

An epic is a long narrative poem celebrating the great deeds of legendary or
mythical heroes. It has a grand ceremonious style. M.H. Abrams defines an epic as
follows: “it is a long verse narrative on a serious subject, told in a formal and elevated
style, and centered on a heroic or quasi-divine figure on whose actions depends the
fate of a tribe, a nation” (76).
There are two types of epic poetry: primary epic and secondary epic. The primary
epics are those that evolve from folktales sung by the wandering bards. These are
mostly oral renderings of the heroic tales popular among a particular cultural group. The
Iliad, the Odyssey, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata are examples of primary epic.
The secondary epic, also known as literary epic, is written in imitation of the epic form
represented in the primary epics. Virgil’s Aenied and John Milton’s Paradise Lost are
examples of secondary epic.
Epic poetry follows a set of conventions, which are also its characteristics:
i) Most epics begin with an Invocation to the Muse/deity. In the Invocation, the
poet presents the epic question or the argument, which apparently addresses the
major theme of the work. The Iliad begins with Homer’s invocation to the
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  77

muse: “Sing, goddess, the anger of Achilles, the anger which caused so many
sorrows to the Greeks” (Richards 33).
ii) The narrative begins in medias res (“in the middle of things”). The Iliad begins
at the tenth year of the siege of Troy. The battle is in full swing between the
Trojans and the Greeks. Specifically, it refers to the time and situation when
“first, Agamemnon, king of men, and great Achilles were parted in anger”
(Richards 33).
iii) The hero is a quasi-divine figure. His position is of national and cosmic
importance. Iliad, for example, is the son of Thetis, a sea nymph. Although he
is a mortal, his strength and valour surpasses the ordinary human standards. In
Book XVIII, when Achilles re-appears in the battlefield and snarls at his
adversaries, the Trojan warriors are scared. He is also a man of scruples. This
becomes evident when he turns down Agamemnon’s bribe of wealth and
woman and sticks to his code of self-respect.
iv) The scope of the setting is vast, often expanded across the universe. The action
of Paradise Lost takes place in heaven, on earth, in hell, and in the space
between heaven and hell. In Book XXI of the Iliad Achilles throws the dead
bodies of the Trojans in the river Scamander. When the river is clogged, the
river god is annoyed and he drags Achilles downstream.
v) Superhuman deeds, battles, catalogue of the warriors occupy an important place
in both the primary and the secondary epics. In Book II, you can find two long
lists of the Greek and the Trojan warriors.
vi) Gods and goddesses take part in human action. In the Iliad, the gods and the
goddesses not only participate in the conflict between the two groups but also
behave like the mortals. In Book I, Thetis persuades Zeus to give victory to
the Trojans till Agamemnon realises the fact that he should not have humiliated
Achilles.When Achilles is about to kill Aeneas, Poseidon, the sea god, comes
and saves him. They quarrel among themselves like petty human beings when
their plans are thwarted. Often they interfere in the drama of human action to
either protect the honour of their followers or to render justice. In Book XXIV
Apollo protects the corpse of Hector from the dogs. In the same book, Zeus
states that Hector’s body should be returned to Priam in lieu of big ransom.
78  CC-EG-02  NSOU

vii) The grand style of epic involves an elevated language which abounds in
extensive allusions, epithets and epic similes. The epic simile is also known as
Homeric simile. An elaborate definition of epic similes is given below:
Epic Similes are formal, sustained similes in which the secondary subject, or
vehicle, is elaborated far beyond its specific points of close parallel to the primary
subject, or tenor, to which it is compared. This figure was imitated from Homer by
Virgil, Milton and other writers of literary epics, who employed it to enhance the
ceremonial quality and wide-ranging reference of the narrative style. (Abrams 79)
Now that you have read the characteristics of epic poetry you will be able to
identify these in the first book of the Iliad. You should note down the epic conventions
in Book I and think how these contribute to the thematic aspects of this primary epic.
Although heroic adventures and battle scenes are ample in the Iliad, these are but one of
the many devices to highlight the major themes and the character traits about which you
will study in the next Unit.

2.5.5 Summing Up
In this Unit you have been sensitised to the geo-political locations of the Greece and
Troy and what forging an alliance meant at that time. Asia Minor figures as a focal
point in the context of reading the Iliad. By now you also have some idea about the
factors that played an important role in Paris’ abduction of Helen, which led to the war
between the Trojans and the Homeric Greek world. The story line of the Iliad and the
turning points in must have been clear to you by now. You will be able to identify the
epic conventions while reading Book I of the epic which is in your syllabus. Now that
you have a clear idea of the points mentioned above, you will be able to appreciate the
prescribed section of the epic.

2.5.6 Comprehension Questions

Broad Questions:
1. Write a critical note on the geography and history of Greek and Trojan world
portrayed in Homer’s Iliad. Comment on the formation of the Greek
confederation.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  79

2. What impression do you form about the gods and goddesses mentioned in the
Iliad? Cite examples from the Iliad.
3. Critically analyse the narrative of the Iliad as an epic.
4. Identify the epic features in the Iliad.
5. What is an Invocation? Write a note on Homer’s Invocation in Iliad.
Middle-length Questions:
1. Illustrate the factors that led to the Trojan War. Mention in this connection the
mythical narrative that are available to us.
2. Why do we call the Iliad a primary epic?
3. What led to the conflict between Agamemnon and Achilles?
4. Who wore Achilles armour? What happened to him?
5. Do you consider Achilles a hero? Give reasons for your answer.
Short Questions:
1. What is the origin of the word ‘Iliad’?
2. Who was Helen married to?
3. Who dropped a golden apple with the inscription ‘For the Fairest’ on the
banquet hall during the ceremony of marriage between Thetis and Peleus?
4. What request did Chryses make to Agamemnon?
5. Who was Calchas?
6. Who killed Petroklas?
7. On which river did Achilles throw the dead bodies of his enemies?
8. What do you mean by ‘in medias res’?
9. In which book of the Iliad did Achilles appear in the battlefield?

2.5.7 Suggested Reading

Dunn, Daisy. “Who was Homer?” Blog post. The British Museum. 22nd January, 2020.
https://blog.britishmuseum.org/who-was-homer. Accessed on 28th April, 2021.
“Easterling, P.E. and B.M.W. Knox, eds. The Cambridge History of Classical
Literature.” (“Cornell College: Greek 205, Commentary Project”) Vol. 1.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
80  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Edwards, Mark W. Homer: Poet of the Iliad. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University
Press, 1987.
Howatson, M.C. and Ian Chilvers, eds. Oxford Concise Companion to Classical
Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Jenkyns, Richard. “Homer.” Classical Literature: An Epic Journey from Homer to
Virgil and Beyond. New York: Basic Books, 2016. 1-22.
Richards, I.A. The Iliad of Homer. New York: Norton, 1950.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  81

Unit 6  Book 1—Detailed Analysis

Structure
2.6.0 Introduction
2.6.1 Text of Book 1
2.6.2 Detailed Summary
2.6.3 Major Characters in Book 1
2.6.4 Major Themes in Book 1
2.6.5 Summing up
2.6.6 Comprehension Exercises
2.6.7 Suggested Reading

2.6.0 Introduction
The Iliad, we all know, is about the Trojan War. But if you have read the earlier
units properly, you will realise that this epic deals with only a small part of the War.
It narrates the incidents of the tenth year of the siege of Troy. The epic is mainly about
Achilles and his quarrel with Agamemnon which results in miseries for the Greeks.
Book I which is prescribed in your syllabus narrates the background of the quarrel and
sets the action of the entire epic. This unit will deal only with Book I. It will help you
get acquainted with the main incidents that happen here, the main characters that
appear and the way they behave. It will also analyse some themes of Book I, and will
explore the significant stylistic aspects of the Book. By the end of this unit, you will
be able to—
 critically interpret the first book of the Iliad prescribed in your syllabus;
 understand the form, structure and the epic conventions employed in the text;
 understand the nature of political formations and alliances in the ancient Greece
 interpret the behaviour patterns of the heroic characters of the epic.
82  CC-EG-02  NSOU

2.6.1 Text of Book 1

The Iliad: Book I
The quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles—Achilles withdraws from the war,
and sends his mother Thetis to ask Jove to help the Trojans—Scene between Jove
and Juno on Olympus.
Sing, O goddess, the anger of Achilles son of Peleus, that brought countless ills
upon the Achaeans. Many a brave soul did it send hurrying down to Hades, and many
a hero did it yield a prey to dogs and vultures, for so were the counsels of Jove fulfilled
from the day on which the son of Atreus, king of men, and great Achilles, first fell out
with one another.
And which of the gods was it that set them on to quarrel? It was the son of Jove
and Leto; for he was angry with the king and sent a pestilence upon the host to plague
the people, because the son of Atreus had dishonoured Chryses his priest. Now Chryses
had come to the ships of the Achaeans to free his daughter, and had brought with him
a great ransom: moreover he bore in his hand the sceptre of Apollo wreathed with a
suppliant’s wreath, and he besought the Achaeans, but most of all the two sons of
Atreus, who were their chiefs.
“Sons of Atreus,” he cried, “and all other Achaeans, may the gods who dwell in
Olympus grant you to sack the city of Priam, and to reach your homes in safety; but free
my daughter, and accept a ransom for her, in reverence to Apollo, son of Jove.”
On this the rest of the Achaeans with one voice were for respecting the priest and
taking the ransom that he offered; but not so Agamemnon, who spoke fiercely to him
and sent him roughly away. “Old man,” said he, “let me not find you tarrying about our
ships, nor yet coming hereafter. Your sceptre of the god and your wreath shall profit you
nothing. I will not free her. She shall grow old in my house at Argos far from her own
home, busying herself with her loom and visiting my couch; so go, and do not provoke
me or it shall be the worse for you.”
The old man feared him and obeyed. Not a word he spoke, but went by the shore
of the sounding sea and prayed apart to King Apollo whom lovely Leto had borne.
“Hear me,” he cried, “O god of the silver bow, that protectest Chryse and holy Cilla and
rulest Tenedos with thy might, hear me oh thou of Sminthe. If I have ever decked your
temple with garlands, or burned your thigh-bones in fat of bulls or goats, grant my
prayer, and let your arrows avenge these my tears upon the Danaans.”
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  83

Thus did he pray, and Apollo heard his prayer. He came down furious from the
summits of Olympus, with his bow and his quiver upon his shoulder, and the arrows
rattled on his back with the rage that trembled within him. He sat himself down away
from the ships with a face as dark as night, and his silver bow rang death as he shot
his arrow in the midst of them. Firs the smote their mules and their hounds, but
presently he aimed his shafts at the people themselves, and all day long the pyres of the
dead were burning.
For nine whole days he shot his arrows among the people, but upon the tenth day
Achilles called them in assembly—moved thereto by Juno, who saw the Achaeans in
their death-throes and had compassion upon them. Then, when they were got together,
he rose and spoke among them.
“Son of Atreus,” said he, “I deem that we should now turn roving home if we would
escape destruction, for we are being cut down by war and pestilence at once. Let us ask
some priest or prophet, or some reader of dreams (for dreams, too, are of Jove) who can
tell us why Phoebus Apollo is so angry, and say whether it is for some vow that we have
broken, or hecatomb that we have not offered, and whether he will accept the savour
of lambs and goats without blemish, so as to take away the plague from us.”
With these words he sat down, and Calchas son of Thestor, wisest of augurs, who
knew things past present and to come, rose to speak. He it was who had guided the
Achaeans with their fleet to Ilius, through the prophesyings with which Phoebus Apollo
had inspired him. With all sincerity and goodwill he addressed them thus:—
“Achilles, loved of heaven, you bid me tell you about the anger of King Apollo, I will
therefore do so; but consider first and swear that you will stand by me heartily in word
and deed, for I know that I shall offend one who rules the Argives with might, to whom
all the Achaeans are in subjection. A plain man cannot stand against the anger of a king,
who if he swallow his displeasure now, will yet nurse revenge till he has wreaked it.
Consider, therefore, whether or no you will protect me.”
And Achilles answered, “Fear not, but speak as it is borne in upon you from heaven,
for by Apollo, Calchas, to whom you pray, and whose oracles you reveal to us, not a
Danaan at our ships shall lay his hand upon you, while I yet live to look upon the face
of the earth—no, not though you name Agamemnon himself, who is by far the foremost
of the Achaeans.”
84  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Thereon the seer spoke boldly. “The god,” he said, “is angry neither about vow nor
hecatomb, but for his priest’s sake, whom Agamemnon has dishonoured, in that he
would not free his daughter nor take a ransom for her; therefore has he sent these evils
upon us, and will yet send others. He will not deliver the Danaans from this pestilence
till Agamemnon has restored the girl without fee or ransom to her father, and has sent
a holy hecatomb to Chryse. Thus we may perhaps appease him.”
With these words he sat down, and Agamemnon rose in anger. His heart was black
with rage, and his eyes flashed fire as he scowled on Calchas and said, “Seer of evil,
you never yet prophesied smooth things concerning me, but have ever loved to foretell
that which was evil. You have brought me neither comfort nor performance; and now
you come seeing among Danaans, and saying that Apollo has plagued us because I
would not take a ransom for this girl, the daughter of Chryses. I have set my heart on
keeping her in my own house, for I love her better even than my own wife
Clytemnestra, whose peer she is alike in form and feature, in understanding and
accomplishments. Still I will give her up if I must, for I would have the people live, not
die; but you must find me a prize instead, or I alone among the Argives shall be without
one. This is not well; for you behold, all of you, that my prize is to go elsewhither.”
And Achilles answered, “Most noble son of Atreus, covetous beyond all mankind,
how shall the Achaeans find you another prize? We have no common store from which
to take one. Those we took from the cities have been awarded; we cannot disallow the
awards that have been made already. Give this girl, therefore, to the god, and if ever
Jove grants us to sack the city of Troy we will requite you three and fourfold.”
Then Agamemnon said, “Achilles, valiant though you be, you shall not thus outwit
me. You shall not overreach and you shall not persuade me. Are you to keep your own
prize, while I sit tamely under my loss and give up the girl at your bidding? Let the
Achaeans find me a prize in fair exchange to my liking, or I will come and take your
own, or that of Ajax or of Ulysses; and he to whomsoever I may come shall rue my
coming. But of this we will take thought hereafter; for the present, let us draw a ship
into the sea, and find a crew for her expressly; let us put a hecatomb on board, and let
us send Chryseis also; further, let some chief man among us be in command, either
Ajax, or Idomeneus, or yourself, son of Peleus, mighty warrior that you are, that we
may offer sacrifice and appease the anger of the god.”
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  85

Achilles scowled at him and answered, “You are steeped in insolence and lust of
gain. With what heart can any of the Achaeans do your bidding, either on foray or in
open fighting? I came not warring here for any ill the Trojans had done me. I have no
quarrel with them. They have not raided my cattle nor my horses, nor cut down my
harvests on the rich plains of Phthia; for between me and them there is a great space,
both mountain and sounding sea. We have followed you, Sir Insolence! for your
pleasure, not ours—to gain satisfaction from the Trojans for your shameless self and for
Menelaus. You forget this, and threaten to rob me of the prize for which I have toiled,
and which the sons of the Achaeans have given me. Never when the Achaeans sack any
rich city of the Trojans do I receive so good a prize as you do, though it is my hands
that do the better part of the fighting. When the sharing comes, your share is far the
largest, and I, forsooth, must go back to my ships, take what I can get and be thankful,
when my labour of fighting is done. Now, therefore, I shall go back to Phthia; it will
be much better for me to return home with my ships, for I will not stay here dishonoured
to gather gold and substance for you.”
And Agamemnon answered, “Fly if you will, I shall make you no prayers to stay
you. I have others here who will do me honour, and above all Jove, the lord of counsel.
There is no king here so hateful to me as you are, for you are ever quarrelsome and ill-
affected. What though you be brave? Was it not heaven that made you so? Go home,
then, with your ships and comrades to lord it over the Myrmidons. I care neither for you
nor for your anger; and thus will I do: since Phoebus Apollo is taking Chryseis from me,
I shall send her with my ship and my followers, but I shall come to your tent and take
your own prize Briseis, that you may learn how much stronger I am than you are, and
that another may fear to set himself up as equal or comparable with me.”
The son of Peleus was furious, and his heart within his shaggy breast was divided
whether to draw his sword, push the others aside, and kill the son of Atreus, or to
restrain himself and check his anger. While he was thus in two minds, and was drawing
his mighty sword from its scabbard, Minerva came down from heaven (for Juno had
sent her in the love she bore to them both), and seized the son of Peleus by his yellow
hair, visible to him alone, for of the others no man could see her. Achilles turned in
amaze, and by the fire that flashed from her eyes at once knew that she was Minerva.
“Why are you here,” said he, “daughter of aegis-bearing Jove? To see the pride of
Agamemnon, son of Atreus? Let me tell you—and it shall surely be—he shall pay for
this insolence with his life.”
86  CC-EG-02  NSOU

And Minerva said, “I come from heaven, if you will hear me, to bid you stay your
anger. Juno has sent me, who cares for both of you alike. Cease, then, this brawling, and
do not draw your sword; rail at him if you will, and your railing will not be vain, for
I tell you—and it shall surely be—that you shall hereafter receive gifts three times as
splendid by reason of this present insult. Hold, therefore, and obey.”
“Goddess,” answered Achilles, “however angry a man may be, he must do as you
two command him. This will be best, for the gods ever hear the prayers of him who has
obeyed them.”
He stayed his hand on the silver hilt of his sword, and thrust it back into the
scabbard as Minerva bade him. Then she went back to Olympus among the other gods,
and to the house of aegis-bearing Jove.
But the son of Peleus again began railing at the son of Atreus, for he was still in
a rage. “Wine-bibber,” he cried, “with the face of a dog and the heart of a hind, you
never dare to go out with the host in fight, nor yet with our chosen men in ambuscade.
You shun this as you do death itself. You had rather go round and rob his prizes from
any man who contradicts you. You devour your people, for you are king over a feeble
folk; otherwise, son of Atreus, henceforward you would insult no man. Therefore I say,
and swear it with a great oath—nay, by this my sceptre which shalt sprout neither leaf
nor shoot, nor bud anew from the day on which it left its parent stem upon the
mountains—for the axe stripped it of leaf and bark, and now the sons of the Achaeans
bear it as judges and guardians of the decrees of heaven—so surely and solemnly do I
swear that hereafter they shall look fondly for Achilles and shall not find him. In the day
of your distress, when your men fall dying by the murderous hand of Hector, you shall
not know how to help them, and shall rend your heart with rage for the hour when you
offered insult to the bravest of the Achaeans.”
With this the son of Peleus dashed his gold-bestudded sceptre on the ground and
took his seat, while the son of Atreus was beginning fiercely from his place upon the
other side. Then uprose smooth-tongued Nestor, the facile speaker of the Pylians, and
the words fell from his lips sweeter than honey. Two generations of men born and bred
in Pylos had passed away under his rule, and he was now reigning over the third. With
all sincerity and goodwill, therefore, he addressed them thus:—
“Of a truth,” he said, “a great sorrow has befallen the Achaean land. Surely Priam
with his sons would rejoice, and the Trojans be glad at heart if they could hear this
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  87

quarrel between you two, who are so excellent in fight and counsel. I am older than
either of you; therefore be guided by me. Moreover I have been the familiar friend of
men even greater than you are, and they did not disregard my counsels. Never again can
I behold such men as Pirithous and Dryas shepherd of his people, or as Caeneus,
Exadius, godlike Polyphemus, and Theseus son of Aegeus, peer of the immortals. These
were the mightiest men ever born upon this earth: mightiest were they, and when they
fought the fiercest tribes of mountain savages they utterly overthrew them. I came from
distant Pylos, and went about among them, for they would have me come, and I fought
as it was in me to do. Not a man now living could withstand them, but they heard my
words, and were persuaded by them. So be it also with yourselves, for this is the more
excellent way. Therefore, Agamemnon, though you be strong, take not this girl away,
for the sons of the Achaeans have already given her to Achilles; and you, Achilles,
strive not further with the king, for no man who by the grace of Jove wields a sceptre
has like honour with Agamemnon. You are strong, and have a goddess for your mother;
but Agamemnon is stronger than you, for he has more people under him. Son of Atreus,
check your anger, I implore you; end this quarrel with Achilles, who in the day of battle
is a tower of strength to the Achaeans.”
And Agamemnon answered, “Sir, all that you have said is true, but this fellow must
needs become our lord and master: he must be lord of all, king of all, and captain of
all, and this shall hardly be. Granted that the gods have made him a great warrior, have
they also given him the right to speak with railing?”
Achilles interrupted him. “I should be a mean coward,” he cried, “were I to give in
to you in all things. Order other people about, not me, for I shall obey no longer.
Furthermore I say—and lay my saying to your heart—I shall fight neither you nor any
man about this girl, for those that take were those also that gave. But of all else that is
at my ship you shall carry away nothing by force. Try, that others may see; if you do,
my spear shall be reddened with your blood.”
When they had quarrelled thus angrily, they rose, and broke up the assembly at the
ships of the Achaeans. The son of Peleus went back to his tents and ships with the son
of Menoetius and his company, while Agamemnon drew a vessel into the water and
chose a crew of twenty oarsmen. He escorted Chryseis on board and sent moreover a
hecatomb for the god. And Ulysses went as captain.
88  CC-EG-02  NSOU

These, then, went on board and sailed their ways over the sea. But the son of Atreus
bade the people purify themselves; so they purified themselves and cast their filth into
the sea. Then they offered hecatombs of bulls and goats without blemish on the sea-
shore, and the smoke with the savour of their sacrifice rose curling up towards heaven.
Thus did they busy themselves throughout the host. But Agamemnon did not forget
the threat that he had made Achilles, and called his trusty messengers and squires
Talthybius and Eurybates. “Go,” said he, “to the tent of Achilles, son of Peleus; take
Briseis by the hand and bring her hither; if he will not give her I shall come with others
and take her—which will press him harder.”
He charged them straightly further and dismissed them, whereon they went their
way sorrowfully by the seaside, till they came to the tents and ships of the Myrmidons.
They found Achilles sitting by his tent and his ships, and ill-pleased he was when he
beheld them. They stood fearfully and reverently before him, and never a word did they
speak, but he knew them and said, “Welcome, heralds, messengers of gods and men;
draw near; my quarrel is not with you but with Agamemnon who has sent you for the
girl Briseis. Therefore, Patroclus, bring her and give her to them, but let them be
witnesses by the blessed gods, by mortal men, and by the fierceness of Agamemnon’s
anger, that if ever again there be need of me to save the people from ruin, they shall
seek and they shall not find. Agamemnon is mad with rage and knows not how to look
before and after that the Achaeans may fight by their ships in safety.”
Patroclus did as his dear comrade had bidden him. He brought Briseis from the tent
and gave her over to the heralds, who took her with them to the ships of the Achaeans—
and the woman was loth to go. Then Achilles went all alone by the side of the hoar sea,
weeping and looking out upon the boundless waste of waters. He raised his hands in
prayer to his immortal mother, “Mother,” he cried, “you bore me doomed to live but for
a little season; surely Jove, who thunders from Olympus, might have made that little
glorious. It is not so. Agamemnon, son of Atreus, has done me dishonour, and has
robbed me of my prize by force.”
As he spoke he wept aloud, and his mother heard him where she was sitting in the
depths of the sea hard by the old man her father. Forthwith she rose as it were a grey
mist out of the waves, sat down before him as he stood weeping, caressed him with her
hand, and said, “My son, why are you weeping? What is it that grieves you? Keep it
not from me, but tell me, that we may know it together.”
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  89

Achilles drew a deep sigh and said, “You know it; why tell you what you know well
already? We went to Thebe the strong city of Eetion, sacked it, and brought hither the
spoil. The sons of the Achaeans shared it duly among themselves, and chose lovely
Chryseis as the meed of Agamemnon; but Chryses, priest of Apollo, came to the ships
of the Achaeans to free his daughter, and brought with him a great ransom: moreover
he bore in his hand the sceptre of Apollo, wreathed with a suppliant’s wreath, and he
besought the Achaeans, but most of all the two sons of Atreus who were their chiefs.
“On this the rest of the Achaeans with one voice were for respecting the priest and
taking the ransom that he offered; but not so Agamemnon, who spoke fiercely to him
and sent him roughly away. So he went back in anger, and Apollo, who loved him
dearly, heard his prayer. Then the god sent a deadly dart upon the Argives, and the
people died thick on one another, for the arrows went everywhither among the wide host
of the Achaeans. At last a seer in the fulness of his knowledge declared to us the oracles
of Apollo, and I was myself first to say that we should appease him. Whereon the son
of Atreus rose in anger, and threatened that which he has since done. The Achaeans are
now taking the girl in a ship to Chryse, and sending gifts of sacrifice to the god; but
the heralds have just taken from my tent the daughter of Briseus, whom the Achaeans
had awarded to myself.
“Help your brave son, therefore, if you are able. Go to Olympus, and if you have
ever done him service in word or deed, implore the aid of Jove. Ofttimes in my father’s
house have I heard you glory in that you alone of the immortals saved the son of Saturn
from ruin, when the others, with Juno, Neptune, and Pallas Minerva would have put him
in bonds. It was you, goddess, who delivered him by calling to Olympus the hundred-
handed monster whom gods call Briareus, but men Aegaeon, for he is stronger even
than his father; when therefore he took his seat all-glorious beside the son of Saturn, the
other gods were afraid, and did not bind him. Go, then, to him, remind him of all this,
clasp his knees, and bid him give succour to the Trojans. Let the Achaeans be hemmed
in at the sterns of their ships, and perish on the sea-shore, that they may reap what joy
they may of their king, and that Agamemnon may rue his blindness in offering insult
to the foremost of the Achaeans.”
Thetis wept and answered, “My son, woe is me that I should have borne or suckled
you. Would indeed that you had lived your span free from all sorrow at your ships, for
it is all too brief; alas, that you should be at once short of life and long of sorrow above
your peers: woe, therefore, was the hour in which I bore you; nevertheless I will go to
90  CC-EG-02  NSOU

the snowy heights of Olympus, and tell this tale to Jove, if he will hear our prayer:
meanwhile stay where you are with your ships, nurse your anger against the Achaeans,
and hold aloof from fight. For Jove went yesterday to Oceanus, to a feast among the
Ethiopians, and the other gods went with him. He will return to Olympus twelve days
hence; I will then go to his mansion paved with bronze and will beseech him; nor do
I doubt that I shall be able to persuade him.”
On this she left him, still furious at the loss of her that had been taken from him.
Meanwhile Ulysses reached Chryse with the hecatomb. When they had come inside the
harbour they furled the sails and laid them in the ship’s hold; they slackened the
forestays, lowered the mast into its place, and rowed the ship to the place where they
would have her lie; there they cast out their mooring-stones and made fast the hawsers.
They then got out upon the sea-shore and landed the hecatomb for Apollo; Chryseis also
left the ship, and Ulysses led her to the altar to deliver her into the hands of her father.
“Chryses,” said he, “King Agamemnon has sent me to bring you back your child, and
to offer sacrifice to Apollo on behalf of the Danaans, that we may propitiate the god,
who has now brought sorrow upon the Argives.”
So saying he gave the girl over to her father, who received her gladly, and they
ranged the holy hecatomb all orderly round the altar of the god. They washed their
hands and took up the barley-meal to sprinkle over the victims, while Chryses lifted up
his hands and prayed aloud on their behalf. “Hear me,” he cried, “O god of the silver
bow, that protectest Chryse and holy Cilla, and rulest Tenedos with thy might. Even as
thou didst hear me aforetime when I prayed, and didst press hardly upon the Achaeans,
so hear me yet again, and stay this fearful pestilence from the Danaans.”
Thus did he pray, and Apollo heard his prayer. When they had done praying and
sprinkling the barley-meal, they drew back the heads of the victims and killed and
flayed them. They cut out the thigh-bones, wrapped them round in two layers of fat, set
some pieces of raw meat on the top of them, and then Chryses laid them on the wood
fire and poured wine over them, while the young men stood near him with five-pronged
spits in their hands. When the thigh-bones were burned and they had tasted the inward
meats, they cut the rest up small, put the pieces upon the spits, roasted them till they
were done, and drew them off: then, when they had finished their work and the feast
was ready, they ate it, and every man had his full share, so that all were satisfied. As
soon as they had had enough to eat and drink, pages filled the mixing-bowl with wine
and water and handed it round, after giving every man his drink-offering.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  91

Thus all day long the young men worshipped the god with song, hymning him and
chaunting the joyous paean, and the god took pleasure in their voices; but when the sun
went down, and it came on dark, they laid themselves down to sleep by the stern cables
of the ship, and when the child of morning, rosy-fingered Dawn, appeared they again
set sail for the host of the Achaeans. Apollo sent them a fair wind, so they raised their
mast and hoisted their white sails aloft. As the sail bellied with the wind the ship flew
through the deep blue water, and the foam hissed against her bows as she sped onward.
When they reached the wide-stretching host of the Achaeans, they drew the vessel
ashore, high and dry upon the sands, set her strong props beneath her, and went their
ways to their own tents and ships.
But Achilles abode at his ships and nursed his anger. He went not to the honourable
assembly, and sallied not forth to fight, but gnawed at his own heart, pining for battle
and the war-cry.
Now after twelve days the immortal gods came back in a body to Olympus, and
Jove led the way. Thetis was not unmindful of the charge her son had laid upon her, so
she rose from under the sea and went through great heaven with early morning to
Olympus, where she found the mighty son of Saturn sitting all alone upon its topmost
ridges. She sat herself down before him, and with her left hand seized his knees, while
with her right she caught him under the chin, and besought him, saying :—
“Father Jove, if I ever did you service in word or deed among the immortals, hear
my prayer, and do honour to my son, whose life is to be cut short so early. King
Agamemnon has dishonoured him by taking his prize and keeping her. Honour him then
yourself, Olympian lord of counsel, and grant victory to the Trojans, till the Achaeans
give my son his due and load him with riches in requital.”
Jove sat for a while silent, and without a word, but Thetis still kept firm hold of his
knees, and besought him a second time. “Incline your head,” said she, “and promise me
surely, or else deny me—for you have nothing to fear—that I may learn how greatly
you disdain me.”
At this Jove was much troubled and answered, “I shall have trouble if you set me
quarrelling with Juno, for she will provoke me with her taunting speeches; even now
she is always railing at me before the other gods and accusing me of giving aid to the
Trojans. Go back now, lest she should find out. I will consider the matter, and will bring
it about as you wish. See, I incline my head that you may believe me. This is the most
92  CC-EG-02  NSOU

solemn promise that I can give to any god. I never recall my word, or deceive, or fail
to do what I say, when I have nodded my head.”
As he spoke the son of Saturn bowed his dark brows, and the ambrosial locks
swayed on his immortal head, till vast Olympus reeled.
When the pair had thus laid their plans, they parted—Jove to his house, while the
goddess quitted the splendour of Olympus, and plunged into the depths of the sea. The
gods rose from their seats, before the coming of their sire. Not one of them dared to
remain sitting, but all stood up as he came among them. There, then, he took his seat.
But Juno, when she saw him, knew that he and the old merman’s daughter, silver-footed
Thetis, had been hatching mischief, so she at once began to upbraid him. “Trickster,”
she cried, “which of the gods have you been taking into your counsels now? You are
always settling matters in secret behind my back, and have never yet told me, if you
could help it, one word of your intentions.”
“Juno,” replied the sire of gods and men, “you must not expect to be informed of
all my counsels. You are my wife, but you would find it hard to understand them. When
it is proper for you to hear, there is no one, god or man, who will be told sooner, but
when I mean to keep a matter to myself, you must not pry nor ask questions.”
“Dread son of Saturn,” answered Juno, “what are you talking about? I? Pry and ask
questions? Never. I let you have your own way in everything. Still, I have a strong
misgiving that the old merman’s daughter Thetis has been talking you over, for she was
with you and had hold of your knees this self-same morning. I believe, therefore, that
you have been promising her to give glory to Achilles, and to kill much people at the
ships of the Achaeans.”
“Wife,” said Jove, “I can do nothing but you suspect me and find it out. You will
take nothing by it, for I shall only dislike you the more, and it will go harder with you.
Granted that it is as you say; I mean to have it so; sit down and hold your tongue as
I bid you for if I once begin to lay my hands about you, though all heaven were on your
side it would profit you nothing.”
On this Juno was frightened, so she curbed her stubborn will and sat down in
silence. But the heavenly beings were disquieted throughout the house of Jove, till the
cunning workman Vulcan began to try and pacify his mother Juno. “It will be
intolerable,” said he, “if you two fall to wrangling and setting heaven in an uproar about
a pack of mortals. If such ill counsels are to prevail, we shall have no pleasure at our
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  93

banquet. Let me then advise my mother—and she must herself know that it will be
better—to make friends with my dear father Jove, lest he again scold her and disturb
our feast. If the Olympian Thunderer wants to hurl us all from our seats, he can do so,
for he is far the strongest, so give him fair words, and he will then soon be in a good
humour with us.”
As he spoke, he took a double cup of nectar, and placed it in his mother’s hand.
“Cheer up, my dear mother,” said he, “and make the best of it. I love you dearly, and
should be very sorry to see you get a thrashing; however grieved I might be, I could not
help, for there is no standing against Jove. Once before when I was trying to help you,
he caught me by the foot and flung me from the heavenly threshold. All day long from
morn till eve, was I falling, till at sunset I came to ground in the island of Lemnos, and
there I lay, with very little life left in me, till the Sintians came and tended me.”
Juno smiled at this, and as she smiled she took the cup from her son’s hands. Then
Vulcan drew sweet nectar from the mixing-bowl, and served it round among the gods,
going from left to right; and the blessed gods laughed out a loud applause as they saw
him bustling about the heavenly mansion.
Thus through the livelong day to the going down of the sun they feasted, and every
one had his full share, so that all were satisfied. Apollo struck his lyre, and the Muses
lifted up their sweet voices, calling and answering one another. But when the sun’s
glorious light had faded, they went home to bed, each in his own abode, which lame
Vulcan with his consummate skill had fashioned for them. So Jove, the Olympian Lord
of Thunder, hied him to the bed in which he always slept; and when he had got on to
it he went to sleep, with Juno of the golden throne by his side.
[The above text is taken from the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Iliad, by Homer;
Translator: Samuel Butler. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2199/2199-h/2199-h.htm]

2.6.2 Detailed Summary

The Iliad is an epic poem divided into twenty-four books. In this section we shall
offer a detailed summary of Book I which is prescribed in your syllabus for detailed
study.
Chryseis is the daughter of Chryses, the priest of Apolloin Chryse located near
Troy. In accordance with war custom, she was earlier taken, along with other young
women,
94  CC-EG-02  NSOU

as a ‘prize’ by the Achaeans (the Greeks in the text are called ‘Achaeans,’‘Danaans’ and
‘Argives’). She was ultimately allotted to the hero Agamemnon, a celebrated king well
respected for his valour. In the beginning of Book I we see her father arriving at the
camp of the Achaeans to request Agamemnon to free his daughter in exchange of a huge
ransom. He has the sceptre of Apollo as a mark of his identity. He invokes the name
of Apollo in whose reverence his daughter should be released. Agamemnon refuses to
pay heed to his request. Moreover, he insults him by saying, “Your sceptre of the god
and your wreath shall profit you nothing. I will not free her. She shall grow old in my
house at Argos far from her own home, busying herself with her loom and visiting my
couch.” Both afraid and insulted, Chryses goes to ‘the shore of the sounding sea’ and
prays to Apollo for taking revenge on the ‘Danaans.’ Apollo gets angry with
Agamemnon and sends pestilence to the Greek camp, first affecting ‘their mules and
their hounds,’ and then the men. The death toll continues to mount, and seeing no end to
it, Achilles calls a meeting of the chiefs on the tenth day to consider the ways of solving
the problem. The help of ‘some priest or prophet, or some reader of dreams’ is sought
for explaining the reason of Apollo’s anger. Calchas, the ‘son of Thestor, wisest of
augurs,’ is summoned. But he is afraid to make the revelation as it will invite
Agamemnon’s wrath. Achilles promises to protect the seer from Agamemnon’s anger.
After Achilles’s assurance, Calchas reveals that Apollo is angry because Agamemnon
has insulted his priest Chryses and refused to free his daughter. He also informs them
that Apollo will not “deliver the Danaans from this pestilence till Agamemnon has
restored the girl without fee or ransom to her father, and has sent a holy hecatomb to
Chryse.” At this revelation, Agamemnon gets angry and chides Achilles for making the
demand. He threatens him by saying, “Are you to keep your own prize, while I sit
tamely under my loss and give up the girl at your bidding? Let the Achaeans find me a
prize in fair exchange to my liking, or I will come and take your own, or that of Ajax or
of Ulysses; and he to whomsoever I may come shall rue my coming.” They enter into
heated arguments. Ultimately, Agamemnon agrees to free Chryseis and propitiate the
god. Agamemnon then sends his men to fetch Briseis, Achilles’ girl. Despite being
angry and feeling humiliated, Achilles agrees to hand over the girl to Agamemnon’s
men. Achilles withdraws himself and all his men from the ongoing war against Troy.
Then he prays to Thetis, his immortal mother, and implores her to seek the help of Zeus
to avenge the insult and humiliation he has undergone: “Let the Achaeans be hemmed in
at the sterns of their ships, and perish on the sea-shore, that they may reap what joy they
may of their
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  95

king, and that Agamemnon may rue his blindness in offering insult to the foremost of
the Achaeans.” Thetis then moves to Zeus and informs him of Agamemnon’s misdeed
and her son’s dishonour, and requested Him to “grant victory to the Trojans, till the
Achaeans give my son his due and load him with riches in requital.” Zeus agrees, rather
reluctantly, to do so.
 Quick Recap Activity:
1. How many books does the Iliad have?
2. What is the basic theme of Book I of the Iliad?
3. Go through the prose translation of Book I of the epic given above and prepare
a list of supernatural characters you come across.
4. There are some internet sources which catalogue the names of characters of the
entire epic. Prepare your own list of these characters under three heads: Greeks,
Trojans, and Divinities.
5. You have read about the Iliad’s structure and content in the earlier unit. Try to
write a note on the importance of Book I.

2.6.3 Major Characters

 Achilles:
Achilles is the central character in Homer’s epic Iliad. As a king he appears to rank
below Agamemnon, but it is difficult to find this difference of status in his behaviour
with Agamemnon. He is as severe in his denunciation of the latter as the latter is of him.
He was born out of a union of Peleus, a Greek aristocrat, and Thetis, a sea-goddess.
He thus partakes of the characteristics of both a human being and a semi-god. As a
valiant fighter he is respected by all. He has access to the all-powerful Jove (Zeus),
mainly through his mother, and “his supremacy is powered by gods who favour,
strengthen, and protect him” (Lattimore 47). A fearless fighter, he has both positive and
negative character traits, and has all the ingredients of a tragic hero: he is vulnerable to
emotions of grief and anger and shifting position regarding his stand on the course of
action during the war.His imperfection is mostly evident in his prolonged anger which
leads to his withdrawal from the Trojan War for a long period of time.In Book I we can
trace the source of his anger in Agamemnon’s mischievous behaviour and intention.
96  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Achilles burns with anger for a substantial period of time and participates in the war
only when his friend Patroklos is killed by Hector. This testifies to his sense of loyalty
to his dear friend. Despite being gifted with such noble feelings, he is helpless in
controlling his anger. “Anger,” it has been said, “has clouded a high intelligence, and
Achilleus acts uncertainly” (Lattimore 48). He is acutely sensitive to his sense of
honour. He feels that his honour is violated by Agamemnon who publicly humiliates
him and takes away from him his woman.
In Book I Achilles appears as a person of virtues, one who stands for ethical issues.
He has kindness, respect and love. “He is a man of culture and intelligence; he knows
how to respect heralds, how to entertain estranged friends. He presides over the games
with extraordinary courtesy and tact. He is not only a great fighter but a great
gentleman” (Lattimore 48). He is moved by Chryses’s appeal to Agamemnon and other
Greek kings for the release of his daughter. He is also affected when Briseis is taken
away from him. This act in itself constitutes a violation of his honour; he remains
steadfast in his love and affection for his woman who was obtained through coercive
means. He seems to have no lust for riches as he effortlessly refuses Agamemnon’s gifts
as well as the latter’s proposal to return Briseis who supposedly remains untouched
(Book IX). It has thus justly been said, “Not cash, land, sex or half-hearted apology
moves Akhilleus to don armour, but the death of his dearest friend and companion
Patroklos (16-17)” (15).
As pointed out by Richmond Lattimore, in Book XXIV “Apollo, outraged at the
treatment of his friend Hector, practically describes Achilleus as a brute and a
barbarian”
(48) and feels that Achilles is not really so. Lattimore argues that “if he [Achilles] lacks
the chivalry of Roland, Lancelot, or Beowulf, that is because theirs is a chivalry
coloured with Christian humility which has no certain place in the gallery of Homeric
virtues” (Lattimore 48).In the ultimate analysis one has to largely agree with
Lattimore’s observation that that Achilles is a real man of flesh and blood, “mortal and
fallible, but noble enough to make his own tragedy a great one” (48).
 Agamemnon:
In contrast to Achilles, Agamemnon appears to be arrogant, given to irrational
temper and violence. He leads the loose confederate of Greek kings and leaders against
Troy. Paris of Troy, it may be mentioned, had earlier abducted Helen,with her consent,
taking advantage of her husband King Menelaus’s hospitality. This act which amounts
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  97

to a violation of ethical norms launched ‘thousand’ Greek ships for the purpose of
taking revenge against Troy. Agamemnon, Menelaus’s brother, leads this fleet of ships
and is at present camping near Troy in the tenth year of the war for mounting the final
assault.
Book I of the Iliad is mainly about Agamemnon’s quarrel with Achilles. Both the
characters have mutual respect for each other’s valour. Yet they get entangled in
unnecessary verbal duels that will have far-reaching consequences on the Trojan war.
From this perspective, it appears that both of them lack tactical understanding and
foresightedness, particularly Agamemnon on whom rests the responsibility of leading
the entire team.
As we have already seen, Agamemnon is arrogant and highly conscious of his own
status. Blinded by self-pride and arrogance, he acts in a way that divides his team. The
process begins from the very beginning of Book I when Chryses, the priest of Apollo
in Chryse, appears at his door with an appeal to free his daughter Chryseis who was
taken captive and allotted to Agamemnon earlier. Although many of the leaders are
positively disposed towards Chryses who offers a huge ransom, Agamemnon gets angry
with the priest. Despite the fact that the priest carries the sceptre of Apollo, Agamemnon
insults him, and in the process dishonours Apollo as well. This hurts the priest and
enrages Apollo who sends pestilence to his camp. His attitude to women in general and
captive girls in particular is simply disgusting. He asserts his patriarchal authority, male
ego and a general sense of superiority when he reprimands Chryses by saying, “Your
sceptre of the god and your wreath shall profit you nothing. I will not free her. She shall
grow old in my house at Argos far from her own home, busying herself with her loom
and visiting my couch” (emphasis added). This is pure sadism; the emphasised part of
his retort in particular shows him in poor light. In the above quotation he specifies two
basic duties for women: doing domestic chores and satisfying male pleasure. Both his
injured pride and his lust for power which is intimately associated with the desire to
have control over women as objects of desire come out openly when he demands, and
subsequently sends his men to fetch, Briseis, Achilles’s woman. His demand that the
loss of his woman should be compensated by his co-warrior’s woman is irrational and
shows that he has no respect for his co-warriors;this creates a rift in his own camp. This
turns a friend into an enemy. This ‘intimate enemy’ in his own camp will be a source
of constant irritation for him.
D.J. Snider makes an interesting parallelism between this incident and the abduction
of Helen. He observes that “[t]he cause of Achilles is, therefore, at bottom, the cause
98  CC-EG-02  NSOU

of Helen; he, the first of Greek men, striving to restore the first of Greek women, is
injured in his honor by a wanton act of authority; the wrong done by the Trojans to the
woman now finds its parallel in the wrong done by the Greeks to the man” (189). This
“special form of the wrong, the taking of Briseis”, is in fact a parallel to “the taking of
Helen; the Greek commander is thus seen to commit the very offence for which he and
his Greek armament are seeking to punish the Trojans” (189).He argues that “the Greek
cause… is now at war with itself, which is just the ground of this internal strife; the
Captain makes all the Greeks sharers to a degree in the wrong which they have come
to avenge” (189),
So from both the practical and ethical points of view, the Greeks find themselves
in a difficult situation. It is Agamemnon who is mainly responsible for causing harm to
the Greek cause. His actions are responsible for the cause of pestilence in the Greek
camp, for Thetis getting angry and Zeus promising to take steps, for the withdrawal of
Achilles from the war for a considerable period of time, and similar other factors.
 Quick Recap Activity:
1. Write a short note on the nature of political formations of the time. Read the
text first to gather information about this, and only then start writing.
2. Give your opinion about Achilles’s parentage. What is so striking about it?
3. Why does Achilles withdraw from the war?
4. Do you really consider Achilles as brutish and unemotional? Come to your
conclusion only after reading Book I.
5. Trace some traits in Agamemnon’s character that may appear to be unethical.
6. How many women characters do you find in Book I. Analyse the role they play
in Book I.

2.6.4 Major Themes

 Invocation to the Muse:
The Iliad opens with an invocation to the Muse, the goddess of poetic imagination.
In a poetic rendition the invocation reads:
Sing, goddess, the anger of Peleus’s son Achilleus
and its devastation, which put pains thousandfold upon the
Achaians,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  99

hurled in their multitudes to the house of Hades strong souls

of heroes, but gave their bodies to be the delicate feasting
of dogs, of all birds, and the will of Zeus was accomplished
since that time when first there stood in division of conflict
Atreus’ son the lord of men and brilliant Achilleus.
(Lattimore 59)
“Begin, Muse, when the two first broke and clashed, / Agamemnon lord of men and
brilliant Achilles” (1.8-9). Clearly, the help of the goddess is sought to render a story
of epic dimension, that of the clash between Agamemnon and Achilles. The apparent
understanding is that the poet as a human being is too insignificant to render the stories
of great men and divinities, and hence the interference of the supernatural agencies is
necessary to do so. In fact, this has been done at several important moments in the story
of the epic. The invocation also suggests the important dramatic moments in the texts.
The invocation for all practical reasons introduces the main theme of the epic
which, as has been already mentioned, is the clash between Agamemnon and Achilles.
The poet seeks the divine inspiration in order to know the origin and development of
the quarrel and how it affects the course of the epic.
There is another reason for seeking the intervention. The epic is lofty in both theme
and style, and elaborate in design and length. In order to achieve flawlessness in themes,
designs and styles, the poet must invoke the Muse.
Invocation to the Muse became the part of epic conventions down the ages. Homer
in The Odyssey also employs this convention:
“Tell me, Muse, of the man of many ways, who was driven
far journeys, after he had sacked Troy’s sacred citadel.”
The invocation to the Muse in Virgil’s The Aeneid reads like the following:
“Arms, and the man I sing, who, forced by fate,
And haughty Juno’s unrelenting hate,
Expell’d and Exil’d, left the Trojan shore.”
John Milton borrows this epic device to use it in Paradise Lost:
“Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
100  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Brought death into the world, and all our woe,

With loss of Eden”
So, you can understand how important the invocation to the Muse has become in
the very scheme of an epic poetry.
 Role of Gods and Goddesses:
The Iliad projects a world where Gods and human beings live in close proximity.
Though separated by spaces as well as a hierarchy of status and power, they have
frequent interactions between themselves. The gods and goddesses are loosely
controlled by Zeus, and form a class of their own. “These gods have, in relation to men,
absolute power. God may be overborne by god. The strongest is Zeus, who can do as he
pleases, but often refrains from so doing for fear of unpleasantness” (Lattimore 54).
Interestingly, there are instances of physical interactions between human beings and
gods/goddesses, the birth of Achilles being one glaring example of this. He was born
out of a union between Peleus, a Greek aristocrat, and Thetis, a sea-goddess.
The gods have their own spheres of influence, behave like mortals, being friendly
and quarrelsome with particular beings of their own ilk. They can be as angry and
jealous as their human counterparts, and even interfere in human affairs. They have their
own wards and favourites, and either by favouring or opposing them, they intensify the
dramatic situations in the epic. “For narrative, they are enormously useful. They can
turn events, reconcile otherwise impossible motives, rescue people who have got to be
rescued. But one thing the gods-as-persons of Homer do not do : they do not change
human nature. They manipulate Achilleus, Aeneas, Paris, but they do not make them
what they are. The choices are human; and in the end, despite all divine interferences,
the Iliad is a story of people.” (Lattimore 54). The wars between communities and races
are also caused by divine desires. “For example, it is Hera’s and Athena’s rivalry with
Aphrodite as well as their hostility toward Paris which causes and extends the bloodshed
of the Trojan war” (Taylor).
It has been observed that “in some ways men understand their gods better than their
gods understand them. For while men often petition their gods for favor, few mortals
actually confidently expect their gods’ beneficence” (Taylor)
To sum up the nature of gods and goddesses in the Iliad, we can quote Lattimore,
“The gods of Homer are mainly immortal men and women, incomparably more
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  101

powerful than mortals, but like mortals susceptible to all human emotions and appetites,
therefore capable of being teased, flattered, enraged, seduced, chastise (Lattimore 54).
The qualities that we find in the works after the spread of Christianity are not much
found in the Iliad.
 Theme of Anger:
The Iliad is basically based on the element of anger that fuels rivalries. It is
manifested in the behaviour of human beings, but even the gods and goddesses are not
immune from it. In Book I, Apollo sends pestilence in anger to Agamemnon’s camp
which causes immense damage to the Greek cause. Thetis too is seen angry at her son
Ulysses’s humiliation by Agamemnon and lodges complaint to Zeus. But more
spectacular is the anger of both Agamemnon and Achilles. This emotional element
brings out the worst in the character of Agamemnon. Similarly, Achilles’s vulnerability
to anger brings out his unstable nature. Go back to our analysis of these two major
characters as well as consult the relevant sections of the text, and you will be able to
cull many examples.
 Style:
We need to remember that the Iliad was meant for recitation and hence followed the
pattern of oral transmissions. Since it was meant to narrate chronicles of a great war and
sing of the deeds of great warriors, it maintained a lofty style. Its conventions included
invocation to the Muse, elaborate description of genealogies, patterns of comparisons,
use of similes, both simple and complex, and ekphrases (extended descriptions of
objects). The elaborate description of Achilles’s new shield, for example, is an example
of ekphrasis. The metre employed is dactylic hexameter.One also comes across a pattern
of repetitions of motives and comparisons.
 Activities for Learners:
1. Consult relevant print and internet sources and write a critical note on the identity
of the Muses.
2. Read the relevant portion of the text and add some points that will help you write
an analytical answer on the invocation to the Muse in the Iliad.
3. Besides anger, do you find the presence of any other strong emotions in Book I
of the Iliad?
4. Read any poetic translation of the Iliad Book I and try to collect appropriate
examples of various stylistic traits of the epic.
102  CC-EG-02  NSOU

2.6.5 Summing up
In this unit we have introduced Book I of the Iliad which sets the tone for the rest
of the epic. It locates the source of the rivalry between the two great heroes—
Agamemnon and Achilles. It offers us a picture of nature of the political formations that
the kings and princes entered into. If you can properly examine the tone and tenor of
this book, you will be in a better position to evaluate the entire epic. You also have
some idea about the role of divine characters who behave like mortal human characters
and cause and abet rivalries and wars. Moreover, we are now in a better position to
examine the structure and form of the epic and how they contain the content of the
work.

2.6.6 Comprehension Exercises

Broad Questions:
1. Analyse the character of Agamemnon and bring out the heroic traits in him.
How effective is he as a leader?
2. Analyse the character of Achilles. Do you think that he is a character who has
been wronged?
3. Write a comparative discussion of the characters of Achilles and Agamemnon.
4. Critically analyse the stylistic devices employed in Book I of the Iliad.
Middle-length Questions:
1. Write a critical note on the epic convention of the Invocation to the Muse and
comment on Homer’s use of it.
2. Analyse the role of the supernatural agents in Book I of the Iliad and underscore
their function in it.
3. Write a critical note on anger as a theme in Book I of the Iliad.
4. “Anger,” it has been said, “has clouded a high intelligence, and Achilleus acts
uncertainly.” Do you agree? Explain.
5. Agamemnon is ‘blinded by self-pride and arrogance.’ Give at least two
instances to prove the point.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  103

Short Questions:
1. What does Calchas reveal in the meeting?
2. How does Agamemnon react to Calchas’ revelation?
3. Why was Achilles angry?
4. What do you know about Achilles’ parentage?
5. Who sends pestilence to Agamemnon’s camp and why?

2.6.7 Suggested Reading

Lattimore, Richmond. Introduction. The Iliad of Homer. Trans. and Intro. by Richmond
Lattimore. 1951. Chicago: Phoenix Books/The U of Chicago P, 1961. 11-55.
Snider, D.J. “Homer’s Iliad.” The Journal of Speculative Philosophy 17. 2 (April, 1883):
pp. 180-209.http://www.jstor.org/stable/25667963. Accessed on 15 March, 2021.
Taylor, Phyllis. “The Iliad: A Practical Approach.” Curriculum Units by Fellows of the
Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute1984 Volume II: Greek Civilization. https://
teachersinstitute.yale.edu/curriculum/units/files/84.02.09_guide.pdf. Accessed on 8
April, 2021.
Kearns, Emily. “The Gods in the Homeric Epics.” The Cambridge Companion to
Homer. Ed. Robert Fowler. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. 59-73.
Allan, William. Homer: The Iliad. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
104  CC-EG-02  NSOU

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  105

Module-3
Sophocles: Oedipus, the King
Unit 7  Poetics: Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy
Structure
3.7.0 Introduction
3.7.1 Aristotle—A Bio-brief
3.7.2 Introduction to Poetics
3.7.3 The Concept of Mimesis (Imitation)
3.7.4 Definition and Constituents of Tragedy
3.7.5 Plot and Character
3.7.6 Dramatic Unity
3.7.7 Simple & Complex Plot—Peripeteia, Anagnorisis
3.7.8 Tragic Hero (incl. hamartia & hubris)
3.7.9 Role of Chorus
3.7.10 Catharsis
3.7.11 Summing Up
3.7.12 Comprehension Exercises
3.7.13 Suggested Reading

3.7.0 Introduction
To talk of Greek Tragedy is to perforce talk of its understanding with the aid of
Aristotle’s Poetics, a treatise that remains our primary window of approaching classical
drama. The World History Encyclopedia introduces Aristotle as “a Greek philosopher
who pioneered systematic, scientific examination in literally every area of human
knowledge and was known, in his time, as ‘the man who knew everything’ and later
simply as ‘The Philosopher’, needing no further qualification as his fame was so
widespread”. In this Unit, our purpose will be to acquaint you with the essentials of his
understanding of classical Tragedy that in turn will enable you to comprehend
Sophocles’ play Oedipus the King in its right perspective.While the expanse and
purpose of Poetics goes much beyond the parameters of the discussion we will take up
here, it will still initiate you on the lines of critical understanding that are necessary to
place the Sophoclean play in perspective. By the end of this Unit, you will be equipped
not just with the acumen required to get along with Sophocles, you should, with help
from your
108  CC-EG-02  NSOU

counselor, also be able to apply Aristotelian understanding to perspectivise the evolutionary

trends of English drama as well, that you will come across in your entire syllabus for
this programme.

3.7.1 Aristotle—A Bio-brief

Aristotle (384-322 BC), son of Nicomachus who was the court physician of
Macedonia, was born in Stagira, and lived there till he moved to Plato’s Academy in
Athens around the age of 17. While he is variously known as a Greek philosopher, ‘The
First Teacher’ (in the Arab world), and simply as ‘The Philosopher’ in the Western
world, it is indeed difficult to pin down on any one of these, owing to his diverse
learning. The one score years that Aristotle spent with Plato were by common consent,
the most productive phase of his learning, his deference for and critical opposition with
his teacher being remarkable not just to the advancement of learning, but also firmly
grounding the tradition of healthy debates. Historians and experts of classical literature
are of the opinion that the softening of Plato’s initial position in his later writings are
largely the result of these sustained encores with his most gifted student. The Roman
philosopher Cicero (from whom the Ciceronian style of writing derives) is famously
supposed to have said that while Plato’s prose resembled silver, Aristotle’s was “a
flowing river of gold” (www.history.com).
Following the death of Plato in 347 BC, Aristotle is said to have left Athens and
settled on the coast of Asia Minor (islands of the Greek archipelago) where he took up
pioneering research in marine biology. While at the Academy, however, Aristotle had
commenced his career as a teacher, having been entrusted with subjects like Rhetoric
and Dialogue. Five years hence, Aristotle was to become tutor to Alexander the Great
in Macedonia, and historians have traced the former’s influence in the activities of the
conqueror even amidst his exploits around the world.
By 335 BC however, Aristotle was back in Athens where he converted the Lyceum,
formerly a wrestling school, into a place of learning that soon became the choice
destination of learners from across Greece. Aristotle is said to have composed about 200
works in disciplines as diverse as biology, cosmology, philosophy, ethics, politics—in
other words, on every possible branch of human knowledge that was conceivable in his
time! Scholars have customarily tended to divide his existing works into four broad
categories that give us an idea of the range of learning:
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  109

1. The ‘Organon’ being a set of writings that deals with philosophical and
scientific investigations.
2. Theoretical works that deal with the broad spectrum of biology, cosmology,
physics and even metaphysics.
3. The so-called practical works like Nicomachean Ethics and Politics, their aspect
of practicality deriving from investigations into human nature as seen through
the levels of the individual, the family and society.
4. Works like Rhetoric and Poetics that examine human productivity as evidenced
in art, and its salutary impact on life at large. (Catalogue sourced from
www.history.com)
By common scholarly consent, the most important of Aristotle’s treatises thus
include Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul)
and Poetics. If this vast range of studies incorporated in a single man surprises you, then
you need to understand that Aristotle’s was not a compartmentalised or fragmented
approach to learning, he was rather pervaded by a natural curiosity about everything that
concerned the human situation in its largest possible expanse. We must credit him for
trying to make this vast horizontal learning comprehensible and meaningful by
interpreting it all through the lens of a broad philosophical understanding. It is
equally interesting to note that none of these were penned as written treatises for
publication, rather it was all delivered as lectures at the Lyceum that were taken down
by his illustrious students like Theophrastus who have been instrumental in its
dissemination. As an interesting trivia, Aristotle is said to have had this habit of moving
back and forth as he lectured, and this has earned the Lyceum the name ‘Peripatetic
School’, from the Greek word peripatetikos, which would mean walking around.

3.7.2 Introduction to Poetics

As laid out at the beginning of this Unit, our concern here is with the text of Poetics.
While we will be discussing most important concepts that Aristotle took up for
discussion in Poetics, you must understand that this crystallization is not a substitute for
reading the text in its English translation.
Primarily, we must keep in mind that Aristotle’s treatise has an argumentative
discourse pattern wherein he refutes his teacher Plato’s ideas on the nature of poetry and
110  CC-EG-02  NSOU

poetic truth, why poetry cannot be relegated simply to the domain of an imitative art as
opposed to other more useful arts, and to that effect what is it about poetry that gives
it superiority over disciplines like history or even philosophy. This makes the Poetics
a very demanding critical text but one that is immensely rewarding in terms of being
one of the earliest theoretical deliberations of dramatic theory through a philosophic
perception of literature and aesthetics.You might be wondering why we talk so much on
poetry while we are statedly to discuss Tragedy as an art form. It needs to be made clear
in this context that in classical literary aesthetics, the term poetry is used more
comprehensively than we understand it now, since verse was by and large the medium
of composition. So when we use the term poetry in the context of Aristotle’s
deliberations, please understand that tragedy too is a form of poetic utterance.
Aristotle’s Poetics runs into 26 chapters, and while all of those do not need to figure
in our present discussion, let us nonetheless have an overview of the content of each.
This will enable you to understand the logical manner in which the treatise is thought
out. The sections in bold demarcate specific portions that are important for you at
this point of time:
Chapter-wise Content Outline of Aristotle’s Poetics (Sourced from www.the-
philosophy.com). Based on The Poetics of Aristotle, ed. S. H. Butcher, 3rdEdn., 1902.
Chapter Outline of Content Comment/Significance
No.
1 Defining the purpose Medium, Object, Manner/Mode of imitation &
of poetry as imitation inherent distinction from Plato’s understanding
2 Purpose of imitation in Formulating thereby the basic difference
balanced representation between Tragedy and Comedy; placing them
of humanity with regard to other arts
3 Methods of imitation— Persists with the various modes of artistic
Telling and Showing imitation; logically moving towards a
definition of Tragedy
4 Poetry as literary Classifications into Tragedy and Comedy,
product—based on the gradual evolution of forms
imitation, and reflective
of human propensity
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  111

Chapter Outline of Content Comment/Significance

No.
5 Epic, Tragedy and Formulates systematic differences/ parallels
Comedy; Significance between Epic and Tragedy in particular,
of span of time being assigns specific subject matter to each type
encompassed through
action
6 Definition of Tragedy Distinctly classifies the constituent elements
of Tragedy; addresses the primacy of Plot
over all else
7 Developing the plot Ideas of wholeness (internal connection
from the story; the between parts) & magnitude (external
principle of Organic expanse); concepts of necessity and
Unity probability; reversal of fortunes as outcome(s)
8 Organic Unity further Unity is presupposed of the action that is
explained and clarified shown, not of the life of the protagonist
—the unit of
imitation
9 Difference between Binaries of universal/ particular; why Poetry
Poetry and History offers a higher level of truth; understanding
the importance of causal connection; the
philosophical dimension of imitation; the
episodic plot
10 Simple and Complex Significance of Reversal of Intention and
Plots Recognition
11 Reversal and Recogni- Connecting turns of the Plot to the
tion further explained arousal of Pity and Fear
in the light of the
evocation of Tragic
Pleasure
12 The quantitative parts Prologue, Episode, Exodos, Parodos, Stasimon
of Tragedy/tragic action
112  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Chapter Outline of Content Comment/Significance

No.
13 Inclusions and Exclu- Singular intentions of the plot, the nature of
sions in Plot; securing the ideal protagonist of Tragedy, the final
the specific effect of end being the evocation of Pity and Fear
Tragedy
14 The internal arrange- How proper conditions for imitation alone
ment of situations—the can contribute to desired emotions of Pity
knotting of the plot and Fear
15 The four criteria Gravitates towards defining the expected
required of a ‘charac- attributes of a Tragic Hero, so as to strike
ter’ in Tragedy— the twin emotions of Pity and Fear in the
Goodness, Propriety, audience through a mimetic representation
Verisimilitude (true to (imitation) of the trajectory of her/his life
life), Consistency
16 Four types of Recogni- Related to the unfolding of the Plot, once
tion—By signs, Invented again by causal connection and true to
at will by the (tragic) principles of imitation
poet, By memory when
the sight of some object
awakens a feeling, By
Reasoning
17 The emphasis is on Since plot is all about action, all that which
showing rather than can be ‘shown’ in keeping with classical
telling decorum should be presented on stage
18 Complication and 2 phases of the plot—node and outcome;
Unravelling/Denoue- Choral odes as part of organic whole
ment. Accordingly, the
4 Kinds of Tragedy—
Simple, Complex,
Pathetic, Ethical
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  113

Chapter Outline of Content Comment/Significance

No.
19 Diction and Thought While Thought is to be produced by dramatic
speech composed according to rules of
Rhetoric, Diction belongs to the domain of
delivery rather than of poetic art
20 Diction/Language Analysis of parts of speech and grammar;
Butcher considers this a probable interpolation
21 Poetic Diction Modes of speech admissible in poetry, with
special emphasis on metaphor
22 Poetic Diction The appropriateness of vocabulary in Tragedy
continued
23 On Epic poetry Relative analysis of Epic, History and Tragedy
24 Epic Poetry continued Relative points between Epic and Tragedy
25 Poetic Truth vis-à-vis Defence of poetry, rebuttal of Plato
common reality
26 Epic and Tragedy com- The superiority of Tragedy
pared on truth quotient

As stated above, while the highlighted sections of The Poetics form the core of your
curricular understanding for this Course, it is important that you have a comprehensive
view of the ideas that Aristotle deals with in all the 26 chapters.

3.7.3 The Concept of Mimesis (Imitation)

You must have noticed in the section above that in the context of The Poetics,
Aristotle repeatedly talks of imitation, which is the nearest English equivalent to the
Greek term mimesis. Before we get into any kind of theoretical discussion we need to
understand what exactly he means by imitation, how it is different from our common
usage of the term, and why it is important in the context of Tragedy. It is around this
very term that the differences of opinion between Plato and Aristotle have primarily
centered, and it is the key idea around which the entire purpose of Tragedy evolves. It
114  CC-EG-02  NSOU

is important to remember that for all the different branches of knowledge that Aristotle
pursued, he was broadly a philosopher and commentator on life in general; so we need
to understand his conception of poetry in its relation to life at large.
In Chapter 4 of Poetics, Aristotle rightly points out that the instinct for imitation is
ingrained in human beings since childhood; in fact he goes on to say that we learn our
first lessons through the instinctive habit of imitation. In his understanding therefore,
imitation is not a compartmentalised act of life applicable only to poetic pursuits, but
one of the verities of life itself. In that sense, Tragedy by virtue of being basically an
imitation, is not to be understood simply as an extraneous or artificial poetic pursuit; it
is the representation of life itself, albeit idealized. While we will deliberate on this at
length, it might be pointed out here that this holistic understanding of the concept of
imitation is the corner-stone of the difference of opinions between Plato and Aristotle
with regard to the nature of imitation and poetic truth thereof, though both scholars
recognised it as a vital component of art and aesthetics.
 The Platonic view of Imitation:
In Plato’s metaphysical understanding, the material world appears temporal and
mutable, hence devoid of any autonomous value but for the extent to which permanent
and immutable ideas are manifest in the material world in the form of representations
of the transcendental. By inference, poetry, which exists in a tangible form in the
material world, is only worthwhile in that it represents transcendental ideas but can
never become truth in itself. This is best explained by his analogy of the bed, itself a
metaphor from Socrates, in Book 10 of The Republic. We can understand this in the
following stages:
Stage 1 — The idea of a bed (the original), which exists only in nature, for a Platonic
idea typically exists prior to and independent of the natural. It is the
original reality.
Stage 2 — The bed that the carpenter makes, by virtue of his art being useful art, is
then a copy of the original bed, hence it becomes once removed from (the
idea) reality.
Stage 3 — The bed described by the poet or the painter (whose art is necessarily
imitative) is then an imitation of the carpenter’s bed, hence twice removed
from reality.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  115

We need to understand the short and the long of why Plato says or believes so, in
order to understand why and how Aristotle’s understanding differs from his teacher’s.
There are two things to grasp in this regard:
1. As stated earlier, Plato conceives of the material world as inherently only a
channel for realizing his idea of the metaphysical, and hence devoid of any
autonomous value. The metaphysical in this case is the original reality/ idea,
which exists above and beyond the useful and imitative arts into which Plato
classifies all human activity.
2. In a more topical sense, we must remember that Plato’s texts are not inherently
on the subject of art and aesthetics as Aristotle’s Poetics is. While The Republic
chiefly concerns evolving Greek polity in terms of how the ideal republic
should be constituted, Ion (which also has references to imitation) is a debate
over whether a poet’s performance is a result of skills or divine possession.
With Plato therefore, the task of unraveling truths befalls not on the poet, whose
medium is chiefly rhetoric; but on the philosopher who by the superiority of his
discipline, is able to thrash out the original/ metaphysical reality from mere imitations.
Poetry thus becomes a copy of a copy, and poets stand to be banished from the ideal
republic since they can only mislead citizens with their flowery lies!
 The Aristotelian understanding of Imitation:
In striking contrast to Plato and even his teacher Socrates, Aristotle was an
empiricist. This is to say that he was not just a reductive materialist, for he thought of
the body as “the matter”, and also perceived the psyche as “the form of each living
animal” (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy). As the first of the moderns, he could not
therefore have subscribed to the Platonic view of material existence as simply valueless
in itself; so he recognised imitation not as mere copying but as a representation of the
ideal that is crystallized in human consciousness. In his perception, human beings are
essentially mimetic, hence the urge to create works of art that reflect and represent
reality forms the core of his theory of imitation and thereby of the Poetics.
If we revive the analogy of the bed to understand Aristotle’s concept of imitation,
he would say that the poet, instead of copying from the carpenter, actually perfects the
idea of the bed into an ideal representation. For him however, medium, object and the
manner of imitation are of paramount importance. He does away with any distinction
between useful and imitative arts, and states that epic poetry, tragedy, comedy,
dithyrambic
116  CC-EG-02  NSOU

poetry, the music of a flute or lyre—are all modes of imitation. For Aristotle, imitation
is not just visual or auditory similarity, the medium rather is a mimetic representation
of the emotions one feels while going through the experience. This is his way of
connecting mind with matter. Significantly, while Plato found greater likeness between
poetry and painting, Aristotle saw greater resemblance between poetry and music,
though the objective and manner of imitation is different in each form of art. The key
distinction he institutes with Plato in respect of imitation is that in Aristotle’s view,
imitation involves the faculty of creative imagination, so that the end result is by no
means a mere copy of the original; rather a crystallization of its essence. This gives to
art the dimension of universality, whether of a philosophical approach to life or in terms
of its appeal to the emotions. Logically therefore, the purpose of imitative art is
pleasure, though this means a mix of edification and gratification. The idea of
verisimilitude or likeness is central to Aristotle’s concept of imitation. In the case of
Tragedy in particular, it is the similarity of the protagonist’s fortunes, seen from a
distance, that gives spectators the tragic feel. You would at this stage definitely wonder
that when there are troubles enough in life, why should one need to witness a tragic
spectacle to imbibe a feeling of suffering. It is here that we require a profound
understanding, for Aristotle makes imitation or mimesis a key factor behind drawing
lessons from Tragedy, which in the ultimate analysis, produces a therapeutic effect. We
will come to more of this in subsequent sections. In fact, the full understanding of
imitation can emerge only when we place it in the context of Aristotle’s definition of
Tragedy.

3.7.4 Definition and Constituents of Tragedy

Aristotle’s definition of Tragedy is a long and serious one, let us understand it in
detail so that we are able to place all its constituents and processes in the right
perspective. Having outlined the contours of Comedy, the differences between Tragedy
and Epic, and after deliberating on the aspect of imitation in earlier chapters, in Chapter
6 of Poetics, he writes:
Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a
certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic
ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play in the
form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper
purgation of these emotions. (Trans. Butcher 23)
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  117

The highlighted portions of this definition denote the key terms that we will subse-
quently discuss. Immediately following the definition, he further goes on to clarify :
By ‘language embellished’, I mean language into which rhythm, ‘harmony’, and
song enter. By ‘the several kinds in separate parts’, I mean, that some parts are
rendered through the medium of verse alone, others again with the aid of song.
If we break down the definition into its key points, the following are what merit
specific attention:
 Tragedy is an imitation of an action. This is to be understood in the light of
the discussion on imitation that has preceded. Since imitation in Aristotle means
artistic recreation, its use in defining Tragedy is to be understood as idealized
representation. This does not mean anything unworldly, or improbable; but only
such turn of events as can have a causal connection between them. By saying
so, Aristotle is stressing not just on the importance of the plot and structure, but
also on the philosophical intent of Tragedy/ Poetry, which is quite at variance
and logically so, from Plato.
 Both the action and its imitation in Tragedy are serious, complete, and of a
certain magnitude (justifiable length). Clearly the emphasis here is on what
kind of action can constitute the crux of Tragedy, on the concept of organic
unity, and on the realistic length to which the action must unfold so as to
accommodate all the movements of the plot.
 The use of language in Tragedy is such that it is embellished (added/
decorated) with aesthetically pleasing devices. As a set of constituents, there
are certain aspects that are therefore additional to the primary constituents. We
will discuss them in the following sub-section.
 Such devices are spread out in different parts of the play. A tragic play can
therefore be divided into several parts that together constitute the whole.
 Action is of prime importance in Tragedy, so even language is used to
explain action, not just narration (as in Epic). So it is mimetic in the sense that
the tragic action shows rather than tells, unlike the epic mode which is diegetic
in that there is often an invisible or all-knowing narrator who probes into the
minds of characters from a distance.
 The purpose of Tragedy is to bring out fears that are latent in members of the
audience, and by purging the excess of fear, to effect a tranquil state of mind.
118  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Obviously, this is sought to be done by projecting the fortunes of the tragic

protagonist in ways that must find some resemblance with the psychic
understanding of the audience. This is the principle of tragic pleasure, also
called catharsis, which in the ultimate analysis gives a therapeutic purpose to
Tragedy/Poetry. The audience is taught to pity the unjust fortunes of the
protagonist, as also to fear for one like themselves.
 The Constituent Elements of Tragedy:
In the same chapter, Aristotle lists the six constituent elements of Tragedy and
explains them in brief in the order of importance.
1. Plot, which holds the kernel of the action, is according to him the first principle
and the soul of Tragedy.
2. Character, which holds second place, is entrusted the task of unfolding of the
plot.
3. Thought is the manifestation of what the characters think and feel, and is
accordingly reflected in their actions. Hence it combines both speech and
action. Aristotle admirably calls it “the faculty of saying what is possible and
pertinent in given circumstances”.
4. Diction, which is the expression of the meaning in words, has according to
Aristotle, the same meaning whether in verse or in prose. It is broadly the
medium of language/ expression through which characters reveal their thought
or feelings. It is however incumbent that the proper diction be followed for
Tragedy, which is supposed to be distinctly different from that of Comedy.
5. Of the embellishments/adornments that diction takes, one is Song, to which
Aristotle accords the chief place in the decoration of the diction.
6. As the other form of embellishment comes Spectacle, which has an emotional
attraction of its own, but is perceived as the least artistic and seemingly
connected least with the art of poetry. Cumulatively, it includes stage décor and
the theatrical effects that are presented on stage, and since Aristotle is of the
opinion that the power of Tragedy can be felt even apart from representation
and actors, he attributes the production of spectacular effects more to the stage
machinist than the poet. We must understand that by ‘representation’, he does
not mean to compromise with the action itself, but presumably alludes to
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  119

paraphernalia like scenes of torture, use of dress and colour, stage setting and
the like.
Of the six constituents, the relationship between Plot and Character has traditionally
produced the most confusion in understanding, so let us address this first before moving
on to other things in greater detail.

3.7.5 Plot and Character

We know by now that Aristotle perceives Tragedy as an imitation of an action
which is an image of human life, that consists of a mode of action and not merely a
mental quality. He calls this mode of action, the Plot, which is supposed to mean a
compendious expression for external incidents and internal mental processes and
motives, all of which work in cohesion and of course in accordance with the laws of
probability and necessity. Character, according to Aristotle, does determine human
qualities, but it is primarily by virtue of their actions that people are either happy or sad.
Hence character, with its two facets ethos (character as human entity) and dianoia
(thought process) is imperatively contained within the plot, since ‘action’ in Aristotelian
terms springs from inward power that manifests itself through external doings.
Humphrey House explains this in terms of the tendency to do good or bad remaining
inherently unrealised, and having the possibility of being manifest only through action.
This action also includes two vital turns of the plot that are necessary for the emotional
impact of tragedy to unfold—Peripeteia (reversal of intention) and Anagnorisis
(recognition). We will take you through an understanding of these terms in due
course.
Having laid out before you the Aristotelian perception of Plot and Character, we
will now first see from the relevant passage in Poetics what the confusion is all about,
and then place it in perspective. In Chapter 6 once again, Aristotle, in emphasizing upon
the paramount importance of the structure of incidents, writes:
Dramatic action, therefore, is not with a view to the representation of character:
character comes in a subsidiary to the actions. Hence the incidents and the plot are
the end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, without action
there cannot be a tragedy; there may be without character. (Trans. Butcher 27)
We must realize that in talking of the possibility of tragedy without character but
not without action, Aristotle voices the belief that personages do not reveal their
120  CC-EG-02  NSOU

characters by themselves; their moral bent impels them to act in a particular manner.
Clearly, he does not subscribe to the modern critics who hold the view that character
lies in apriori thought, or that action must stand in relation to certain mental states.
Since Aristotle realizes character through action, he can well subordinate its individual
entity to the plot, the latter being an all-pervasive whole.
So when you read that Aristotle says that the plot is the first principle—the soul of
Tragedy, and that character holds the second place, you should not be confused or
misled by the plethora of arguments that exist in this regard.

3.7.6 Dramatic Unity

Now that you have a fair idea of the primacy of the Plot in Aristotelian conception,
we proceed to an understanding of what it is that makes the Plot so important. For
understanding the structure of the Plot, we have to go back to the early part of the
definition where Aristotle says that apart from being serious in nature, the action must
also be a complete whole and have a certain magnitude.
Why exactly are wholeness and magnitude important, and how do they contribute
to the impact of tragedy?
By wholeness, Aristotle means that the action must have a well defined beginning
such that nothing that is necessary for the fable should exist outside of it when the play
begins. Thus there should be nothing in the beginning of a play that might follow from
some other causal necessity; everything in it must have a natural existence. Similarly,
there should be a conclusive ending where all ends following causally are tied up neatly,
and nothing at all should be left out of it. This beginning and ending must be connected
by a well-defined middle. You can now use this understanding of wholeness to examine
for yourselves if the plot of Sophocles’ tragic play Oedipus the King conforms to the
Aristotelian prescription.
On the question of magnitude, Aristotle’s view is that it is not just enough for a
beautiful object (and he considers Tragedy one such object) to be an aggregate of
several parts, it must also have a certain magnitude (length/dimension) that determines
its beauty and order. He does not however particularly lay down any specific length, but
only outlines the governing principles—something that can be grasped in a single
viewing, and a length that can easily be committed to memory. Far from laying down
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  121

a specific number of Acts or Scenes for a play, Aristotle in fact says that it is not the
business of artistic theory to mention any limit of length. All the same, there is
something far more important that he prescribes in this regard: “… the proper
magnitude is comprised within such limits, that the sequence of events, according to the
laws of probability or necessity, will admit of a change from bad fortune to good, or
from good fortune to bad.” (Trans. Butcher 33)
Once again, we need to highlight that imitation for Aristotle is not mere copying,
but imaginative recreation; and imagination is not something that can just run wild, it
is strictly governed by the farthest philosophical expanse of causal connection. You can
also see for yourselves how, in defining the plot, he actually fuses vital ingredients of
the understanding of character, which as the prime agent of the plot, is responsible for
it’s unraveling.
Our understanding of the twin concepts of necessity and probability will further
reveal why Aristotle gives precedence to plot over character. Having broached these
concepts in Chapter 7, he clarifies in Chapter 8 that unity of plot does not mean unity
of the hero, for there can be multifarious incidents in the life of a person that do not
and cannot necessarily form the subject of a single Tragedy. It is therefore the function
of the plot to select events from the life of a person who is to be the protagonist of a
particular play, and the rationale behind such selection is governed by incidents that
have between them a necessary and a probable connection. You can understand this by
the fact that Sophocles has as many as 3 plays in the Oedipus cycle, each of them
dealing with different aspects of the life of Oedipus. Imagine a situation where all these
episodes were put into a single play and if that were to be your syllabus! So necessity
and probability are important factors in deciding not just the length of a play but also
the dramatic or organic unity between its several parts. In this context we can also
understand why in Aristotle’s understanding, poetry is superior to history; while the
latter gives an account of what has happened, the former deals with what may happen.
Once again, this ‘may’ includes only those parts of the action that can be strung together
by the principles of necessity and probability, that we may cumulatively call causal
connection. It is this basic understanding that lies beyond Aristotle’s claim of poetry
being the highest form of philosophy, a discipline where logical connection is the
buzzword. To put it simply, while poetry deals with universal truths, the staple of
history is only the particular. This connects us to the classical understanding of the
poet as
122  CC-EG-02  NSOU

maker, not just a maker of verses but of plausible plots. To that extent, even history can
be the subject of poetry (as we often find in Shakespeare’s History Plays), but it is the
task of the poet to choose only those events of history for a single plot that can be
woven together by a causal connection. It is only when tragic action can be strung
together in a cause-effect relationship that it gives rise to the cathartic impact which is
the desired end of Tragedy.

3.7.7 Simple & Complex Plot—Peripeteia, Anagnorisis

A brief recap first of what we have learnt so far about Plot:
 Is the kernel of the entire tragic action—the “arrangement of the
incidents” as Aristotle says
 Involves action, not just narration
 Is the most vital constituent element of Tragedy, in which are contained all
other elements, including Character
 Events of the plot are bound by causal connection, as warranted by the
logical laws of necessity and probability
 Has a well defined beginning, a connected middle, and a coherent ending
that culminates all action
In Chapter 10, Aristotle classifies plots into Simple and Complex, on the straight
logic that actions in real life, of which the plot of Tragedy is a mimetic representation,
show a similar distinction. It is therefore imperative that like Plot itself, its various kinds
must also be understood not just in terms of form but as reflection of the larger
panorama of life itself.
What then is the basis of this distinction?
A plot is considered to be simple when the change of fortunes of the protagonist
takes place without any reversal of intention or even recognition. Conversely, a complex
plot is one in which similar change of fortunes is accompanied by reversal or
recognition, or in fact both. It goes without saying that either or both of these should
arise from the internal structure of the plot, so that whatever follows comes as necessary
or probable result of the action that has preceded.
Let us now understand what exactly Aristotle means by the terms ‘Reversal’ and
‘Recognition’, which he takes up in Chapter 11.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  123

 Reversal of Intention (Peripeteia) and Recognition (Anagnorisis):

By reversal of intention, Aristotle implies a change by which the action comes to
have just the opposite impact from what was desired, but such reversal is perforce
subject to tenable conditions of necessity or probability. A classic example of this is
found in your syllabised text, Oedipus the King; where the messenger from Corinth
comes supposedly to liberate Oedipus from alarms about his mother’s identity but
inadvertently produces quite the opposite impact by revealing his origins. In this
connection you need to understand the vital difference between the possible (which
exists in the realm of the knowable) and the probable (which exists outside the domain
of what appears to be knowable, but can happen all the same). Peripeteia can therefore
be understood as the tragic effects of human efforts that produce results diametrically
opposed to its intentions. As an explication of the ironies of human blindness (beyond
the physical) it is a vital component of the complex plot of a Tragedy.
Recognition is a stage that is inevitably connected to the reversal of intentions, and
follows from it. Butcher translates it to imply “a change (of state) from ignorance (of
material facts hitherto unknown) to knowledge, producing love or hate between the
persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortunes”. Thus while peripeteia is the
working in blindness of one’s imminent defeat, anagnorisis brings the awakening of the
truth. In Tragedy, anagnorisis most often comes after the catastrophe has taken place,
and it serves to reveal and culminate the full impact of the tragic action.
 Learner Activity: With help from your counselor, try and compare
Euripedes’ play The Trojan Women with Sophocles’ syllabised play, to
understand the differences between simple and complex plots.

3.7.8 Tragic Hero

As we have mentioned earlier,the tragic hero or the protagonist in a Tragedy is the
character upon whom the human component of the play is enacted. It follows therefore
that s/he carries the burden of the tragic flaw that brings about downfall, and is also the
agent through whom the cathartic emotions of pity and fear are communicated to the
audience. In a nutshell, the tragic hero must be understood in a dual perception—as the
playwright’s objective creation and also as the one who goes on to become the
subjective alter-ego of the audience.
124  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Since character is secondary to plot, we must first take note of the what kinds of
situations Aristotle advises playwright (Chapter 13) to refrain from in conceiving their
tragic protagonists:
 A good man must not be seen passing from happiness to misery, for such a
situation would be rather odious and it would inspire neither pity nor fear.
 A bad man must not be seen passing from misery to happiness, that would by
no stretch of imagination lead to a tragic situation.
 An extremely bad man should not be seen falling from happiness to misery.
Such a spectacle might arouse human feelings/responses, but that would
definitely not be pity or fear, which is the objective of Tragedy.
What then should the tragic hero be like? Or how can we conceptualize the tragic
hero on Aristotelian terms? In the same Chapter, he gives the following prescriptions:
 An intermediate kind of a personage
 A man not pre-eminently virtuous and just, or, a paragon of virtue
 His/her misfortune will come about not because of any vice or depravity, but
by some error of judgement that leads to hamartia (Tragic Flaw). Hamartia
is explained as an error or a miscalculation that may arise from ignorance of
material facts, haste, voluntary but not deliberate action and such situations.
(Notice that you can apply all of these to the case of Oedipus)
 In classical tragedy more often than not, hubris (pride) has a role in
accentuating hamartia. Think for yourself how hubris acts to amplify the
working of hamartia in Oedipus.
Based on the above formulations, Aristotle’s 4 point prescription of the qualities of an
ideal tragic character can be summarized in a tabular form so that it becomes easy to
comprehend:
Quality Significance
Goodness Humphry House sees this is not to be seen merely as having
moral implications, but as possessing virtues like courage,
temperance, liberality, magnificence, gentleness,
truthfulness, friendliness and even wit. Cumulatively, one
gathers that Aristotle implies worthiness as a human
being, and the
possessor of good intentions.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  125

Quality Significance
Appropriateness A character should conform to expectations that are
normally made of her/his age, class, position in society,
vocation. This is because a character is simultaneously an
individual and a type, hence expectations should not be
belied. There is in this also the implication of the mimetic
presentation of a character corresponding to source material
in myth/history/
legend.
Likeness/Verisimilitude The character must spring out of the mould of common life,
he should be identifiable with the audience in the sense of
being one like ourselves and yet better than the average run
of humanity so that his fortunes can affect those of the
community. It is necessary for the audience to be able to
strike a resemblance with the protagonist’s motivations and
actions, so that the cathartic emotions of pity and fear may
be affected.
Consistency Unless there is some motivation to the contrary, a character
is expected to show uniformity of behavioural patterns
throughout the tragic spectacle. Aristotle even goes to the
extent of indicating that if waywardness in the sense of
inconsistency is the mark of a character, then such
inconsistency should be a consistent pattern all along. In
other words, a logical coherence should be discernible
between thought and its manifestation in action.

3.7.9 Role of Chorus

Originally meaning ‘dance’ in Greek, the chorus was a group of performers at
religious festivals, and in course of time they gave birth to Tragedy as performance, and
they remained a relevant part for a long time. In the early phase of Greek drama, the
chorus would appear just after the Prologue and remain present for most part of the
play, seeing, hearing and commenting on the significance of the action that was
unfolding. It
126  CC-EG-02  NSOU

could have as many as 50 people till Aeschylus’ plays reduced it to 12, and with
Sophocles we again find about 15 people enacting the chorus. Of this important aspect
of Greek tragedy, Aristotle does not say much in Poetics, but like much else, the little
that he says in Chapter 18 carries importance. In Aristotle’s view, the chorus should be
considered as one of the actors, obviously not in terms of its numbers but as a
significant presence within the action. He prescribes the choral presence as an integral
part of the whole and as co-sharer in the action, preferring in this the model of
Sophocles over that of Euripides. As a close observer of Greek drama festivals which
in fact forms the basis of Poetics, Aristotle would surely have noted that the chorus in
plays by Euripides seemed to exhibit less of a collective character compared to those
in plays by Sophocles. This view has been held by later critics as well, H. D. F. Kitto
in fact going so far as to say that the chorus in Medea is a total failure on account of
its irrelevance. In Aristotle’s understanding therefore, the role of the chorus is not
confined to singing interludes, that would as well make the same set of people replicable
in any play for that matter, whatever the context and content.
 Activity for the learner: With help from your counselor, write an essay on
the role of the chorus in Oedipus the King.

3.7.10 Catharsis
We now come to the final topic of this Unit, which is about the purpose of Tragedy.
Apart from the idea of mimesis, little else in the Poetics has given rise to as much hair-
splitting debate as the concept of catharsis as the supposed outcome of watching a
tragic play. Such debate stems in a large way from the fact that Aristotle himself made
a bare mention of it, most translators apart from Ingram Bywater have not even used the
word, preferring the more intelligible term ‘purgation’. Purgation is definitely a medical
metaphor, implying letting out of excess body fluids that cause disquiet; but when the
letting out concerns the emotional-mental states of pity and fear (mentioned repeatedly
by Aristotle), then it is definitely not the physical sense of draining out that he must
have meant in the context of defining Tragedy in Chapter 6.
For the present, we will not go into how the definition has evolved over a very long
period of time with different scholars, but try to understand it simply as an intended
therapeutic effect of Tragedy. Rather than purgation, the widely accepted idea is that of
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  127

purification—the soothing out of our stresses in real life by witnessing a tragic spectacle
that allows us to rise above personal constraints and feel a sense of empathy for
humanity at large, embodied in the figure of the tragic protagonist.
Now, how does that work?
We can make sense of this if we perceive the sense of catharsis not in isolation but
in the light of the discussion that has preceded.The crux of that discussion has hinged
on the seminal idea of imitation of action, on the primacy of the plot that is constructed
without straining credibility in any way, and on the protagonist as agent of the plot and
thereby the audience’s point of contact with the execution of the plot. The qualities of
the tragic hero outlined in this context are also very important in perspective. The
quality of verisimilitude or life-likeness means that as audiences, we look upon a tragic
hero as a lot like us, her/his difference with us only being in the scale of grandeur. But
in terms of human propensities, we find ample similarities being reflected, the
difference being only that of degree and not of kind. Like a tragic protagonist, most of
us are middling kind of personalities, neither all good nor outright bad; what
distinguishes a tragic protagonist is the parameter of class—one’s stature and fortunes
should be such that the rise/ fall can affect a community at large, as with Oedipus.
Similarly, the development of the plot of tragedy is so ordained by Aristotle as to
ensure that events in the life of the protagonist are realistically strung, giving the feeling
that such a fate could befall as well. Finally, the aesthetic distance that Aristotle keeps
between the audience and the tragic character ensures that we are always watching
her/his fate from a distance – the stage gives an illusion of safety. We call it illusion
because in principle, what befalls the tragic hero could come upon us as well, for he is
so like us. So we feel pity for one like us, and fear for ourselves—‘there’ - is this sense
of barely escaped suffering - the feeling on the part of the spectator that “there might I
be but for the grace of God”. These twin emotions of pity for the protagonist (his
fortunes being much more tragic than he merits) and fear for one like ourselves are the
intended effects of Tragedy, the witnessing of which leaves us more sobered in life. It is
in this intended therapeutic impact of Tragedy that we must place our understanding
of catharsis.
As you proceed with your study of drama along the BDP course, you will notice
how Aristotle’s prescriptions in Poetics, though a solid beginning, have much evolved
through the Elizabethan stage and into modern drama across the world. To Aristotle
therefore, we owe our first understanding of drama, but we must remember that for all
his modernity, his theory is also set against a particular milieu. As readers of drama it
128  CC-EG-02  NSOU

is upon us to constantly update our knowledge of Aristotle in the light of subsequent

revelations.

3.7.11 Summing Up
 Poetics as one of the earliest theorizations on classical drama
 Imitation as the soul of poetry/art; the differences between Plato and Aristotle
 The constituent elements of Tragedy
 Plot as having prime importance in drama, even character as secondary to it
 Dramatic Unity ensures coherence and philosophical approach
 Simple and Complex Plots
 Qualities of the tragic hero—the role of hamartia and hubris
 Catharsis as the desired end of Tragedy

3.7.12 Comprehension Exercises

 Long Answer Type Questions:
1. What do you understand by mimesis? Why is it such an important component
of Tragedy in Aristotle’s understanding?
2. Analyse Aristotle’s definition of Tragedy and point out the significance of each
sub-section in it.
3. Why do you think Aristotle attaches the greatest importance to Plot in Tragedy?
Is it logical to say that even Character is subservient to Plot?
 Medium Length Answer Type Questions:
1. What are the constituent elements of Tragedy? How are they connected to each
other?
2. Explain with textual examples how peripeteia and anagnorisis affect the course
of a tragic play.
3. What is the desired end of Tragedy and why is it so important?
 Short Answer Type Questions:
1. In Poetics, what does Aristotle say about the chorus?
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  129

2. Why is spectacle given the least importance among the constituent elements of
Tragedy?
3. State and briefly explain the qualities that according to Aristotle are necessary
in a tragic hero.

3.7.13 Suggested Reading

S. H. Butcher ed. & trans. The Poetics of Aristotle. London & New York: Macmillan,
3rd ed., 1902. (Internet edition available and has been used extensively for this
Unit)
Jonathan Barnes ed. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle. Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
Clifford Leech. Tragedy. Methuen & Co. Ltd, (Critical Idiom Series), 1969.
Humphry House. Aristotle’s Poetics: A Course of Eight Lectures. Indian Ed. Kalyani
Pub. 1970.
F. L. Lucas. Tragedy: Serious Drama in Relation to Aristotle’s Poetics. Hogarth Press,
1957.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
130  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 8  The Myth of Oedipus

Structure
3.8.0 Introduction
3.8.1 The Myth of Oedipus and its Sociopolitical Relevance in Greece
3.8.2 Oedipus Myth in Classical Drama
3.8.3 World Literature and Oedipus
3.8.4 Oedipus in Contemporary Theatre
3.8.5 Adaptations of Oedipus Rex across Media
3.8.6 Universal Currency of the Oedipus Myth
3.8.7 Oedipus in Psychoanalytical Studies
3.8.8 Summing Up
3.8.9 Comprehension Exercises
3.8.10 Suggested Reading

3.8.0 Introduction
In this Unit we will try to know the story of Oedipus as part of Greek folklore and
mythology, and try to figure out how it still resonates in our mindscape. This Unit will
give you an overview of the origin and development of the story of Oedipus in Greek
myth along with
 the relevance of Oedipus myth in Greek society and drama
 how the myth has influenced psychoanalytical studies
 the resonance of the myth in world drama and across media
 whether the myth still holds currency in our time.

3.8.1 The Myth of Oedipus and its Sociopolitical Relevance in Greece

“So, I will fight for him as if he were my father,
stop at nothing, search the world
to lay my hands on the man who shed his blood,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  131

the son of Labdacus descended of Polydorus,

Cadmus of old and Agenor, founder of the line:
their power and mine are one.” (Oedipus speaking in Oedipus the King)
These lines show the utter irony of Oedipus’ search for the murderer of Laius,
which will be explained to you in the respective section, but at the same time it also sets
the grounds on which the myth of Oedipus is woven. It is not anything disconnected
from the large mythical world of Greece, because Oedipus’s fated history originated
much before he took birth in King Laius’s house in Thebes. Greek gods and goddesses
relate to the history of Thebes and Cadmus’ (or the original Greek form Kadmos, as in
The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology edited by Robin Hard, but we will use the
Latinised spelling of different names that the translated text of Oedipus the King uses)
Theban line that is mentioned in Oedipus the King.
 The Pre-history of Oedipus
You will learn from different sources that the great city of Thebes is in southern
Boeotia, and it ranked as one of the most important centres in mythical Greece. The
other city that was equally important was Argos. These two cities were ruled by the
second main branch of the Inachid family that descended from the Argive river-god
Inachos. Inachos was the first king of Argos after whom a river was called Inachus
River, which is called Panitsa today. This river is the water resource of the western
margin of the Argive plain. The earliest forefather of Oedipus was Cadmus. As the story
goes, an early Argive princess called Io, wandered faraway from her native Argos and
settled in Egypt. Io’s granddaughter Libye bore twin sons called Belos and Agenorto
Poseidon, the god of the sea or water, earthquakes, and horses. These sons founded the
two principal branches of the family. Danaos, a son of Belos, returned to his ancestral
homeland of Argos and founded its Belid ruling line. Cadmus and Europa were the two
children among Agenor’s several children who came to Thebes from their birthplace
Phoenicia where their father had settled. They founded the Agenorid ruling lines at
Thebes and Crete respectively. Oedipus was from this family line. Europa grew up as
a very pretty maid, and as in many other stories of beautiful maids, she attracted the god
Zeus, who assumed the form of a bull and carried her across the sea to Crete, where he
fathered Minos and other sons by her. Zeus, the supreme god, was known for his lustful
nature, and he fathered many including Heracles of Hercules, the famous Greek demi
god. There are some great paintings on Europa’s abduction by Zeus. In the images you
will see two of the most famous paintings inspired by the story of Europa’s abduction,
132  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and perhaps the name Europa also suggests that the continent Europe was named after
her, as some scholars argue.

Image: The Rape of Europa, painted by the famous French painter Jean-Baptiste
Marie Pierre (1714-1789) (Source: Internet)

Image: Rape of Europa by the Dutch painter Rembrandt (1606-1669) (Source: Internet)
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  133

The myth of Europa is connected with Oedipus because it involves Oedipus’

ancestor Cadmus to arrive at Thebes and found the ancient city. When Europa was
abducted, her father Agenor ordered his sons to set off in search of her, telling them that
they were not to return until they had found her. They all failed in their search and had
to settle abroad. Cadmus, who set off with his mother Telephassa and brother Thasos,
arrived at Thrace, where Telephassa died. Thasos too gave up the search at this point,
and settled on the island. Cadmus decided to travel to Greece to consult the Delphic
oracle to learn about the location of his sister. The oracle suggested that he should no
more look for Europa, and take a cow as his guide which he would follow until it sank
down exhausted on its right side. As he was travelling away from Delphi, he picked out
a cow that was walking along on its own among the herds of Pelagon, and followed it
as it ambled eastwards through Phocis and southern Boeotia until it finally sank to the
ground at Thebes.This story gives us the notion that the Delphic oracle had existed long
before Oedipus’s birth, and was revered for its power of fortune telling. So, it is natural
that Oedipus would also send Creon to consult the oracle in a state of emergency.
As the oracle asked Cadmus to found a city there, he offered the cow in sacrifice
to Athena (inaugurating the Theban cult of Pallas Onka or Pallas Athena that is again
referred to in the Sophoclean text). To proceed with the ritual, Cadmus needed some
holy water and sent some of his companions to fetch it from a spring nearby. The spring
was sacred to the war-god Ares, and it was guarded by a fearsome dragon that killed
the men. As was usual with Greek dragons, this Theban dragon was pictured as a large
serpent. Cadmus confronted the dragon and killed it. Athena, the goddess of wisdom
and war, who was also the patron of Athens, advised Cadmus to collectthe dragon’s
teeth and sow them in the ground. As he did so, a host of armed men, known as the
Spartoi or ‘Sown Men’, sprang up from the teeth and proceeded to fight among
themselves until only five were left. These five named Echion, Oudaios, Chthonios,
Hyperenor and Peloros (i.e. Snake-man, Ground-man, Earth-man, Overweening and
Monstrous), founded the noble families that would form the military caste of the new
city Thebes that Cadmus founded. He had to serve Ares fora year (or a great year,
equivalent to eight ordinary years) to atone for having killed the dragon, according to
the myth. Ares was reconciled with Cadmus after his servitude was completed, and Zeus
was so happy that he granted Cadmus a goddess as a wife. She was Harmonia, the
daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Pindar, the famous Greek poet,
cites this marriage as an illustrious one that was blessed by all gods and goddesses, the
highest blessing that could be attained by any mortal man. However, he also refers to
this to make a deeper point that runs through the story of Oedipus too: no mortal can
expect to live a life that is free from their full share of misfortune, and Cadmus had to
pay his due pretty soon.
134  CC-EG-02  NSOU

The sorrows of Cadmus arose mainly from the misfortunes of his children and
successors. He had a son, Polydorus (or Polydoros), and four daughters. Due to the
troubles of their family, toward the end of their life, Cadmus and Harmonia had to leave
Thebes to live in exile in Illyria, a wild region adjoining the Adriatic in the north-west.
The kingdom was left in charge of Polydorus. Polydorus was the father of Labdacus (or
Labdakos), the eponymous founder of the Theban dynasty of the Labdacids, which
includes Oedipus and his warring sons Polyneices (Polyneikes) and Eteocles (Eteokles)
among its members. Soon Labdacus assumed power in his own right, but he died
prematurely probably because he tried to oppose Dionysus. His son Laius (or Laios)
was only a year old at the time of his death, and power in Thebes passed to Lykos, the
brother of Nykteus, who either ruled on Laius’ behalf as regent or took advantage of the
situation to seize power for himself. Lykos presided over the city for many years until
he was killed (or driven out) by his great-nephews Zethos and Amphion, who
established themselves as joint kings. They forced Laius to depart into exile, and he
subsequently took refuge at the court of Pelops in the western Peloponnese. He finally
secured his rightful throne after the death of the usurpers; and there begins the story of
his son Oedipus, that you learn in the tragedy.
 The Birth and Life of Oedipus
Oedipus’ father Laius was not a pure heart, and he invited a family curse through
his action. While he was a guest of Pelops, he took charge of teaching the art of chariot-
driving to a young illegitimate son of Pelops named Chrysippos. While teaching him,
Laius conceived a passion for him and carried him off with the intention of seduction.
Chrysippos repulsed him and killed himself with his sword out of shame. Some writers
opine that Pelops cursed the entire family of Laius on hearing of the fate of his son
which explains the subsequent misfortunes of the family. The Sphinx was said to have
been sent against Thebes by the marriage-goddess Hera to punish the Thebans for not
punishing Laius for his immoral action. Laius married Jocasta (or Iokaste), who
belonged to a branch of the Theban royal family as a daughter of Menoeceus (or
Menoikeus) and sister of Creon (or Kreon). Jocasta initially failed to produce any
children, and Laius consulted the Delphic oracle, which warned him to abandon any
thought of fathering a child since he would be killed by his son if he should have one.
Laius kept out of his wife’s bed for a time, but one night he had intercourse with her
while he was drunk, and thus he caused her to conceive the fateful son.
Soon after the child was born, Laius handed him over to a shepherd to be killed,
but before that he thrust a spike through his feet to ensure that he would not be
recovered and reared. Thus, the baby got his name of Oedipus (or Oidipous in Greek)
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  135

that means ‘Swell-foot’. The shepherd (sometimes named as Euphorbus, Euphorbos or

Phorbos) was told to place him out to die on Mount Citheron (or Kithairon) on the
southern borders of Boeotia. Citheron was also used as summer pasture by the
Corinthian shepherds, and Euphorbus felt such pity for the child that instead of killing
him he handed him over to one of the Corinthian shepherds, who took him away to his
master Polybus (or Polybos), the king of Corinth. Polybus and his wife Merope (or
Periboia, or Medousa) had no children of their own, and they decided to raise Oedipus
as their own son. In a slightly different version, Oedipus was left on the mountain as
Laius had ordered, but was discovered and rescued by some Corinthians, who took him
to their king.
When Oedipus came of age, he set off for the Delphic oracle to enquire about his
origins. According to the text of Oedipus the King, he became concerned about his birth
because he was taunted at a banquet by a drunken guest who accused him of not being
a true son of Polybus. Although the king and queen tried to reassure him, the rumours
persisted and the matter continued to trouble him until he decided to consult the Delphic
oracle without the knowledge of his putative parents. The god at Delphi offered no
response to him on the point in question, but revealed instead that he was destined to
kill his father, and then to marry his own mother and father children by her. Assuming
that the oracle was referring to Polybus and Merope, Oedipus decided to stay away from
his parents forever, and set off in the direction of Thebes. As he was approaching a
point on his route where three roads met, he came across an old man who was
travelling by a cart in the opposite direction accompanied by five attendants. When the
herald who was proceeding at the head of the party tried to force him off the road,
Oedipus struck back at him and continued his journey; but as he was passing the cart,
the old man hit him on the head with his ox-goad. Oedipus did not know it was his own
father, and so he reacted by hitting the old man with his staff that caused his death.
He then set out to kill the other members of the group but one of them escaped
undetected. Without discovering anything further about his victims, Oedipus resumed
his journey and travelled on to Thebes.
Since Laius did not have children apart from the son whom he had exposed after
birth, the throne passed to Creon, son of Menoeceus, Jocasta’s brother. The Sphinx, a
winged creature with the body of a lion and the head of a woman, appeared in Thebes
at this stage. According to the myth, she would set a riddle for passers-by and would
kill them if they were unable to solve it. She was fated to meet her own death if anyone
should provide the correct solution. When the Sphinx proceeded to kill one Theban after
another, including Creon’s own son, Creon finally grew so desperate that he offered the
136  CC-EG-02  NSOU

kingdom and the hand of the former queen to anyone who could rid the city of this
monster. By now Oedipus arrived at Thebes and provided the correct answer to the
riddle of the Sphinx. The riddle goes like this:
There is a being on earth that is four-footed, two-footed and three-footed, yet has a
single voice; and of all beings that move on the ground or through the air or sea, it alone
changes its form; and when it moves with the support of the most feet, then is the speed
of its limbs at the weakest.

Image: The eponymous vessel of the Oedipus Painter, showing Oedipus and the
Sphinx; reproduced by an Etruscan ceramic painter in c. 470 BC. (Source: Internet)

Oedipus inferred that the riddle refers to man, who crawls on all fours as an infant,
walks upright on two legs when grown up, and employs a stick as a third foot in old
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  137

age. When he solved the riddle, the Sphinx took her own life by hurling herself from
the Theban acropolis or from a cliff outside the city, or else surrendered herself to
Oedipus to be killed. Oedipus then claimed Jocasta, the wife of the late king, along with
the kingdom as his reward for ridding Thebes of the Sphinx. He lived with her for a
long period, fathering two daughters by her, Antigone and Ismene, and two quarrelsome
sons, Polyneices and Eteocles; but when the truth about his birth and his father’s death
finally came to be revealed, Jocasta hanged herself, and Oedipus blinded himself and
then abdicated the throne to depart into exile. The tragic fate of his children continues
the myth, but we will end here as of now. If you want to know more of this story, you
may consult the anthologies of Greek and Roman myths.
 Societal and Cultural Implications of the Myth
It is a fact that Oedipus myth can be distinctly connected to the Greek society and
culture. Indeed, there are multiple universal themes in the myth that can be related to
any society. We have to remember that any great literature has its contextual
importance, and since the myth has inspired and affected the writing of Sophocles and
his contemporaries so much, it must have had deep-seated interest in its sociocultural
milieu. Material and spiritual—both spheres in contemporary Greece had a strong
connection with the myth. A few issues that are vitally important for any individual and
state, can be related to the myth: (1) the idea of statesmanship that relates to governance
and democracy, (2) regicide that connects to law and judiciary, (3) parricide and incest
that connects to ethics and morality, (4) parent-child relationship connects to life and
living in any society both in micro and macro levels. Let us elaborate on these and we
will understand how this myth was utterly important in classical Greece.
Around the time Sophocles wrote Oedipus the King, Greece had already seen a
democratic turn in the country. The first big step towards establishing democracy in
Athens was taken by Solon, who was elected as its ruler in 594 BC and made several
reforms. He cancelled all debts and the state celebrated at a festival called the “Casting
off of Burdens”. He reduced the power of the nobles, and granted political rights to all
citizens. He revoked the laws set down by Draco (a previous ruler, after whom the term
‘Draconian’ derives) who had decreed the death penalty for almost every offence. The
king, thus, was supposed to listen to his subjects and give importance to everyone.
Oedipus violates this while he insults Creon and Tiresias. Now we know that Oedipus
138  CC-EG-02  NSOU

came to Thebes when the country was captured by the Sphinx, and he rightfully became
the king of the state after solving the riddle, as was declared king. As a king he was
righteous and affectionate towards his subjects. When the state fell into further trouble,
he took it as his responsibility to handle the situation in his own way. The oracle of
Delphi and the soothsayer Tiresias have significant roles in this. The situation takes us
to the classical times in Greece that was governed by a statesman who had priests
representing their faith at the royal court. These representatives of divinity were
sometimes more powerful than the statesman. Pre-Christian Greece believed in multiple
gods and goddesses and each had his or her temple. The priests were supposed to have
all the knowledge that would be available to men. So, when we come across Tiresias,
we need to admit his knowledge as a seer who sees the past, present and future. Tiresias
exists from or even before Heracles or Hercules who was the first human hero of
Greece. It is difficult for us to understand the gravity of Oedipus’ sin when he insults
Tiresias, but we have to remember that the Greeks believed in Apollo’s ultimate power.
His ability to see and plan the future for humanity was their main point of contact with
the mortal world. As the Olympian religion evolved, in major cities of Greece several
temples and shrines were erected for the worship of individual gods, and Apollo was
one of the most important gods. Delphi, Delos, Samos and Olympia became the most
important sacred shrines in Greece, and Delphi was founded by Apollo. For the Greeks,
the oracle was the word of Apollo which they would consult on every affair like
whether to start a war or make peace or building cities, as we see in Oedipus.
It is important to know that myths are of different categories: some are Ritual
Myths that serve survival purposes for different nations, some are Myths of Creation
that depict the creation of the universe, some are Explanatory Myths through which
primitive men tried to explain different phenomena, some are Symbolic Myths that
depict stories of gods, demi-gods or heroes, and form part of the culture of different
nations and tribes. Any myth basically explains the ways of life of a particular society,
and the Oedipus myth is a symbolic myth that gives us the subtleties of ancient Greek
society that had a city-centred kingdom, and each city had its own deity and temple.
This particular deity and the priest had enormous power and so the king was to abide
by the supremacy of the god or goddess, and the particular priest chosen by the deity
thereby had limitless powers. Tiresias’ behaviour towards Oedipus is thus explained.
The Dionysiac festivals were arranged for entertainment, but these were also occasions
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  139

when through the mythical representations man would once again come to terms with
his own existence. Greek myths were full of important learning for all ages. Some such
topics that were influential in the Greek society are present in the Oedipus myth.
 What does the Oedipus Myth convey
The myth suggests that man should not be proud. Oedipus’ hubris or extreme pride
is one flaw in his character that was supposed to be highlighted through the play. Pride
and arrogance ultimately lead to destruction, this idea comes as a moral lesson for the
audience. Although Oedipus truly knew what the truth was, he couldn’t get his mind to
see it. He was so proud that he thought nothing could stop him. Not only did he
disrespect other powerful people, but he also disrespected the gods. There is an
entanglement of pride and fate in the events. Oedipus tried to escape his fate by running
away and killing the man who told him about the curse. While letting his pride and
power get in the way, he fulfills the prophecy. If Oedipus didn’t believe that he was
invincible, he could have been more careful with his decisions. The gods punished
Oedipus for his disrespect and baffling pride. King Laius is one of the first characters
to try to escape his fate, and committed the crime of abandoning and trying to kill his
own child. Infanticide, patricide, and regicide run as significant issues in the myth. This
brings in the concern for propriety and common sense. Had he not married the widow
queen, tragedy of this stature would not have happened. But in all this, Sophocles also
subtly includes the workings of Fate, of which you have read in other forms in Anglo
Saxon literature. Remember that both Anglo Saxon and Greek literature are basically
from a pre-Christian time.
Another important issue is Jocasta’s helplessness. During that time life, social
status, and politics relied heavily on the males in Greece. Though not overtly
masochistic, Oedipus did claim and enjoy the widow queen, and she did not have a say
in the whole male business. Her brother gives her to Oedipus as a reward for his heroic
deed.The daughters are equally helpless and leave Thebes with their blind father,
ultimately living the life of spinsters.
Infanticide, though not a strong point in the dramatization of the Oedipus myth in
Sophocles’ tragic play, was a major issue in ancient Greek society. Sacrificing children
to the deities is a well-researched anthropological fact. In mythical reconstruction it is
found in different manifestations–prehistoric tales, folk tales, legends and myths of
different origin, and Greek myth was not an exception.
140  CC-EG-02  NSOU

3.8.2 Oedipus Myth in Classical Drama

There have been numerous plays on the Oedipus myth in classical Greece, but few
of those have survived. In the post-Homeric tradition, Aeschylus’ Seven against Thebes
is the earliest surviving source for the story of Oedipus. However, the most familiar
classical drama based on the Oedipus myth is Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex or Oedipus the
King and Oedipus at Colonus. There were later accounts that differed from that of
Sophocles. In Euripides’ Phoenician Women, for instance, Jocasta is still alive at the
time of the first The ban War, and finally kills herself after her two sons have killed
themselves during that conflict. There have been dramatic renderings of Oedipus’
children’s stories by different classical playwrights. Antigone by Sophocles is perhaps
the best example.

3.8.3 World Literature and Oedipus

The ancient story of Oedipus found intense dramatic appeal in many cultures.
Oedipus myth appears in the folk traditions of Albania, Finland and Cyprus. Through
the Roman tragedian Seneca the theme was transmitted to a long succession of
playwrights, including French poet and dramatist Pierre Corneille, Voltaire, and English
poet John Dryden.
With the evolution of neoclassical dramaturgy the appeal of the myth of Oedipus
increased. However, it is to be noted that playwrights like Corneille and Voltaire in
France and Dryden in England disagreed with Aristotle that Sophocles’ Oedipus the
King has the best plot. Rather, they found the plot of Oedipus inadequate, and though
took the myth as their premises to attract their contemporary theatrical audience, they
introduced sub-plots with some secondary characters who became vitally important for
the plot. Corneille presented the myth in his Œdipe in 1659. It represents the political
ideology and prevailing moral values of 17th-century France. Corneille introduced a
subplot, the love of Dirce and Theseus, to distract his audiences from the atrocities of
the legend. Corneille removed Oedipus from his position of preeminence, and Oedipus’
quest for knowledge and truth became nothing more than the starting point and
background for the love intrigue that dominates this version. Œdipe immediately
became one of Corneille’s greatest successes.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  141

John Dryden and Nathaniel Lee produced Oedipus: A Tragedy in England in 1679
and it was a huge success in England of the Restoration. Their sources for the play are
Sophocles, Seneca and Corneille, as they retained sub-plot of Adrastus, Eurydice and
Creon, in which love and politics play a very crucial role. In their version all the
characters die.The tragic climax is reached with the death of Eurydice, who is stabbed
by Creon. After Creon has stabbed Eurydice, a massacre occurs. Creon and Adrastus
kill each other; then Jocasta slays herself and her children and, finally, Oedipus throws
himself from the palace walls.

3.8.4 Oedipus Myth in Contemporary Theatre

The Oedipus myth had a special attraction in the 20th century, motivating other
artists.The Russian-born composer Igor Stravinsky’s secular oratorio Oedipus Rex,
French writer André Gide’s Oedipe, and French novelist Jean Cocteau’s La Machine
Infernale are some such examples. In 2008 the National Olivier Theatre of England
produced Oedipus, which is one example of the most contemporary theatre based on the
myth. Jean Anouilh’s Antigone premièred in Paris in 1944.
In other parts of Europe too the myth produced lots of artistic inspiration. For
example, Hugo Claus, who is one of the most prolific and versatile Flemish novelists,
poets and playwrights of the twentieth century, produced his own versions of Seneca’s
Oedipus in 1971 in Antwerp. The following year he produced three further versions of
the Oedipus myth, Het Huis van Labdakos. This play deals with the myth in a way very
different from his own Oedipus; incorporating elements of Sophocles’s two Oedipus
plays as well as his Antigone and Euripides’s Phoenissae. The next version of Oedipus,
Blindeman by him was in 1985. The last version of this Oedipodie, as the three versions
were popularly called, was In Kolonos.
In the African continent, the myth inspired many. In Egyptian theatre, the story of
Oedipus inspired several playwrights in their tragedies and comedies, like Tawfiq Al-
Hakim (1898-1987) whose tragedy King Oedipus (1949) is considered a masterpiece,
and Ali Salem (1936-2015) whose play The Comedy of Oedipus, written in 1970, is a
satirical comedy. Both adapted the myth to the Arabic milieu. In modern Yiddish
142  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Theatre the myth also found prominence, as we have already learned. Mendl Elkins’ The
Sorrow of Oedipus in 1935 is an effort to create his thoroughly Jewish Oedipal tragedy.
Conversely, Oedipus’ daughter Antigone has greatly instigated the Latin American
imagination. Logically the conflict between law and order and individual rights has been
one of the main issues of both its colonial past and its troubled history since
independence, and the theatre artists tried to give meanings to their struggles through
the oblique gaze of the myth. It is a real pity that some of these productions remained
unknown because they were not translated into English or French. For example,
Antigone encréole (1953) by Felix Morisseau-Leroy from Haiti is a significant work
based on the myth.
There have been many Oedipus plays in Bangla. Sambhu Mitra’s Raja Oedipus is
a famous example in which the theatre stalwart himself played the lead role.
Bahubachan theatre produced Oedipus in 1982 and recently in 2013 Drishtipat staged
Raja Himadri in Bangladesh based on the myth. You can tune in to Mitra’s audio
play on this link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ILlnfadICJ8

3.8.5 Adaptations of Oedipus Rex across Media

A myth differs from a legend in being symbolic and carrying a philosophical depth,
thus, till present, myths form a source of inspiration for writers, painters, musicians and
poets.We have already learned about Shambhu Mitra’s radio play in a previous section
that tells us how the myth inspired the modern artists of Bengal. The myth has been
turned into musicals on multiple occasions.
The visual representation of the myth has already been referred to in a previous
section (3.8.1). You may look at some famous paintings by artists across the ‘world’.
For example, if you look up the topic in the internet sources, and you will come to know
that the French neoclassical painters were the ones that presented the world with
immortal work of art on the subject. Paul-Joseph Blanc (1846-1904), a French painter
specialized in scenes from ancient history and mythology, depicted the murder scene of
Laius. Gustave Moreau (1826-1898) was another leading figure in the French symbolist
movement, who also produced paintings inspired by the myth, as you may see in the
images given here. Others mentioned here will also show you the appeal the myth had
on the painters.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  143

Image: The Murder of Laius by Joseph Blanc (1846-1904) (source: Internet)

Image: Oedipus Separating from Jocasta by Alexandre Cabanel (1823-1889,

source: internet)
144  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Image: Oedipus and the Sphinxby Gustave Moreau (1826-1898, source: internet)

Image: Oedipus at Colonusby Jean-Antoine-Théodore Giroust (1753-1817, source: internet)

 NSOU  CC-EG-02  145

3.8.6 Universal Currency of the Oedipus Myth

Oedipus has acquired significance far beyond antiquity. Oedipus is probably not a
proper “hero”, and we may differ with Aristotle, but it cannot be denied that his story
has become the story of Everyman. We have already discussed issues like democracy
and good governance, regicide, parricide, incest, guilt and retribution that connect to
every society in the world. Therefore, it must be admitted that this myth has universal
currency. The numerous theatre productions in different parts of the globe are witness
to the fact that Oedipus is an Everyman and he represents the humans with their abilities
and flaws.

3.8.7 Oedipus in Psychoanalytical Studies

Basing on the myth of Oedipus, the Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud universalized Oedipus’s story into a psychoanalytical theory: the ‘Oedipus complex’.
Freud introduced the concept in his Interpretation of Dreams in 1899. Oedipus
complex, in psychoanalytic theory, implies a desire for sexual involvement with the
parent of the opposite sex and a concomitant sense of rivalry with the parent of the same
sex that demands patricide; a crucial stage in the normal developmental process of a
child through adolescence.
According to the French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist Jacques Lacan, the Oedipus
Complex is a compromise formation that both shows and obscures the fundamental
truth of desire, namely castration as an effect of language. Lacan separates the problem
of castration from reference to the murder of the father and, in turn, the Freudian
Oedipus complex.
The Oedipus complex revolves throughout all stages of human development; and
psychologists in different periods have researched on this. The parental involvement in
the Oedipus complex along with the consequent distribution of guilt is an inherent part
of this psychic structure that has attracted the field of psychoanalysis.
146  CC-EG-02  NSOU

3.8.8 Summing Up
Even though the classical world of Greece with its archaic faith and practices does
not exist anymore, the myth and folklore produced there always help interpret human
societies. The Oedipus myth has been universalised and still holds currency for us. It
has given birth to numerous works of art, and continues to inspire us in many ways.
Oedipus perhaps represents Everyman with libidinal and aggressive desires toward
parents or taking up acquired guilt from parents that has special appeal in the field of
psychoanalysis. Moreover, the themes like parricide, democracy, sense of responsibility
have universal appeal.

3.8.9 Comprehension Exercises

 Essay Type Questions:
1. Write a note on the Oedipus myth and its connection with contemporary society.
2. Do you think the myth of Oedipus significantly influenced world drama? Give
reasons for your answer.
 Mid-length Questions:
1. Critically examine the role of the Oedipus myth in Greek society.
2. Why do you think the Oedipus myth is important for any society?
3. Evaluate the role of the Oedipus myth across media.
 Short Answer Type Questions:
1. What is the impact of the Oedipus myth on psychoanalysis?
2. Write a short note on the city Thebes.
3. Write what you know about the Oracle of Delphi.

3.8.10 Suggested Reading

Brill, Abraham Arden (Ed.). The Basic Writings of Sigmund Freud. New York, Modern
Library, 1995.
Hard, Robin. The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology. London and NY, Routledge,
2004.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  147

Hillman, James. Oedipus Variations. Dallas, Spring Publications, 1995.

Morford, Mark P.O. and Lenardon, Robert. J. Classical Mythology. 6thed. NY, Longman
Publishers, 1998.
Roche, Paul (trans.). The Oedipus Plays of Sophocles. New York, New American
Library, 1958.
Segal, Charles.Oedipus Tyrannus: Tragic Heroism and the Limits of Knowledge. 2nd ed.
NY, Oxford University Press, 2001.
148  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 9  Sophocles’ Treatment of the Myth

Structure
3.9.0 Introduction
3.9.1 Sophocles, the Greek Tragedian
3.9.2 Dramatisation of the Oedipus Myth
3.9.3 Oedipus the King as a Classical Tragedy
3.9.4 The Divine Machinery in Oedipus the King
3.9.5 Sin and Redemption
3.9.6 State and Kingship
3.9.7 Sophocles’ Use of Different Settings
3.9.8 Summing Up
3.9.9 Comprehension Exercises

3.9.0. Introduction
This unit aims to throw light on the age-old interest related to Sophocles’ most
celebrated work, Oedipus the King. The play has been considered to be the most perfect
example of Greek tragedy by Aristotle. In the previous units, you have already been
enlightened on the background related to Greek tragedy and its features as stated by
Aristotle. So it will be easier for you to understand the play, Oedipus the King, in that
context. Here, we will try to highlight the background issues related to the legend of
Oedipus. Further, we will try to analyse the following:
 The play as a perfection of classical tragedy.
 The use of the divine machinery and its importance in the plot.
 The question of sin and redemption related to the action of Oedipus.
 The caught-in-between situation of Oedipus in the context of state and kingship.
Certain other issues will also be explored as we continue with the discussion.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  149

3.9.1 Sophocles, the Greek Tragedian

Sophocles is a noted name in the arena of Greek Tragedy. He was born at Colonus
in the year 496 B.C. The son of a wealthy family, he was raised with all educational and
social advantage. He was not a professional writer, nor were any of the Athenian
dramatists of the 5th century B.C. With Aeschylus and Euripides, he formed a triad of
the greatest dramatists of ancient Greece.
Sophocles entered his first dramatic competition at an early age of twenty eight.
Apart from his dramatic interests, he was quite civic-minded. He held a variety of
political and military offices in his lifetime. His long life of ninety years spanned the
Peloponnesian War and the corresponding rise and fall of Athens as a great empire. He
is credited with the writing of one hundred and twenty three plays, out of which only
seven have survived. These plays are perfectly structured dramatic masterpieces.

3.9.2. Dramatisation of the Oedipus Myth

You are already acquainted with the myth of Oedipus in the previous Unit. The
greatest strength of Sophocles is his mastery of the dramatic medium. Aristotle
considers “imitation of action and life” to be the essence of tragedy and this is fully
exploited by Sophocles in his presentation of plot, character, language and spectacle.
Boldness, intelligence, resourcefulness and the excellent use of language, these are all
noted characteristics of the dramatic technique of Sophocles.
The myth related to Oedipus has been kept in the background in the play Oedipus
The King, and Sophocles has rather tried to humanise the figure of Oedipus in this play.
The legendary heroic figure has been re–worked in order to appear as a lifelike towering
individual who is caught in crisis. The character of Oedipus has been dramatised as a
responsible king, ready to do his best for his country and his dear subjects. He
understands his responsibility as a king now, and not as an accidental Messiah who had
saved Thebes once upon a time from the fearful clutches of the Sphinx. He tries his best
in order to solve the problem related to the plague-ridden Thebes and this is what
Sophocles is successful in presenting through his excellent dramatic rendering.
The play presents us with a problem and then the plot moves forwards finding the
solution to this grave problem. The dramatic art of Sophocles is worked out wonderfully
150  CC-EG-02  NSOU

in achieving the climax and then the denouement. It is styled on detective fiction, the
‘who done it’ theory working behind the whole play. Sophocles is in his best in keeping
the element of suspense intact and in loosening of the knot by and by. The
complications have been finely worked out and the end is quite shocking and disastrous,
keeping intact the true tragic intensity.

3.9.3 Oedipus the King as a Classical Tragedy

By now you are aware of the basic tenets of tragedy as discussed in the earlier units.
Aristotle, in his Poetics, which is a famous study of Greek dramatic art, lays down the
features of tragedy and compares it to the other important forms like comedy and epic.
But it is quite interesting that the tenets propounded by Aristotle regarding tragedy come
come well after the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripedes had been written and
enacted. So Aristotle’s theorisation essentially follows these performances. After closely
studying the classical tragedies, Aristotle ultimately lays down the important rules to be
followed by the later tragedians.
Oedipus The King is considered to be the finest and most perfect of all the classical
tragedies. All the tragic elements have been successfully presented and rendered most
effectively. The main point of interest in any tragedy lies in the protagonist. The tragic
hero, as noted by Aristotle, must belong to the nobility, must suffer from an inherent
flaw (hamartia) and must have the ability to endure the physical and mental stress
inflicted on him. The character of Oedipus fulfills all the above stated criteria. He is a
royal figure, has the flaw of excessive pride (hubris) and arrogance, and undergoes the
vicissitudes of life successfully.
The next thing to be kept in mind is the six elements that Aristotle speaks of in
relation to a tragedy, detailed at length in Module 3 Unit 7. They are plot (mythos),
character (ethos), thought (dianoia), diction (lexis), melody (melos) and spectacle
(opsis). Plot is considered to be the soul of tragedy and this play keeps that in mind,
which we are going to discuss in detail in the next units. The point related to the
character of the tragic hero has already been hinted at in relation to Oedipus and we will
discuss it again at length. The element of thought registers the ability to say what is
possible and appropriate in any given circumstances and it is related to the effective
speeches used by the characters in the drama. This is consequently related to the
element
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  151

of diction, which means the expressive use of words. In this play, it is the diction
through which the action of the play is mainly carried out.
Another important aspect related to a tragedy, according to Aristotle, is the unity of
time, place and action. Though Aristotle does not specifically mention these terms the
way neo-classical theorists do, the discussion on Dramatic/ Organic Unity in Module 3
Unit 7 will tell you that the Aristotelian principle of mimesis/imitation as credible
representation actually harps upon these unities. The well–knit plot of Oedipus the King
keeps the above in mind and the whole action is set in Thebes, mainly in the royal
palace, the action takes place within twenty four hours and it is related to the search of
the murderer of Laius, the polluter of the land. The whole play is structured in such a
way that we get a comprehensive idea about the entire tragic action.

3.9.4 The Divine Machinery in Oedipus the King

It is a truly stated and felt fact that no other Greek story has such pain and horror
as that of Oedipus. Apart from the excessive dramatic and tragic possibilities, the story
specifically appealed to the writers because it raised dark questions about the treatment
of men by the Gods. The Greek society and also the Greek tragedies paid much
importance to the role and function of Gods in human affairs. All the tragic playwrights
therefore introduced Gods and Goddesses in the scheme and at times it provided the
point of conflict in the drama. They even introduced dues ex machina, meaning ‘God
from the machine’ where actors who were performing the role of Gods were brought
onto the stage by the use of machine. It gained extreme popularity and specifically the
use of dues ex machina by Euripides, at the end of the play Medea is the most noted
one.
In the play, Oedipus, who appeared to be fortune’s favourite is suddenly cast down
and ruined. This appalling reversal of fortune was actually attributed to direct
intervention of the Gods. The Gods, specifically Apollo, play an important role in the
drama and Oedipus is the victim. They have ordained a life of horror for him, which
comes as a part of the curse on the House of Laius, and they make sure that he gets it.
Oedipus is the instrument, the agent, by whom their plans are carried out.
Much before the play begins, the Divine Intervention has already started with the
prophecy to Laius that his son is going to kill him and marry his own mother and this
152  CC-EG-02  NSOU

was a curse to him because of his abduction and rape of Pelop’s son Chrisippus. This
is disastrous and Laius tries to flee from the prophecy by ordering to kill his son
Oedipus, just after he is born. The Divinity is already at work with the birth of the son
and will bring about the ultimate calamity.
One thing to be noted, before we proceed with the discussion is that, in every
classical tragedy, it is shown that the Divine will always prevails. It is the ultimate force
which brings about the downfall. This play is not an exception, but Sophocles, to some
extent, has stressed the importance of human will in the divine scheme of things. This
assertion of the human will aggravates the conflict in the play, but ultimately the human
serves to be a petty creature in the hands of God. Laius tries to assert his free will by
ordering to kill his newborn son, but the boy is saved by the grace of God, because the
prophecy has to be fulfilled. When Oedipus grows up he decides to visit the temple of
Apollo to know his future. He comes to know of it, but that leaves him shocked and
terrified. He tries to flee from his own destiny, but to no avail. Apollo’s dictum has to
be proved right and Oedipus will have to commit the sins prophesied to him.
Now, our present play in discussion, opens with the situation that the city of Thebes
is suffering from pollution, the plague. The plague is considered to be sent by the Gods
because the land is polluted by the death of Laius and the presence of his slayer in it.
We should note here, that Sophocles in hinting at the moral pollution too, over here, the
Greek term for it being miasma. A plague as punishment for bloodshed of the king and
the kindred is quite usual-Sophocles indicates that only the Gods can cure what the
Gods have sent. So Creon, the brother-in-law of Oedipus, is sent to Delphi to find out
the solution for this plague. The message with which Creon returns, that to punish and
remove the polluter from the land, leaves Oedipus mystified. But nevertheless, we know
that it is an act of the Gods, an assertion of their rights and of their inviolable laws.
The polluter and the slayer is found out and the play ultimately ends, showing us
that the prophecy of Apollo was long fulfilled and the curse was worked upon. The
drama focuses on the humbling of a great and prosperous man by the Gods. The
humbling is not deserved, so to say, but the Gods have to display their power and since
they display it, man must draw his lesson. This is kept till the end of the play when the
Chorus point to the fall of Oedipus. The Chorus feel pity and horror that takes place in
the life of Oedipus, but even they accept that Apollo is the real power behind all the
happenings.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  153

3.9.5 Sin and Redemption

In the previous unit, we have seen that Oedipus is the sinner and he was destined
to be so. He is the son of fate (‘tukhe’) and he has to suffer. So in the play, Oedipus
emerges before us as the sinner, the slayer, the polluter of his own land. He has
committed the most heinous of the crimes and therefore, has to suffer. The story of
Oedipus carried the seeds of doom for the protagonist from the very inception, but that
does not lessen the quantum of the sins. Well, he had sinned unknowingly and
unconsciously, but that again cannot be justified by any means. In living a life of guilt,
Oedipus ultimately comes to understand that he had little to do with what happened, that
fate did with him what it would and that he only acted in sheer ignorance. Thus this play
provides you with a classic understanding of the Aristotelian conception of tragic flaw that has
been discussed at length in Module 3 Unit 7.
Once Oedipus learns that he is the sinner, who has killed his father Laius (one of
the gross sins prohibited in classical tragedy –that you were not to shed the blood of
your kin) and has married his mother, he takes full responsibility of his sins. He being
the king, could have avoided punishing himself, but he does not. On the other hand, he
inflicts upon himself the most horrid punishment of blinding and exiling himself. At the
close of the play, it becomes clear that Oedipus would struggle and repent until the last
of his days for his sins. The shattered condition of Oedipus is well explored in the play
Oedipus at Colonus. The old, weakened figure of Oedipus is a sorry sight and is quite
different from the grand figure that we see in Oedipus The King.

3.9.6 State and Kingship

The play Oedipus the King deals directly with the discovery of the truth by Oedipus
and with the effect of this on him. This crisis in his life is sufficient to provide a
complete tragedy in which he is changed from a powerful and beloved king into a blind
and abhorred outcast.
The play opens at a juncture when the city of Thebes is suffering from plague. The
priest, followed by the citizens of Thebes, comes before Oedipus to speak about their
problems and save them. As he states,
No man can be the equal of the Gods
We do not compare you to them. But,
As first among men, tempered by life. (lines 31 –33)
154  CC-EG-02  NSOU

He is the king, the representative of God on earth, and thereby he should take the
responsibility and save his kingdom. It is his first and foremost duty and he should
perform it. This opening scene depicts Oedipus in the height of his prosperity, renowned
and venerated. The priest addresses him as the ‘noblest of men.’
Oedipus understands and feels the importance of the situation. He knows that he is
the father-figure and addresses his subjects as ‘pitiful children.’ He also states that his
soul groans for the whole city and he cannot sleep trying to find out the remedy. He is
the head of the state and thereby is entrusted to solve the problem. But he hardly knows
that he being the king, is himself responsible for the trouble of his land.
The future of the state is at stake, so is the kingship. A state suffering for unknown
reasons, a pestilence-stricken country where the countrymen have become the
scapegoats. The king is in power but he is helpless, he is in utter darkness, an
incapacitated being and at a loss. But as a responsible being he does not stop. He
continues with the search to find out the polluter, the murderer and is finally successful.
The punishment which he had earlier pronounced on the guilty is finally implemented
on him. The land is saved, the people are safe and the next king to be crowned is
Creon.

3.9.7 Setting of the Play

In 3.9.3, we had seen that Aristotle speaks of the unities to be maintained in an ideal
tragedy and this play adheres to this rule. The setting of the play is in Thebes and
specifically the royal palace. The play opens at a juncture where we find that the people
of Thebes have gathered on the steps of the palace and Oedipus comes out to meet them
there. Most of the action takes place over there. This location is strictly maintained
throughout the play.
Apart from the above, two major actions take place indoors, within the palace. One
is Jocasta’s suicide, which is reported by a messenger and the other is Oedipus blinding
himself. These scenes are considered horrid enough and so not presented in front of the
spectators. The fixed location helps in conveying the tragic intensity and focusing on the
ultimate doom of Oedipus.

3.9.8 Summing Up
The previous units have helped us to form initial ideas regarding the popular
tragedy. Building upon that, in this Unit you have learned to what effect Sophocles uses
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  155

the myth of Oedipus to give it a perfect dramatic structure and to accommodate within
it a wide range of issues. This will be furthered in the next units. The ideas will be
developed and an overall idea will be formed. In these units, the features of classical
tragedy have been hinted upon and primary information related to the play has been
imparted.

3.9.9 Comprehension Exercises

 Essay type questions:
1. Discuss in detail the features of the classical tragedy.
2. Comment on the role and function of Gods in the play Oedipus the King.
 Mid–length questions:
1. Elaborate the concept of sin as seen in the play.
2. Is the setting appropriate for the play? Justify.
3. How successful is Oedipus as a king?
 Short answer type questions:
1. Discuss the dramatic art of Sophocles.
2. Comment on the importance of prophecy in the play.
3. In what way does the Divine will prevail over the human will in the play?
156  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 10  Analysing the Play

Structure
3.10.0 Introduction
3.10.1 The Story of Oedipus
3.10.2 Plot and Structure
3.10.3 Relationship between Plot and Character
3.10.4 Medias Res
3.10.5 The Scene of Jocasta’s Suicide
3.10.6 The Concluding Movement
3.10.7 The Choral Odes
3.10.8 Summing Up
3.10.9 Comprehension Exercises

3.10.0 Introduction
This unit aims to enhance your understanding of the text of the play Oedipus the
King. Apart from the information related to the background of the story of Oedipus,
there will be discussions related to the important features of the play like plot, character,
important scenes, the importance of choral ode, and the structure involving the
technique of ‘medias res’, which is very important a concept for your understanding of
classical conventions,. The concluding movement of the play is also very interesting
where the conflict is ultimately resolved. The learning outcomes of this Unit will be
fulfilled only when you supplement it with your reading of the text. Once you have done
that, this Unit will provide the vital linkages between the other Units of this Module.

3.10.1 The Story of Oedipus

By now you have already formed an idea about the story of Oedipus, his origins,
and the course of his life from your reading of the previous Units. Just to briefly recount
that for the purpose of this Unit, Oedipus was the great grandson of Cadmus, and he
was one of the best known among the Greek heroes. He is looked upon as the archetypal
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  157

tragic hero, whose life history embodied the universal human predicament of ignorance.
Oedipus was born into the royal family of Thebes and his parents were Laius and
Jocasta. Laius had come to know from an oracle that he would meet his death at the
hands of his son and this son would also marry his own mother. In order to get rid of
the terrible outcome, Laius ordered a shepherd to throw Oedipus into the jungle
presumably to be eaten away by animals. The ankles of Oedipus were pierced and
nailed so that he would not be able to crawl away. He was therefore a foundling, and it
is held that this forced upon injury to the child was the origin of his name, which means
‘swollen’ or ‘twisted’ foot. The kind shepherd would not abandon the child and so
handed him to another shepherd. This shepherd, in turn, brought the child to Polybus,
the king of Corinth, who being childless was glad to raise the boy as his own. When
Oedipus grew up he decided to travel the world, but before that to consult the oracle
at Delphi. You have learnt about the importance of Delphi in the previous Unit. The
oracle told him about the shocking future, that he was destined to kill his father and
marry his mother. Utterly horrified, he left Delphi and decided never to return to
Corinth.
Oedipus started travelling here and there. Unknown to Oedipus, his real father Laius
was also travelling in the neighbourhood of Delphi. At a place where the three roads
met, Oedipus confronted the chariot of Laius. The escorts of Laius ordered Oedipus to
move out of the way. A quarrel arose among them and Oedipus being haughty by nature
killed Laius, hardly knowing that he was killing his own father. He then continued on
his way. You have to relate this irritable nature of Oedipus to his hubris, of which we
have discussed in the Unit on Aristotle’s Poetics.
Afterwards he arrived at Thebes, which was at that time being terrorised by the
Sphinx, a monster, who asked puzzling questions. Those who tried and failed to solve
the riddle were turned to stones. To Oedipus, the riddle posed no problem. He was quick
enough to reply, and on hearing it, the Sphinx left Thebes forever. As an interesting
exercise you can do a comparative study between Oedipus and Beowulf insofar as the
trajectories of their lives and their mission of liberating people from superhuman
monsters are concerned. You will in course of that realize how much more complicated
classical literature actually is, though at base much of the heroic codes may appear
similar. It is this sense of the tragic components of life that makes Greek Tragedy so
much more superior and abiding in nature.
158  CC-EG-02  NSOU

To return to the story, the citizens of Thebes were overjoyed with the success of
Oedipus and looked upon him as the saviour. They made him their kind and as was the
custom he had to marry the existing queen, Jocasta. So, unknowingly both the sins were
committed by Oedipus as foretold by the oracle. For many years Oedipus lived in
perfect happiness and harmony. He proved to be a wise and benevolent ruler and Jocasta
bore him two sons, Etiocles and Polyneices and two daughters, Antigone and Ismene.
This is the background story related to the great figure of Oedipus. It is important to
realize these past incidents in order to analyse the play properly.

3.10.2 Plot and Structure

In this unit we are going to discuss in detail the plot and structural divisions used
in the play. In order to understand this part, we are going to take help of Freytag’s
analysis. Gustav Freytag in his Technique of the Drama (1863) talked of what he
considered to be the most successful structure for a play. In brief, he believed that the
action of the play could be organized in the shape of a triangle (famously referred to as
Freytag’s pyramid), stressing on the fact that there should be five distinct parts. The
figure below, taken from open sources on the internet where it is readily available, will
succinctly explain the parts of what constitute a dramatic structure. You can well
explain the play in the light of this diagrammatic structure, once you have read it
for yourselves :
Before going into the structural analysis, let us very briefly form an idea about the
plot of the present play. In the last unit we found how Oedipus becomes the king of
Thebes by unknowingly killing his father Laius and then eventually marries his mother,

Climax

Complication Reversal
actio Falling action
n
Risin
g
Inciting incident Resolution

Exposition Denouement
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  159

queen Jocasta. This play opens with a crisis. After a long reign of peace and happiness,
Oedipus confronts a great problem. A plague has come over Thebes, due to which crops
are dying, animals are barren, children are falling sick and unborn babies are withering
in the wombs of their mothers. This is actually due to the violation of the moral code
or the principle of miasma that we have discussed in the earlier Unit. The moral
pollution has spread all over the city, as the king who is on the throne is himself
polluted, albeit without his knowing it as yet. So this is how larger fate and individual
destiny combines in classical tragedy; and in the case of Oedipus, the fact that he is the
ruler of the land only compounds problems for his subjects. The citizens appeal to him
for help and Creon is sent to Delphi to find out a solution. Creon returns with the
message that the pollution will be lifted only when the killer of Laius will be brought
to justice. Oedipus takes on the responsibility and as a first step thinks of consulting the
blind prophet Teiresias. The prophet is brought to the court but he is reluctant to reveal
the identity of the killer. Oedipus gets angry and accuses Teiresias of being associated
with the murder. Eventually he says that Oedipus himself is the sinner and the polluter.
Enraged at this, Oedipus banishes Teiresias. He leaves, stating that Oedipus is blinded
by his pride and therefore fails to see the truth. After this Oedipus suspects that Creon
had been plotting to take over the throne by killing Laius. Jocasta tries to pacify
Oedipus and says that it is an impossibility as Laius was killed as a place where the
three roads meet suddenly. Oedipus remembers his chance encounter with the old man
and suspects that Laius might have been his victim. As he waits for confirmation to
come from one of the members of the escorts of Laius who returned to Thebes, a
messenger arrives from Corinth with the reassuring news that Polybus has died a natural
death. Oedipus, not yet suspecting the full extent of his crime, is thankful that he seems
to have evaded at least a part of the oracle.
The well-meaning messenger, anxious to put the mind of Oedipus to rest, assures
him that Polybus and Merope were not his real parents. The messenger had received
Oedipus when a baby, from one of Laius’ shepherds on Mount Cithaeron and had given
him to Polybus. Even now Oedipus fails to make the proper connection, and while the
terrified Jocasta tries in vain to persuade him to stop his investigation, he persists in his
efforts to get to the bottom of the mystery and demands that Laius’ shepherd be brought
before him. Thankfully, according to the will of the destiny, the shepherd is still alive,
and when he finally arrives the full horror of the situation is at least brought home to
Oedipus. Once again, dear learner, you are to go back to your study of Aristotle and
understand for yourselves, how the element of ‘reversal’ works out in the plot of this
play.
160  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Jocasta could not wait for the denouement to unfold, she had already gone into the
palace and had taken away her life. After the horrible discovery and enlightenment,
when Oedipus comes to Jocasta, he finds that she has hanged herself to death. Tearing
the golden brooches from her dress, he plunges them again and again into his eyes until
he is completely blinded. This is where our present play under discussion and the first
part of the Sophoclean trilogy ends.
The play is not divided into acts and scenes as a conventional tragedy does.
Sophocles has intended to keep the play as a whole with the tragic scheme of things at
proper work. Now let us try to re-look at the play from Freytag’s analysis. The five-part
division of a play consists of:
i. Introduction or Exposition: Where the place and time of action is stated.
ii. The Rising Action: It is believed to begin when the events of the play are
ultimately set in motion.
iii. Climax: It is considered to be the highest point of actions of the play.
iv. The Falling Action: It charters the result of the climax.
v. The Resolution or Denouement: It is also termed as closing action where all the
loose ends of the play are tied.
Let us now mark these points in relation to the play Oedipus, the King. The play
opens in Athens and states that the country is suffering from a devastating plague. So
the problem is exposed before us. Then comes the rising action, where the plot is set
in motion and Creon is sent to oracle at Delphi. Oedipus consults Teiresias, the
messenger from Corinth brings the news of the death of Polybus and finally the
shepherd reveals the past to Oedipus. The climax reaches fast after this revelation as
Oedipus comes to understand that he is the murderer and the polluter of the land, his
native land. The falling action deals with the suicide of Jocasta and self-blinding of
Oedipus. The resolution comes with the realisation of Oedipus and his desire to go for
exile and with the hope that normal life will return to Athens.
Finally we can say that the play, in a way, is structured as a prologue and, along
with that, five episodes, which of course we talked of above. Each of these episodes is
introduced by a choral ode. Every incident in the play is part of a tightly constructed
cause and effect chain. These incidents are assembled together as an investigation of the
past, and the play is thus truly considered to be a marvel of plot structure.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  161

3.10.3 Relationship between Plot and Character

Aristotle cites the play Oedipus, the King as the most brilliant example of theatrical
plot. For Aristotle the soul of drama is plot—the action that demands and succeeds in
engaging our attention so that we are no longer just detached spectators, but are directly
involved in the progress of the stage—events. In turn this engagement of the audience
proceeds from an identification with the figures on stage, and this is not possible if we
are made to feel that the action of the characters is not free, not effective. It is possible
only when we feel that there is a meaningful relation between the hero’s action and his
suffering, and that his action is free and thereby he is solely responsible for the
consequences.
The plot of the play is a perfect example of the exclusion of the irrational, and the
skilful handling of the traditional elements of the myth on which the play is based.
Sophocles, of course, is cautious enough not to dramatize any of the admittedly
irrational parts of the myth. He rather constructs the play in a brilliant move, as an
investigation of the past.
The tremendous sense of the inevitability and fate that we find in this play actually
stems from the fact that all the irrational things have been already done and they are
unalterable. Once Oedipus starts to investigate, the whole truth ultimately emerges
before him and also us.
The plot of the play is uniquely designed in that the drama moves forward in action
but backwards in revelation. The technique can be called the technique of retrospect.
Sophocles has also made effective use of dramatic irony as a part of his dramatic plot.
The process of the backward movement in terms of knowledge, contributes to the
discovery by Oedipus and at the same time shocks the audience.
The whole movement in the play is directed to revelation on the part of Oedipus.
The peripeteia or element of reversal in the play comes with the messenger’s revelation,
which brings out a material fact that creates an impact absolutely contrary in nature to
what it was intended to be by the character. In seeking to help Oedipus, by providing
him with the valuable information that Polybus and Merope were not his real parents,
he instead creates the opposite effect, providing the crucial piece of information that
will reveal to Oedipus that he has actually killed his father and married his mother. As
Aristotle recommends, this is directly connected to the anagnorisis; for the messenger
162  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and the shepherd piece together the whole story of Oedipus enabling him to recognize
his true identity, to gain the essential knowledge that he has so long lacked. The
peripeteia and anagnorisis directly cause the catastrophe, ‘the reversal of fortune’ for
Oedipus and lead to the emotional scenes of ‘suffering.’ In a sense, each of the actions
of Oedipus can be considered to be a reversal of intention, and each gives him a little
more knowledge of the dreadful truth which leads him to his terrible downfall.

3.10.4 Medias Res

In the previous Units we have come to know of the story of Oedipus, both the
background legend and what actually happens in the play. Now coming back to the plot
of the play, what we find is that the actual action has already taken place, the disasters
and the sins have already been committed and Oedipus is now to suffer the
consequences. So we can aptly say that the play begins in the middle of things or in
medias res. This is a Latin term which means “in the middle of things”. So when the
play opens, there is a lot of action that has preceded, and we gradually come to know
about in through the cinematic technique of flash back and forward alternately. As you
read the play, you will discover for yourselves what this technique gives to the handling
of the plot. You will also see the employment of medias res when you study Paradise
Lost in Core Course 3. In the epic, it serves a similar purpose. Largely we might say that
the use of medias res brings the audience/ reader at once into the thick of the
action.
The plot of the play actually starts from the moment that is not the same as the
chronological beginning, but in the middle of the story. The play, as Sophocles presents,
begins long after the actions have already taken place as we said earlier. But these
events are revealed to Oedipus by and by and that constitutes the interest and irony of
the play. The audience knows much more than Oedipus does before the play begins, and
is therefore better placed to judge the nature of his actions. That constitutes the irony
of the play, and this technical device to begin in the middle gains ground.

3.10.5 The Scene of Jocasta’s Suicide

In the play Oedipus, the King, Jocasta has a late entry. She enters at a critical point
when Oedipus, unable to find out the cause of the plague and the polluter of the land
starts suspecting and attacking Creon. Jocasta comes in at this point in order to pacify
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  163

Oedipus and make him understand that Creon cannot be guilty of committing such an
offence. Jocasta emerges as a practical-minded, clear-headed woman and also a
responsible queen. But following the technique of medias res, we need to understand
that she is a much more enduring figure in the tale than what we can surmise from her
stage presence.
That she is extremely practical is proved by the point that she does not have any
trust on the oracles and their prophecy. She wants Oedipus too to understand this and
not to be baffled by the prophecies. By way of evidence, she cites the prophecy that her
own child would kill his father and marry her. She tries and had tried hard to change
the fate in defiance of prophecy, but ultimately fulfils it, even though unwittingly. When
she comes to understand that Oedipus is heading towards ruinous discovery, she
beseeches him to cease from the quest, but to no avail. She finally comes to understand
that the horrible sin of incest has been committed by her. The prophecy has been
fulfilled and she has wedded her own son and given birth to sinful children. It is a
shame too much for her to bear. So she ultimately takes recourse to suicide to end her
life with honour rather than live in disgrace for the rest of her life.
If we closely analyse the character of Jocasta, we find her to be as tragic as
Oedipus, and in a way her actions (committed unknowingly of course) lead to her
downfall. Along with that she is a victim of fate too. Like Oedipus, she is guilty of
hubris, as she attempts to defy the gods. She even insults the gods by dismissing their
prophets as unreliable. When Oedipus comes to meet the Corinthian, she mocks the
oracles. She urges Oedipus not to entertain fears of any kind, and that is the philosophy
of life for her.
The end which Jocasta meets is appropriate from a tragic perspective, and this end
contributes to the effect of catharsis which the play produces in full measure. The
suicide scene is kept offstage as Sophocles did not want to present the horrid incidents
before the spectators. But Sophocles is successful in portraying the essential femininity
in her and raising her to the level of tragic dignity.

3.10.6 The Concluding Movement

In the earlier section we have seen how Jocasta, unable to bear the burden of the
truth, commits suicide. Soon Oedipus is also enlightened with the truth of his very
164  CC-EG-02  NSOU

existence. He then runs offstage, finds that Jocasta has hanged herself, and taking the
brooches from her robe, gouges out his eyes. With the knowledge gained, with the truth
revealed he inflicts self-punishment of blinding himself.
The Greek word ‘oida’ means ‘to know’ and literally it means ‘to have seen.’ To see
is to know. Teiresias, who was physically blind, could actually see and understand, but
Oedipus who had sight and knowledge actually did not know. When he finally comes
to know, he could not bear to see through it all, and blinded himself. Aristotle remarks
that Oedipus falls from a great height because it was fated and in that sense his fall was
fore-doomed; but because of his refusal to know himself, he falls further into blindness
and exile.
This act of self-blinding is related to the theme of the play, the theme of sight and
blindness. The literal act of blinding ultimately makes the metaphorical blindness
explicit that Oedipus has displayed throughout the play and indeed throughout his whole
life. He has always to remain blinded by his pride and ignorance. His blinding
symbolically represents his previous decision to overlook the vital message delivered by
Teiresias and to ignore the truth. So before leaving Teiresias prophesies to Oedipus:
‘A beggar, not a rich man, blind who now has eyes,
Hesitatingly tapping his staff through a foreign land,
He will be exposed as brother and father
To his own children, son and husband
To the woman who bore him, sharer of the marriage bed
With the father he murdered.’ (Lines 455-460)
Thus due to his hubris, Oedipus was blind to all of the warning signs. The
punishment thus he gives to himself is quite justified and to see Oedipus in such an
appalling state. With blood pouring down his face brings about pity and fear in the
Activity for the Learner:
With help from your counselor, make a comparison between this play and
Shakespeare’s Macbeth on the theme of sight and blindness.
The play ultimately ends with reference to the daughters of Oedipus. Before he sets
out for exile, he wants to meet his daughters, who are unfortunately his sisters too, for
the last time, and he requests Creon that he should look after them. Oedipus laments for
the doomed future of Antigone and Ismene as he knows that society is going to look
upon them as outcasts and no one will marry them. They will have to suffer because of
the sins committed by their parents. Oedipus appears to be very emotional in this scene
and his fatherly love and concern know no bounds. Oedipus ruefully says:
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  165

‘Such an evil heritage: your father his father’s killer,

Who ploughed where he was sown—the mother of his children.
And you two come from the same place.
Taunted with this, who would marry you?
No one, dear children—it is clear
You must die virgin and barren.’ (1497-1502)
It is really a moving scene and Sophocles is successful in drawing the attention and
emotion of the spectators to the fullest. We will further discuss about the children of
Oedipus in the next unit as Sophocles has dedicated a whole play to the daughter
Antigone, in his trilogy related to Oedipus.

3.10.7 The Choral Odes

While referring to the chorus in his Poetics, Aristotle clearly states that the chorus
should be regarded as one of the actors in the play and it should be an integral part of
the whole and should also take a share in the action. But if we consider the chorus in
Oedipus, the King, we find that it never takes an active share in the action of the play.
Rather it makes important remarks as the right moment. In Aeschylus, very often the
choral ode strays out into obscure and unrelated meditations, which are not directly
connected with the central action of the play. But the odes of Sophocles always relate
to the subject of the drama. In general, these consist of reflections and meditations
related to the recent events. Thus the chorus in this play concentrates generally on the
variety of human fortune and discusses the sanctity of the oracle.
Thus, in the first choric ode, the chorus creates a symbolic pattern in the context of
the destiny of the city. But, then it suddenly shifts away from the immediate crisis and
begins to involve Athena and Apollo and accumulate the tension of the play by means
of a specific prayer. It also tries to transcend the moment of crisis and approximate a
general principle of morality to be realized in human existence. It also comments on the
idea of Hubris which lies at the root of the tyrant’s fall.
The chorus in this play comprises of the Theban elders and they appear five times
in the play. Each ode, they sing, makes a reflection upon each climatic situation in the
166  CC-EG-02  NSOU

play. The first song takes place immediately after Oedipus has declared his resolution
to trace the murderer of Laius. It also intensifies the sorrowful condition prevailing in
the city. The second song is introduced in the play, just after Oedipus himself is accused
as the polluter by Teiresias. The chorus, of course, is not prepared to believe the
allegation against Oedipus and instead urges the murderer to be found out. The third
song is a meditation upon the nature of Oedipus. The chorus indirectly speaks of the
possible fall through pride. The fourth ode comes up at a point when Oedipus is baffled
with his identity. The final choric song is a comment on the fall of Oedipus and is a
reflection upon short-lived happiness of human beings. We will discuss the importance
of the chorus and how their odes make a remarkable commentary in detail in the next
unit.

3.10.8 Summing Up
In this unit we have had a detailed understanding of the text. The idea related to plot
and structure has been enhanced. Certain important and significant scenes and moments
in the play have been highlighted for better understanding of the text. The interpretation
of the text opens up various issues for elaborate and never-ending discussions.

3.10.9 Comprehension Exercises

 Essay Type Questions:
1. Discuss in detail the plot of the play.
2. How far is the process of self-blinding in the play related to the theme of sight
and blindness?
3. How in your analysis of the play does character contribute to the unfolding of
the plot?
 Mid-Length Questions:
1. Comment on the scene of Jocasta’s suicide.
2. In what way is the play structured to chart out the process of self-discovery of
Oedipus?
3. Comment on the significance of the choral odes.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  167

 Short-answer Type Questions:

1. What is medias res?
2. Comment briefly on the sins committed by Oedipus and their significance in the
plot.
3. Comment on the tirade between Oedipus and Teiresias.
4. Discuss Freytag’s pyramid in relation to the play.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
168  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 11  Themes and Characteristics

Structure
3.11.0 Introduction
3.11.1 Sophocles’ Art of Characterisation
3.11.2 Oedipus as a Tragic Hero
3.11.3 The Importance of Children
3.11.4 The Chorus
3.11.5 Major Thematic Issues
3.11.6 The Idea of Fate
3.11.7 Dramatic Irony
3.11.8 The Play in Critical Reception
3.11.9 Summing Up
3.11.10 Comprehension Exercises
3.11.11 Suggested Reading (Units 9 to 11)

3.11.0 Introduction
By now you have become familiar with many aspects of the play, Oedipus the King.
This final unit of the play hopes to highlight some more points related to the text. The
play has continued to be of extreme interest for both the readers and the researchers and
so the discourse is still on. The unit aims at the following:
 To get a clear and brief idea related to the way Sophocles wants to present his
characters.
 To develop a better understanding of the character of Oedipus.
 To judge the significance and role of the children of Oedipus in the whole scheme.
 To discuss the importance of Chorus in the plot, apart from the structural discussion
that we had in the previous unit.
 To try to understand the concept of fate in Greek tragedy in general and in particular
in this play.
 Finally, to have an overall idea about the major themes that emerge from the play
and to have a look at the critical reception of the play.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  169

You will notice that in this Unit we will be going back and forth with much that
you have already known by now, the purpose being to place your understanding of the
text in the light of theoretical perspectives, keeping Aristotle in mind.

3.11.1 Sophocles’ Art of Characterisation

When we carefully and closely study the plays of Sophocles, we find that every
detail in his plays seem to arise out of and contribute to one single concept. Nothing is
present in the plays simply because he got interested in a character or situation, but
because he was interested in a different aspect of life. Sophocles contemplates the
human situation at large, as one which is essentially fixed and governed by laws that
do not and cannot possibly change. In a large way, this frames his tragic perspective as
well. In his conception of Diké (the world order), there is no place for anything
progressive, rather it is something inherent in the nature of the universe and of Man,
something eternal. This world order he shows as revealing itself in the complex
characters and actions of a group of persons, who are related to each other, thereby his
chief personages will not simply come into conflict with each other, but will engage
with each other in close and prolonged clashes, to bring into the play their whole
personality.
Greek tragedies actually did not want to focus on the ‘heroes’, though we have
eminent protagonists like Agamemnon, Orestes, and Oedipus; but rather on the
universal scheme of things. The human beings and the human free will were kept in a
subordinate position to Gods and the Divine will. Sophocles happens to be perhaps the
only Greek dramatist who is engaged in the depiction of the hero in the mythical
sense, denoting a person, who, after a lifetime of exceptional achievement and
suffering, passes into an immortal existence and remains a source of both blessing and
dread to the people at large. Not quite a God but rather God –like in power and
immortality, he is successful in exacting worship. In such a person, rage and
intemperate passion would not call for ethical judgment or psychological analysis for it
would form the very mode, the only possible mode, of his mythic existence and
action.
Sophocles always draws his characters as they ought to be, for which his characters
do not fall flat. They are dynamic and change through learning from the context. In
Oedipus the King, all the characters are meticulously drawn. In his portrayal of the
170  CC-EG-02  NSOU

central figure Oedipus, Sophocles wants to show that the character, though, honourable
and heroic, is also flawed but courageous and honest enough to find out and admit his
faults. He truly regrets the sins committed, at the end of the play.
The secondary characters in the play are also drawn minutely.The characters
function as dictated by the legend. Sophocles portrays Jocasta, as a practical-minded
woman and a queen and also as a loving and caring wife in the conventional sense. She
is shown to possess courage and ability to handle repulsive situations. But ultimately
she cannot stand up to the vagaries of fate and commits suicide. Creon, the brother in
law of Oedipus is also drawn as a respectable person, who appears to be a sensible and
reasonable man. At the end of the play he becomes the king of Thebes; he could be
cruel towards Oedipus, but instead, he shows compassion towards Oedipus and also
promises to shoulder the responsibility of the daughters of Oedipus. The other important
and significant character, in the context of the play, is Teiresias. He is the one to point
out to Oedipus that the latter has committed some crime that is yet unknown to
him.Though the presence of Teiresias is brief on stage, as a representative of Apollo, he
remains the most powerful character in the play. The Chorus also plays a very important
and significant role in placing their observations at various critical points in the play.
They pray, sing and frequently talk to the protagonist. The Messengers also have a
crucial role to play in the plot movement. They largely form the instruments of
revelation for Oedipus.
In all his plays, Sophocles tried to portray his characters as pious, heroic, and even
if they have flaws, they are impeccable. The characters are integrated to the plot of the
play and together help to bring about the final outcome.

3.11.2 Oedipus as a Tragic Hero

The character of Oedipus is based on the legend of his exploits and is so developed
as to explain why he falls as he does. Sophocles shows us that the fall of the hero is
not an “accident” but is inevitable, the consequence of a certain blindness on the part
of the hero. Aristotle in his Poetics suggested that the hero must be of noble birth and
have the capacity to suffer, so that his story could be set as an example. The hero must
commit a major error (hamartia) and this error usually arises from some circumstances
or attributes of the person that his ignorance or weakness causes, and which would
ultimately result in a reversal of fortune (peripeteia) and finally lead to his downfall.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  171

The hero would thus recognize (anagnorisis) or discover his flaws through events and
situation.
Oedipus is definitely a man of action and courage and these are markedly Athenian
characteristics. The courage of an Athenian would rise to its greatest heights when the
situation seemed to be most desperate and this is what we find Oedipus to do, as the
play opens. In the play, Oedipus performs multiple roles, like he himself is the
investigator, prosecuter and judge of a murder. In all these aspects he represents the
social and intellectual progress that had resulted in the establishment of Athenian
democracy and its courts of law. The heroic achievement of Oedipus is the discovery
of the truth, and that discovery is the most thorough –going and dreadful catastrophe the
stage has ever presented. The hero who in his vigour and courage and intelligence
stands as a representative of all that is creative in man ultimately discovers a truth that is
so dreadful.
Venerated as the equal of a God, uncontested master of justice, holding in his hands
the health of the whole city–such, placed above other men, is the character of Oedipus,
the wise. So he asserts boldly as the play begins:
I, Oedipus, whose fame is known to all. (Line 8)
The priest implores Oedipus to save their pestilence stricken country as he had
saved the country previously by solving the riddle of the Sphinx. He is hailed as the first
of man, who with his intelligence and wisdom can save all. To quote the
priests:
Come, noblest of men, rescue our city.
Come-act-because the whole country calls you its hero since you first saved us.
(Lines 45 to 47)
Oedipus takes up the course of action from here and the rest of the play deals with
the process of discovery. The noble king, doing his best to save his people. At the end
of the play, this image of Oedipus is reversed. From a pious one, he becomes
abominable, concentrating in himself all the impurity of the world. The divine king
becomes a contaminated one whom it is necessary to expel like a scapegoat
(pharmakos), so that the city may be saved.
Divine king and scapegoat, such are the two faces of Oedipus, which constitute him
as a riddle, by uniting two figures in him, the one the inverse of the other. Sophocles
attributes a general significance to this inversion in the nature of Oedipus. The hero
172  CC-EG-02  NSOU

proves to be the model of the human condition. But Sophocles did not have to invent
the polarity between the king and the scapegoat. It was inscribed in the religious
practice and in the social thought of the Greeks. If the king is the master of fecundity,
and it dries up, it is because his power as sovereign is in some way reversed, his justice
has become crime, his virtue contaminated, and the best has become the worst.
The process of discovery, intensely exciting and painful as it is, arouses horror and
even dismay. Oedipus is not legally or morally guilty of murder or of incest since he
acted in ignorance. But he is something no less horrible; he is a polluted being, a man
to be shunned. Had Oedipus for instance, been more conscious and more aware of the
forces at work upon him, he must surely have said that he was not really to be blamed
for having co-habited with his mother, since neither he, nor anyone else knew she was
his mother, or to have killed his father, in ignorance.
At last, Oedipus chooses to blind himself because he could not bear to see the faces
of his children and his fellow citizens. But his action has, in the context of this play,
an impressive element of dramatic irony or natural justice, whichever way one sees it.
who, proud of his far-seeing intelligence, taunted Teiresias with his blindness now
realizes that all his life long, he has himself been blind to the dreadful realities of his
identity and action.
Oedipus’s downfall is caused by his ignorance about his identity; he is not evil, or
proud, or weak.If he really wanted to avoid the oracle, leaving Corinth was a mistake
on his part, and killing an unknown old man was a graver mistake and marrying an older
queen was a disaster. Trying to reveal the truth, cursing the murderer of Laius, sending
for the Corinthian shepherd–each of the actions that he pursued so vigorously and for
such good reasons, ultimately lead to his doom. Oedipus is not morally guilty but he is
radically ignorant and Sophocles does not present him as a unique case but rather as a
paradigm of the human condition.

3.11.3 The Importance of Children in Oedipus The King

We have stated in the earlier unit that the reference to the children of Oedipus
comes at the end of the play, but nevertheless they have importance in the life of
Oedipus. In the end Oedipus not only realizes he is a sinner, but also understands and
laments at the fact that he has destroyed the life of his children, specially his daughters.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  173

Helpless and blind he requests Creon to take care of the girls. He is really worried about
them and his fatherly love is bestowed on them. He says all I can do is weep for you
both and can’t bear to contemplate, the bitterness of the rest of your lives and all your
will suffer as the lands of men. (Line 1486-1488)
The play ends with the concern of Oedipus for his daughters and there is no mention
of his two sons. Sophocles doesn’t ponder over the father-daughter or father-son
relationship in this particular play as that is not his subject. Rather here and moreover
he would highlight the aspects in the next two plays of the trilogy, mainly Antigone and
Oedipus at the colonies.
In the above-mentioned plays Oedipus reveals his inner self, and expresses
detestation for his sons and care for his daughters. Antigone is seen to serve all his
eyes, as well as his guide and nurse. Both the daughters, Antigone and Ismene,
sacrificed their life’s expectations to help their father in exile. That their culture
expected of them, daughters must be dutiful and obedient. But thesedaughters went far
beyond these expectations and according to Sophocles, acted as if in their protection of
their father they replaced the two sons of Oedipus Polynices and Etocles, failed to carry
out. Oedipus showed the intensity of love for his daughters against anger and hatred for
his sons. Sophocles shows that Oedipus thus acted favorably towards his daughters, how
loved and cared for him, and cursed his sons, who rejected him.

3.11.4 The Chorus in Oedipus The King

The Chorus was an integral part of every Greek tragedy. The Greek Chorus served
as a foil, a type of common humanity beside the heroic figures of the play. They often
commented on the actions of the characters, and at times acted as the voice of the
dramatist. The Chorus would often present its dialogue in the form of songs, while
dancing often to the accompaniment of a drum and flute –like instrument. Choral songs
had several functions to perform: to provide interludes between episodes, to break up
long dialogue sections and to create scene transitions.
The Chorus, as it is found in the plays of Sophocles, stands aloof from the storm and
stress of the action, and assumes the role of an impartial mediator, holding the balance
between the various contending forces. The Sophoclean Chorus, when sharing in the
dialogue, represents the ordinary mass of human beings. There is nothing ideal in its
174  CC-EG-02  NSOU

character; it exhibits both foibles and the Excellencies of an average crowd of

respectable citizens. As a rule, however it is pious and God-fearing and expresses
reverence for the Gods to be the chief source of happiness.
Aristotle in his Poetics states that the Chorus must form a part of the whole and
should join in the action. In Sophocles, the Chorus hardly takes any practical share in
the action and it never plays a part comparable to its part in the plays of Aeschylus. But
what Aristotle meant by joining in the action might be that the Chorus should refer to
the subject of the plot and should not be mere digressions. From this point, the
Sophoclean Chorus is perfectly accurate. The odes of Sophocles relate to the subject of
the drama and they are reflections and meditations on the recent events in the play.
Sometimes they are prayers for help or descriptions of preceding circumstances.
In Oedipus the King, the Chorus consisting of Theban Elders acts almost like a
voice of conscience. It tends to sympathize with Oedipus till the end of the play. It
retains its nature of prayer and serves as a group of supplicants. The supplication to the
Gods sets the event of the play in a divine perspective, which is essential for tragedy.
The Chorus holds the balance between Oedipus and his antagonists marks the progress
of their struggle and restates the main theme after each dialogue or agon. The ancient
ritual was probably performed by a Chorus alone, without individual developments and
variations; the Chorus in Oedipus the King is still the element that throws most light on
the ritual form of the play as a whole. The Chorus represents the city Thebes as it shows
its point of view and faith, and of the Athenian audience. Their errand before the palace
of Oedipus is like the audience of Sophocles in the theatre. The Chorus in this play
directly intervenes in the action, for example, the Chorus leader appears in the middle
of the scene with Teiresias, and expressing its emotions and visions in song and dance,
suffers the result. The Chorus finally offers a new vision of Oedipus, who is now a
sinner, and the Chorus also suggests ways for the welfare of the city.
Choral odes in this paly are closely knit with the action and mood of the Chorus
changes with the march of events. Being apprehensive, the Chorus shows little patience
for calm reflection or reasoned judgment and even their final words seem only to
deepen the hopeless gloom:
Fellow Thebans, look at Oedipus—he who solved the famous riddles. The man of
power whom every citizen envied. See what a wave of terrible misfortune has
submerged him. Before that final day when one can say his life has reached its end
with no distress or grief, no man should be called happy. (Lines 1524-1530)
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  175

Thus it can be stated that one of the most important functions of the Chorus is to
disclose the truth, in its wildest and most mysterious extent, the theatre of human life,
which the play, and indeed the whole festival of Dionysus assumed.

3.11.5 Major Thematic Issues

The theme of a play is generally considered to be its dominant central idea, message
or moral that the author wishes to convey to the readers or the playwright to the
audience. A theme may reveal universal truth, and is usually centered around society,
human nature or the human condition. In ancient Greece the plays were not simply
written for entertainment but written and performed in order to teach the audience a
moral lesson.
In Oedipus the King, Sophocles deals with multiple themes in order to justify the
human predicament in the world order determined by Gods. The human and the divine
are constantly brought into conflict in the context of the plot movement. Let us examine
the themes under the following heads:
 Pollution (and by implication the need for purification):
The concept of moral pollution (miasma) which was mentioned in the earlier units,
and blood guilt existent in the religions in ancient Greece influenced the Theban plays.
In Greek myths the sacred and the profane intertwined, and for society to function
properly all kinds of pollution had to be avoided to maintain the harmony between the
gods and mankind. Thus, blood guilt, pollution and exploitation became the major
themes in classical tragedy. For Sophocles these were secondary themes; yet it was
fundamental for the myth of Oedipus. Indeed, most of his plays deal with pollution. In
Oedipus the King it is the pollution caused by the murderer of Laius; in Antigone the
pollution is caused by leaving a dead body kept unburied; and in Oedipus at Colonus,
it is the revolution of a lifetime of pollution for Oedipus. Killing an individual triggered
a series of moral pollution that was to be removed through banishment of the polluter,
which only could re-establish the harmony with the gods.
 Self-discovery:
Another major theme of the play is search for the knowledge and identity every
tragedy seeks; but Oedipus was blind of his flaws and did not know the implications of
the speech. This moral blindness, consoled with his pride leads to the damnation of
176  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Oedipus. The events that occurred before the play begins failed. Oedipus still had free
will and he could have expressed it, in the right way, but then he sails from a great
height as Aristotle says. That is self-understanding and self-realization. Oedipus is the
man of knowledge, the wise person. During the play we come to know that he answered
the riddle of sphinx. In a scene the answer to that was not only a “man” but Oedipus
himself. The riddle of the sphinx resonates with the famous maxim, “know yourself
know you are man”. This idea that is inherent in the riddle of the sphinx is the idea of
a man’s self-knowledge. Sophocles has actually tried to portray in this tragedy the
theme of self-knowledge and therefore the plot of the play is directed in that
manner
 Sight versus blindness:
This is another theme that runs through the play; that of sight versus blindness or
rather sight and knowledge. The Greek word for “to know” is oida; literally this word
means “to have seen”. To see is actually to know. Teiresias, the prophet, who was blind
could not see but understand. Oedipus the man of knowledge could see but didn’t know
and understand. When he finally knew he could not see so he blinded himself. Teiresias
repeatedly tried to drive home the point to Oedipus. Besides the above mentioned major
thematic issues there are others like pride or hubris. Oedipus suffers from great pride
due to his knowledge and thereby he’s not ready to actually see. The concept of fate also
looms large in the play, which ultimately cures the free will of Oedipus which he has
experienced right from the beginning. Apart from that these are prophecies, at the very
root of the play which both Oedipus and Jokasta have tried in a way to avoid, but
ultimately and unknowingly succumbing to them. But all these elements are inter-
related in such a way that they ultimately work forward the final disaster.

3.11.6 The Idea of Fate

The play Oedipus the King has been universally regarded as a classic example of
the tragedy of fate. Its tragic effect is considered to be based on the contrast between
the supreme will of the gods and the failed attempts of mankind to escape from the evil
that threatens them. Destiny and the will of gods do indeed loom ominously behind the
human action, but that does not and should not necessarily belittle the human action.The
legend of Oedipus is related to predetermined doom, but as far as the dramatic
framework of the play is concerned, the interpretation of the tragic fall in terms of
destiny is kept to minimum. Thus, the dramatic emphasis is more on the problem of the
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  177

self-will, security inspection and investigation,than on the unquestioning submission to

the cruel hand of fate.
Sophocles chooses as the subject of his tragedy a story about a man who tried to
avoid the fulfillment of a prophecy by Apollo and then believed that he had succeeded
and cast corn on all the oracles and then ultimately found that he had actually fulfilled
the prophecy long ago. Oedipus in the play is a free agent and he is responsible for the
catastrophe. The plot of the play, as we have already seen, is mainly related to his
discovery that he has fulfilled the prediction of the god and this discovery is entirely due
to his action and is naturally self-defeating. The oracle delivered to Oedipus has been
often considered to be a self-fulfilling prophecy, in that the prophecy itself sets in
motion the events that conclude with its own fulfillment. This however is not to say that
Oedipus is just a victim of fate and has no free will to exercise. The oracle inspires a
series of specific choices, freely made by Oedipus, which lead him to kill his father and
eventually marry his mother. Oedipus chooses not to return to Corinth after hearing the
oracle, just as he chooses to head towards Thebes, to kill Laius and marry Jocasta
unknowingly. In response to the plague at Thebes he chooses to send Creon to the
oracle to seek advice and then to follow that advice, initiating the investigation of the
murder of Laius, the former king. So it is to be noted that none of these choices were
predetermined.
In Greek religion the concept of fate naturally and essentially governed and bound
both men and gods. There was no escape from it and the concept of human will was
ineffective. Even Zeus the ruler of Olympus could not change his fate. As goes the story
in Homer’s Iliad, that Zeus’ son Sarpedon was fated to die at Troy and even Zeus could
not change the predicament of his son. All he could do is to delay the death of Sarpedon.
The story of the life of Oedipus is also related to fate. Laius the father of Oedipus was
fated either to have no son or if he did, to have been killed by that son. Laius tried his
best to avoid his destiny, but failed to do so finally.
However, coming to the play Oedipus the King, it can be said that it is not entirely
a play of fate, as it is generally considered to be so. At least Sophocles did not want it
to be treated as a play dealing only with the concept of fate. Here the human will have
a significant role to play. Oedipus has been offered enough choices to do or not to do.
All that was fated as already stated to happen before the play begins. Nothing that
happens in that play is fated. The singular action of the play which is related to the
process of investigation is solely due to the will of Oedipus. Even when Jocasta prevents
178  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Oedipus from pursuing the search, he does not listen to her. All through the play he
expresses his own free will and ultimately confronts his disasters. At that point of
discovery, the self-inflicted punishment is also his own will. Sophocles could have
decided to make the play a story of fate, as Aeschylus perhaps did; but he chose not to
do so. Thus the play doesn’t present the triumph of the idea of predestination.
Sophocles’ dramatic framework upholds the principle of individual responsibility. Thus,
the tragic vision of Sophocles appears to be more human than that of Aeschylus.

3.11.7 Dramatic Irony in Oedipus the King

Learner Activity: Before you come to a reading of this sub-section, look up any
standard dictionary of literary terms for the meaning of the word ‘irony’. Understand for
yourselves why and how irony is used as a rhetorical device, and what are the ways in
which the use of irony influences readers/audiences when appreciating a play either in
reading or in watching a performance.
The use of tragic irony has been a favourite device in almost all democratic
literature. It is mostly employed when some catastrophe is about to take place, which
is already known and foreseen by the spectators, but concealed from the actors in the
drama. In such cases the dialogue may be couched in terms which though perfectly
harmless upon the surface, carry an ominous significance to the initiated and point
suggestively to what is about to happen, and the contrast between the outer and the inner
meaning of the language produces a deep effect upon the stage.
Tragic irony may be specifically divided into two kinds, the conscious and the
unconscious. Conscious irony occurs in those instances where the speaker is not himself
the victim of any illusion, but foresees the calamity that is about to fall on others and
exults in the prospect. The other kind of irony, the unconscious, is certainly considered
to be the more impressive. Here the sufferer is himself the spokesman, utterly blind to
the loom which looms large over him, he uses the words which to the mind of the
audience, have an ominous suggestiveness and hardly knowing about it, probes his own
wounds to the bottom. Such a kind of irony is not solely confined to the dialogues, but
runs through the whole situation and the contrast between the cheerful heedlessness of
the victim and the dark shadows which surround him, produces an impression more
terrible than that which any form of the speech could convey. Scenes and situations of
this particular kind have a peculiar fascination for the ancients. The fear of sudden
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  179

reversal of fortune and some fatal nemesis which waits upon pride and boastfulness was
of all ideals the one most deeply impressed upon the mind of antiquity. Hence the
popularity upon the stage of those thrilling spectators, in which confidence and
presumption were seen advancing blindfold to destruction and the bitterness of the loom
was intensified by the unconscious utterances of the victim.
When we come to Sophocles, we find that it is not merely in occasional scenes and
episodes that he introduces instances of self-deception and unconscious irony. He makes
it the ruling motive of the dramas, as in Oedipus the King. The irony of destiny is here
exhibited with vehement force. In the opening scene, Oedipus is depicted in the height
of prosperity, renowned and venerated and the priest addresses him as the ‘wisest’ of
men, as we have already referred to in the previous discussions. Oedipus is considered
to be an expert in dealing with the chances in life and with the visitations of heaven.
To the audience who know that within a few short hours the wrath of heaven will crush
and shatter him, the pathetic meaning of these words is indescribable. From this first
seen until the final catastrophe the speeches of Oedipus are all full of the same tragic
allusiveness. He can scarcely open his lips unconsciously on his own approaching fate.
In the play there is always a fear of sudden reversal of fortune. When Oedipus shows
a casual innocence and distinctive pride to find out his own identity, Jocasta tries to
distract him from his own destruction. But Oedipus creates an ironical situation which
chiefly arises out of his intellectual inadequacy. He therefore proudly makes his
decision to carry out the search without being conscious of the sense of irony latent in
the whole situation. Perhaps the most tragic passage of all is in which, while cursing the
murderer of Laius, he pronounces his own doom: “I pray that whoever did this, even if
he has, alone or with murderous accomplices, escaped, may his life always be
wretched. And I pray that he should be one of my household- and I know it, and then let
me suffer every punishment I call down on others” (L. 246-251). In Oedipus the King,
irony is not only a means and mode of communicating the thematic messages; it is
rather the theme of the play itself. The central thematic irony of the play is related to
Oedipus’s quest for knowledge and truth. Oedipus in his conversation with Teiresias
calls him blind old man. But Oedipus proves himself to be the most blind in his belief
and actions. The dramatic irony implicit in the statement that Oedipus hurls at Teiresias,
finally culminates in Oedipus himself becoming blind at the end of the play.
Although Oedipus, along with the other characters of the play does not know what
is actually going to happen in the course of the play, the audience does. It is due to the
180  CC-EG-02  NSOU

ability of Sophocles to use dramatic irony throughout the play, that the audience knows
everything that is going to happen, before it actually takes place. It is thus the
emergence of the idea of reasons which helps us to enjoy the play on an aesthetic level.
When everything is played out on the stage, we come to realize that whatever happens
on stage is not life itself, but life well imitated. As a result the final tragic impression of
Oedipus the King is one of aesthetic enjoyment.

3.11.8 The Play in Critical Reception

Critical interpretation of Oedipus the King began only, when Aristotle used the play
as the paradigms of Greek Tragedy. He considered Oedipus to be the ideal tragic hero
and the play to be the best of all tragedies ever written. Various interpretations have
continued to the present day. Each age has tried to understand the play according to its
own culture and ethics. Friedrich Nietzsche, in his Birth of Tragedy, looked upon this
play as a complex one, in which Oedipus is a kind of superman; one who expelled
others in terms of knowledge. But he also believed that those who expelled their fellow
men always paid a price. For Oedipus, the price was incest, patricide, blindness, exile
and destruction. Sigmund Freund was profoundly influenced by Greek thought. He
developed the idea of the Oedipus complex; whereby an infant would feel lust for his
mother and would want to displace his father. He explained that the fascination over the
years with Oedipus the King came about because the play resonated with an innate
desire of men to kill their fathers and sleep with their mothers. The inquiry of Oedipus
in the past, to correct the present mirrors Freund’s theory of psychoanalysis. The
patients visit the physician because of a present malady. Through analysis, which is
going back in time to understand the cause of the problem, the patient is ultimately
cured. Oedipus also became the paradigm for Freund’s theory of repression. The patient
represses knowledge and resists finding out the painful origin of his present condition.
Thus, each time Oedipus learns a new piece of information he represses it in a way.
Nevertheless he persists until he can no longer suppress the knowledge. Then, through
sliding himself, he perpetrates the ultimate repression, never again beholding this
situation or any other. Bernard Knox, one of the most influential writers of the twentieth
century on Sophocles, argued that Sophocles depicts a heroic individual confronting his
destiny all alone, free to act, but taking the consequences of his actions, he is not only a
victim but an active agent too. The tragic hero of Sophocles exhibits strength of will,
stubbornness, harshness and he is easily angered and offended. Isolated, the hero refuses
to compromise,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  181

setting his own conditions for existence. Jean-Pierre Vernant sees the play in terms of
the historical role of tyrants in Greece with their excessive behaviour. Plato attributed
incest to tyrants as part of their lawless conduct, a change that fits Oedipus in a way.
Vernant also sees Oedipus in the role of pharmakos, or scapegoat, who was driven out
of the city of Thebes, after all ills and evils of the city had been placed on him. At the
end of the play, Oedipus is willing to be the sacrificial victim, by whose punishment and
exile the city can be saved from its pollution of blood guilt. Charles Seagull views
Oedipus as a hero of inner visions and personal suffering, whose force of personality
and integrity enabled him to confront his suffering and fate with utmost courage, after
a struggle for self-knowledge. According to Seagull, this was how Sophocles created the
form of “the tragic hero” which became a paradigm in western literature.

3.11.9 Summing Up
Thus we have seen that the play unfolds before us the various tragic aspects not
only in the life of Oedipus, but in general to all of humanity at large. It also states that
the tragic incidents are not merely caused due to the divine will at work, in the form of
fate, but also because of the human will and responsibility. What happens to Oedipus is
surely a cause to mourn, but he is a victim of fate right from the beginning and though
he tries to exercise his own independent will, unknowingly falls prey in the hands of
fate. There is something sinister at work, which cannot be denied at any cost. But that
does not make the play be wholly pessimistic. Sophocles has always celebrated the
courage and tenacity of human beings and thus Oedipus is not an exception to this. In
this unit we have tried to look at the major issues related to the play and also the
character of Oedipus. It is aimed at making the play an informative and interesting read.

3.11.10 Comprehension Exercises

 Essay type questions:
1. Oedipus the King is the story of a nobleman who seeks knowledge that
ultimately destroys him. Discuss.
2. Discuss in detail the role of fate in bringing about the downfall of Oedipus in
the play.
3. How does Jocasta wield power over Oedipus and Creon?
182  CC-EG-02  NSOU

 Mid.-length questions:
1. How does the motif of sight and blindness contribute to the dramatic action of
the play?
2. Comment on the use of irony in the play.
3. How does Sophocles raise the levels of tension and suspense in the play?
 Short answer type questions:
1. Point out some of the critical approaches to the play.
2. What role do the children play in the life of Oedipus?
3. Write in brief the art of characterization of Sophocles.

3.11.11 Suggested Reading (Units 9 To 11)

Aylen, Leo. The Greek Theatre. Fourleigh Dickinson University Press, 1985.
Bowra, C.M. Sophoclean Tragedy. Oxford University Press, 1944.
Draper, R.P. Tragedy: Developments in Criticism. MacMillan Press Limited, 2007.
Fagles, Robert. The Three Theban plays. Penguin Books, 1984.
Fainlight, Ruth and Littman, R.J. The Theban Plays. John Hopkins University Press,
2009.
Haigh, A.E. The Tragic Drama of the Greeks. Clarendon Press, 1896.
Halliwell, Stephen. Aristotle’s Poetics. Duckworth, 1986.
Jones, John. On Aristotle and Greek Tragedy. Oxford University Press, 1968.
Kitto, H.D.F. Form and Meaning in Drama:A Study of Six Greek Plays and of Hamlet.
Routledge, 2014.
Leech, Clifford. Tragedy. Critical Idiom Series. Routledge, 1969.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  183

Module-4
Ovid: Selections from Metamorphoses,
‘Diana and Actaeon’ (Book 3)
Unit 12  Roman History, Literature and Culture
Structure
4.12.0 Introduction
4.12.1 Roman History
4.12.2 Roman Literature and Culture
4.12.3 Summing Up
4.12.4 Comprehension Exercises

4.12.0 Introduction
Following the Modules on Greek literature and culture, this section introduces to
you a brief political and social history of Rome from the beginnings to the modern age.
This is followed by a discussion on the culture and literature of the nation which is
famous for its characteristics of a great civilization. The objectives envisaged in this
Unit broadly are:
 To get a fair idea of the development of Rome from an ancient city of legends under
Monarchy to a modern Republic
 To know and appreciate the culture and literature of this civilization
 To identify a pattern in the development of its literature and culture
 To comprehend the impact of political conditions on the production of the
Literature of a particular period

4.12.1 Roman History

Legends say that Aeneas, son of Venus, fled Troy when it was burned by the Greek
army in 1200 BC, wandered for a while, and settled in Italy along the Tiber River.
However, history leads us to the fact that, a number of Indo- European speaking
tribes presumably after crossing the Alps had settled in Italy during the so called Late
Bronze Age (1300-1100 BCE). These tribes intermingled with the existing tribes around
the Tiber, through peaceful or violent means, leading to modifications in their language
186  CC-EG-02  NSOU

as well as their culture. Romans were the descendents of one such Indo- European tribe
to have settled in Italy towards the close of the second millennium BCE. One of the
Indo- European tribes were the Latins (Romans) who inhabited the fertile and well
watered Latium region.The most prominent Non- Indo- European tribe of the Italian
Peninsula was that of the Etruscans who dominated the northwestern and central parts
of Italy.
The Etruscans were among the early (Late Bronze Age) inhabitants of the Italian
Peninsula and had a profound influence on the Romans since they were settled in the
most fertile tracts of land and witnessed a period of rapid economic growth. Between
800 and 700 BCE the Etruscans occupied most of central Italy and brought the Latium
region (including Rome) under their direct influence.
Rome was founded in 753 BC, based on Latin Etruscan and Greek legends and
by the descendents of Aeneas, Romulus and Remus. Initially the Roman government
was monarchy wherein the king combined the functions of political and civil
Government but was above all the commander-in-chief. As per the tradition, Rome,
since its foundation until 510 BCE was ruled by seven kings of Latin, Sabine and
Etruscan origins. Romulus became the first king of Rome when he killed his brother
Remus. There were five more subsequent kings before 510 BC, when the sixth king,
Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquin the Proud, was so hated by the people of
Rome that a revolt, led by Lucius Junius Brutus, overthrew him, and formed a
government with representatives elected by the people. Rome vowed to never be ruled
by a king again.
The decline of Monarchy in Rome was followed by a Republican form of
government that lasted more than five centuries (510 BC to 27 BC), and this period of
time is called the Republican Age.In a republic, the supreme political power rests with
the body of citizens and is exercised by the appointed officers who are in some way
responsible to the citizens. The body politic of the Roman republic was closely linked
with the Roman social structure. In a restricted sense it can be said that the hierarchical
Roman family, led by the paterfamilias (patriarchal head of the family) also shaped the
early Roman state by fostering obedience to authority. There was therefore, no
conceptual distinction between ‘society’ and ‘politics’. Historian Livy argues that the
Roman state from its very beginning was rigidly divided into two classes or ‘order’-the
Patrician (rich aristocracy) and the Plebian (poor common masses). An oligarchical
form of Government was set up under which the major policy decisions were taken by a
select few.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  187

In 387 BC, Rome was sacked by the Gauls and the entire city was destroyed,
including all historical records, making history much less reliable before that year than
after it. The part of the Republican Age from 350 BC to about 100 BC was the period
of Rome’s greatest expansion, when it grew through conquest from its city walls, to the
entire Italian peninsula, to Northern Africa and Spain, to Greece, Turkey, Syria, and
Egypt. From then until the fall of the Roman Empire the Mediterranean Sea was called
the Internal Sea since all the land surrounding it was part of Rome. During the last 100
years of the Republic, individual leaders gained more power and lost respect for the
Republic until a critical mass of power, popularity and loyalty of the military was
achieved by Julius Caesar, who named himself “Dictator for Life” and was shortly
thereafter assassinated by senators who correctly feared this would destroy the republic.
But they didn’t think through what would happen after his assassination, and the power
vacuum led to Civil War which was eventually won by Julius Caesar’s
successor, Augustus.
Augustus’ reign started in 27 BC and ushered in the age of the emperors, or the
Imperial Age, from then until 476 AD. The emperors before about 180 AD were in
general, good, and Rome saw its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Trajan,
98- 117 AD. The city was a collection of monuments and government buildings of
marble. Slave labour was abundant. Times were good for 60 more years. The decline
after 180 AD was gradual, as Rome had more and more trouble defending it’s too-large
borders and less and less trouble accepting selfish leadership. Repairs were attempted,
including splitting the empire in 395 AD into an eastern half with Constantinople as it’s
capital and a western half led in Rome. Due to the wealth of the east and the lack of
borders with the northern barbarians, the east survived. But the west was unable to
defend itself, and Rome itself was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD and by the
Vandals in 455 AD. The last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was forced out of
power in 476 AD, marking the most popular date cited as the end of the Western Roman
Empire. The Goths put the final nail in the city’s coffin when they destroyed the
aqueducts and cut off the water supply to Rome in 537 AD, ushering its final shrinkage
from a peak population of about a million people to 30,000 in 550 AD. The Eastern
Roman Empire (also called the Byzantine Empire) lasted until 1453 AD.
Western Europe was plunged into the Dark Ages for 1000 years by the fall of Rome
to the barbarians. When it finally emerged around 1500 AD, Rome was the center of the
Catholic Church.
188  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Rome was made the capital of the reunified Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II
during the late 1800s, and modernized under Mussolini during the 1930s. It survived
World War II to become the successful city it is today.

4.12.2 Roman Literature and Culture

The Roman Empire and its predecessor the Roman Republic produced an
abundance of celebrated literature; poetry, comedies, dramas, histories, and
philosophical tracts; the Romans avoided tragedies. Much of it survives to this day. Let
us briefly look at the way this newer culture and literature shaped itself.
 Greek influence:
The indebtedness of Roman Literature to Greece was even recognized by the writers
themselves. Horace, one of the poets of the Golden Age of Roman literature wrote that
Greece introduced the arts “into a backward Latium.” Historian Nigel Rodgers wrote
that Rome could not and did not deny that Greece was more refined and superior in both
intellectual and cultural pursuits from technology and philosophy to poetry and
sculpture. In reality, Rome could hardly deny a closeness to Greece since Greek cities
had existed on both the lower peninsula and Sicily for decades.
 Comic playwrights:
Roman literature began near the end of the 3rd century BCE with the emergence of
such comic playwrights as Plautus, Terence, and Ennius. Quite often their plays would
be performed during one of the city’s many festivals where the audience was mostly
male.
The first of the three was Plautus (254-184 BCE). Of his more than 130 plays, only
20 complete works survived. Two of his more notable works are Aulularia (The Pot of
Gold) and Captivi (The Prisoners).
Publius Terentius Afer, better known as Terence (195-159 BCE), and Ennius (239-169
BCE) were Plautus’ contemporaries. Terence arrived in Rome as a slave from North
Africa, eventually gaining both his freedom and an education. Many of his plays, such
as the comedy Eunuchus (The Eunuch), did not appeal to many of the unsophisticated
Romans; he was criticized by his contemporaries for “cannibalizing” Greek plays.
Ennius, however, was more highly spoken about than either Plautus or Terence and
is considered to be the “father of Latin poetry.” Even though he claimed to be the
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  189

reincarnation of Homer, only fragments of his works have survived. Rodgers notes that
he demonstrated how Latin poetry had achieved greatness while still emulating Greek
forms. His Annals was a history of Rome from the mythical Trojan hero Aeneas through
his own day. Unfortunately, he died in poverty.
 Golden Age of Roman Poetry:
As foretold by Ennius, Latin literature would soon truly come into its own. The
Golden Age of Roman poetry (c. 70 BCE-14 CE) produced such memorable writers as
Virgil, Horace, Catullus, Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid. According to Rodgers, Virgil,
Horace, and the exiled Ovid created a classical style of writing, comparable to many of
the great Greek authors.
One of these distinguished poets was Publius Vergilius Maro or Virgil (70-19
BCE). Unlike many of the poets who followed him, Virgil provided his audience with a
more romanticized picture of Rome. Hailing from Cisalpine Gaul and a family of
modest farmers, many of Virgil’s themes demonstrate his love of the rural life. His
Eclogues, written around 37 BCE, spoke of the loves and lives of shepherds, while his
Georgics, written around 29 BCE, praised Roman country life: plowing, growing trees,
tending cattle, and even keeping bees. However, his most memorable work is the
Aeneid, an epic telling of the journeys of Aeneas after the fall of Troy through the
founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus to the age of Augustus.
Quintus Horatius Flaccus, more commonly known as Horace (65 BCE-8 BCE), was
the son of a freedman. In keeping with his Epicurean philosophy, Horace’s poems
demonstrated a joy for life and a love of nature. Among his many works are Satires,
which was a criticism of the vice that was rampant in Rome, Epodes, inspired by the
Greek author Archilochus, and Odes, a celebration of life in Rome during the age of
Augustus.
This new age under the reign of Augustus also produced many young poets who
reacted differently to the changes in Roman politics and society. The leader of these
emerging poets, Gaius Valerius Catullus (84 BCE-54 BCE) is considered one of the
greatest of all Roman lyric poets. Avoiding any personal involvement in politics, he
looked to his neighbors to the east, such Greek authors as Sappho and Callimachus, for
inspiration. According to historian Rodgers, his poetry mingled both passion and
urbanity with an awareness of life’s impermanence and he “raised colloquial Latin to
new heights” (386).
190  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Probably the most famous or infamous poet of the era is Publius Ovidius Naro or
Ovid (42 BCE-18 CE). After Ovid, Roman poetry would take a brief hiatus. Rodgers
wrote that with Ovid Latin poetry had finally attained an “elegance and lyricism” to
rival that of any Greek. To Ovid love was the only “game worth playing.” However,
you will know more about him later.
 Silver Age of Roman Poetry:
Two famous Roman poets linked to what has been called the Silver Age of Roman
poetry are Marcus Annaeus Lucanus, better known as Lucan (39-65 CE), and Publius
Papinius Statius (45-96 CE).
 Roman Prose:
While there was an abundance of poets in Rome, there were also many outstanding
writers of prose. The city was alive with orators who took to the stage in the Roman
Forum to voice their views to the masses. It was a platform as well for lawyers who
wished to plead for their clients. One of the more memorable was Marcus Tullius Cicero
(106-43 BCE), not only a brilliant statesman and author but also an orator who, besides
his 911 letters, wrote on subjects ranging from art to education. He wrote political
essays such as De re publica (On the State) and De legibus (On the Laws) as well as
five books in Latin on ancient philosophy—De finibus bonorum et malorum. His
Epistulaead familiares (Letters to family and friends) act as vivid historical and cultural
documents of the period and give an insight into the inner workings of late Republic.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BCE-65 CE) was a student of Stoic philosophy and tutor to
Emperor Nero. Not only an essayist, he wrote nine plays based on such Greek legends
as Oedipus, Heracles, and Medea. He also authored 124 essays on subjects ranging from
vegetarianism to the humane treatment of slaves. After being implicated in the Piso
conspiracy, he was forced to commit suicide by Nero.
Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) or Gaius Plinius Secundus was a Roman administrator
who wrote on the Germanic wars and whose Natural History (Naturalis Historia)
contained information on the known universe as well as tracts on animals, trees, and
plants, all in 37 volumes. Volume-III, for example, describes the geography of Italy and
the topography of Rome:
There were also a number of Roman novelists: Petronius, Apuleius, Martial, and
Juvenal. However, Decius Junius Juvenalis or Juvenal (c. 60-c. 130 CE) is considered
the greatest of the Roman satirists.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  191

 Later Roman Literature:

The spread of Christianity gave rise to a new type of literature from the 4th century CE,
with clerics writing on Christian morality in sharp contrast to the amoral and often
sexually explicit works of the previous centuries.
 Historians:
Besides the writers of poetry and prose, there were the historians: Sallust, Tacitus,
Livy, and Suetonius. Unfortunately, much of early Roman history is based on myth, and
some historians sadly accepted it as fact. However, real or not, it gave the Romans a
sense of identity.
Livy (59 BCE-17 CE) wrote a detailed history of Rome in 142 books, however,
unfortunately only 35 survive. Although he accepted many myths as fact, his history
demonstrated his belief in Rome’s destiny.
Cornelius Tacitus’ (58-120 CE) works include De vita Iulii Agricolae, which spoke
of his father-in-law’s time as governor of Britain; Germania, dealing with the wars
against the tribes of Germany; and the fragmented Annals and Histories.
Lastly, Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 69-c. 130 CE) must be mentioned. His De
virisillustribus included short biographies of Roman men of letters; poets, grammarians,
orators, and philosophers. His De vita Caesarum (The Twelve Caesars) spoke of the
Roman ‘caesars’ from Julius Caesar to Domitian. Using earlier histories as sources, his
works are considered interesting but not totally reliable. They are concerned more with
an emperor’s personal habits than with his political accomplishments.
Unfortunately, Rome did not produce many philosophers like Greece; however,
there are two who should, at least, be mentioned. Marcus Aurelius was not only an
excellent emperor but also a Stoic philosopher; his Meditations was written Greek.
Finally, T. Lucretius Carus (99-55 BCE) wrote On the Nature of the Universe, an
Epicurean doctrine that said the world was mechanistic, operating without divine
intervention and true happiness existed from complete withdrawal from public life.

4.12.3 Summing Up
As we see, although Roman Literature borrowed heavily from the Greeks, they were
able to shake the shackles and create a vibrant literature of their own; poetry, prose, and
192  CC-EG-02  NSOU

history. The Roman authors influenced countless others in the decades and centuries
that followed—Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, and many more. One cannot enter either a
library or bookstore without seeing Roman poetry and prose on the bookshelves; Cicero,
Tacitus, Suetonius, as well as Virgil and Horace. Western literature owes a debt of
gratitude to the Romans for what they have given the world.

4.12.4 Comprehension Exercises

 Broad Questions:
1. Trace the development of Rome from a seat of Monarchy to a Republic.
2. Write a note on the development of Roman Poetry.
3. Write a short essay on the Roman Literature produced before the advent of
Christianity.
4. Why do you think the comic playwrights were so popular in Rome? Write a
note on the major contributors and themes.
5. Discuss how during the last age of the Roman Republic, the individuals gained
more power in the Roman body polity.
 Short Questions:
1. What is the legend associated with the foundation of ancient Rome?
2. What does history say about the foundation of ancient Rome?
3. Who were the Etruscans and why were they able to influence the Romans?
4. How was the Roman government closely related to the Roman social structure?
5. Who were the early Roman and Greek historians? What were their major works
and how did they contribute to the understanding of Rome?
4. What was the reason of the overthrow of Monarchy in Rome?
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  193

Unit 13  Roman Poetry and Ovid

Structure
4.13.0 Introduction
4.13.1 A Brief Note on Roman Poetry
4.13.2 Publius Ovidius Naso: Life and Works
4.13.3 Ovid’s contribution to Roman Poetry
4.13.4 Summing Up
4.13.5 Comprehension Exercises

4.13.0 Introduction
This unit gives a brief introduction to the major types and forms of Roman poetry.
This section is followed by a brief sketch of the life and works of the poet concerned:
Publius Ovidius Naso. Our objectives in this Unit are:
 Comprehending the major forms and types of Roman poetry
 Understanding the reasons why certain kind of poetry was written during a
particular age
 Acquainting ourselves with the period during which Ovid wrote, and the
circumstances of his life
 Knowing the major works of the poet

4.13.1 A Brief Note on Roman Poetry

 The Epic and Epyllion:
You know by now that the Epic was initially a long poem, typically one derived
from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary
figures, or the past history of a nation.
However, an epyllion is a relatively short narrative poem resembling an epic in
theme, tone or style.
194  CC-EG-02  NSOU

People may have forgotten the “strong epic” for which Virgil’s friend Varius is
renowned, but Virgil’s Aeneid was certainly something new. Virgil did not work on
recent history. Rather he worked on Naevius’ version of Aeneas pilgrimage from Troy
to found Rome. The poem is representative of the moderation of Roman culture by
Italian touch during the Augustan age. There was a revival of interest in ancient customs
and religious observances, which Virgil could appropriately indulge. The verse
throughout is superbly varied, musical, and filled with rhetoric.
With his Hecale, Callimachus had inaugurated the short, carefully composed
hexameter narrative (called epyllion by modern scholars) to replace grand epic.
The Hecale had started a convention of interpolating an independent story.Catullus
inserted the story of Ariadne on Naxos into that of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis.
This poem is marked for its lyrical beauty. However, the story of Aristaeus at the
end of Virgil’s Georgics, with that of Orpheus and Eurydice inset, shows the best of the
style of epyllion.
Ovid’s Metamorphoses is a collection of some 50 epyllia with shorter episodes, one
of which is taken on your syllabus. He created a convincing imaginative world with a
magical logic of its own. His continuous poem, beginning with the description of the
creation of the world to the deification of Julius Caesar, is baroque in its conception.
Executed in swift, clear hexameters, its frequent irony and humour are striking.
Thereafter, many epics were written. Statius’ Thebaid and incoherent Achilleid
and Valerius’ Argonautica are seldom read now. Lucan’s unfinished Pharsalia has a
more interesting subject, namely the struggle between Caesar and Pompey, whom he
favours. He left out the gods. His brilliant rhetoric comes close to making the poem a
success, but it is too strained and monotonous.
 Didactic poetry:
Didactic poetry is one which embraces a number of poetic works (usually in
hexameters). They aim to instruct the reader in a particular subject matter, be it science,
philosophy, hunting, farming, love or some other art or craft. Strictly speaking, this
form of poetry was not considered as a separate genre.
Ennius essayed on the nature of didactic poetry in his Epicharmus, a work on the
nature of the physical universe. Lucretius’ De rerum natura is an account of
Epicurus’ atomic theory of matter, its aim being to free men from superstition and the
fear of death. It combines an appeal to the morality of the readers, has an intellectual
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  195

force, and an exact observation of the physical world, which makes it one of the best
examples of classical literature.
This poem profoundly affected Virgil, but his poetic response came only after about
seventeen years. The Georgics, though deeply influenced by Lucretius, were not truly
didactic. Although Virgil was country-bred, he wrote for literary readers like himself,
selecting whatever would contribute picturesque detail to his impressionistic picture of
rural life. The Georgics portrayed the recently united land of Italy and taught that the
idle Golden age of the fourth Eclogue was an illusion. Yet it does create, “the glory of
the divine countryside.” The compensation is the infinite variety of civilized life.
Georgics had a political intention. It encouraged revival of an agriculture devastated in
wars, of the old Italian virtues, and of the idea of Rome’s extending its works over Italy
and civilizing the world.
Ovid’s Ars amatoria was comedy or satire in the burlesque guise of didactic, an
amusing commentary on the psychology of love. The Fasti was didactic in popularizing
the new calendar; but its object was clearly to entertain.
 Satire:
In literature, Satire is an artistic form in which human follies, vices or other
shortcomings are held up to censure with the help of ridicule, burlesque, irony, parody
caricature or other means. They are sometimes intended to bring about social reforms.
In ancient Rome, Satura meant a medley. The word was applied to variety
performances introduced, according to Livy, by the Etruscans (the earliest line of
monarchy in Rome). Literary satire begins with Ennius, but it was Lucilius who
established the genre. After experimenting, he decided on hexameters, thus making
them its recognized vehicle. A tendency to break into dialogue may be an expression of
the remaining dramatic element in nonliterary satura. Lucilius used this medium for
self-expression, fearlessly criticizing public as well as private conduct. “Menippean”
satire, which descended from the Greek model of Menippus of Gadara and mingled
prose and verse, was introduced to Rome by Varro.
In the hands of Horace, satire improved as an art. Lucilius had been an uncouth
versifier. Satires I, 1-3 are essays in the Lucilian manner. But Horace’s nature was to
laugh, and not to attack aggressively, and his incidental mockeries were either
insignificant or dead. He came to appreciate that the real point about Lucilius was not
his aggressiveness but his self-revelation. This encouraged him to talk about
himself.
196  CC-EG-02  NSOU

In Satires II he developed in parts the satire of moral diatribe which looks forward to
Juvenal. His successor Persius blended Lucilius, Horace, diatribe, and mimed them into
pungent sermons in verse. The great iconoclast was Juvenal, who fixed the idea of satire
for generations to come. Gone was the personal approach of Lucilius and Horace. His
anger may at times seem artificial, but his epigrammatic power and brilliant eye for
detail make him a great poet.
The younger Seneca’s Apocolosyntosis was a blend of prose and verse, but its
ruthless skit on the deification of the emperor Claudius was Lucilian satire.
The Satryicon of Petronius is modeled after the Menippean. It contains varied
digressions (shorter anecdotes outside the main structure) and occasional verse;
essentially, however, it comes under fiction.
The fables of Phaedrus who was freed from slavery in the reign of emperor
Augustus, may be classified as Lucilian satires. These beast fables include
contemporary allusions. Phaedrus is the Roman Aesop.
 Iambic, lyric and epigram:
Lyrics are usually short, personal poems. Iambs are units of rhythm and epigrams
are rhetorical devices.
The short poems of Cattulus were called by himself nugae (“trifles”). They have
different moods and intentions. He uses the iambic metre normally associated with
invective not only for his abuse of Caesar and Pompey but also for displaying his tender
emotions while homecoming to Sirmio. Catullus alone used the hendecasyllable (a line
of eleven syllables), the metre of skits and lampoons, as a medium for love poetry.
In his Epodes, Horace used iambic verse to express devotion to Maecenas and for
brutal invective in the manner of the Greek poet Archilochus. However, it was Horace
who attempted to create literature, rather than using the vehicle to vent their feelings.
In the Odes, he adapted other Greek metres and claimed immortality for introducing
early Greek lyric to Latin. These Odes rarely show the passion now associated with
lyric. They are rather marked by elegance, dignity, and studied perfection.
Martial, another poet followed Catullus for his metres and his often for his wit. He
is the one who modeled the epigram for posterity by making it characteristically
pointed.
 Elegy:
An elegy is a short poem of mourning or lamentation. It is a form of Lyric.
The elegiac couplet of hexameter and pentameter (verse line of five feet) was taken
over by Catullus, who broke with tradition by filling elegy with personal emotion. One
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  197

of his most intense poems in this metre, about Lesbia, extends to 26 lines. His long
poem about the love of Laodameia for Protesilaus is often used as a model for others.
These two poems make him the inventor of the “subjective” love elegy dealing with the
poet’s own passion. Gallus, whose work is lost, established the genre; Tibullus
and Propertius were known for their mastery of technique.
Propertius’ follows Catullus in his first book. It is inspired by his passion for
Cynthia. Much less is known about the involvement of Tibullus. Later, Propertius grew
more interested in manipulating literary conventions. These two poets established the
convention of the “soft poet,”. They were courageous only in the campaigns of love,
which were immortalized through them and the Muses. Propertius was at first resistant
to Augustan ideals. He glorified his slavery by associating it with love and naughtiness
(nequitia). He later, became acclimatised to Maecenas’ circle.
Tibullus, a lover of peace, country life, and old religious customs, had grace and
quiet humour was far more charming than Tibullus. He often wrote ironically, blending
language and associative sequence with passion and sublime imagination.
Ovid’s aim was not to preach and rectify but to entertain. In the Amores he is outrageous
and amusing, his Corinna being probably a fiction. Elegy became his characteristic
medium. He used the couplet of his predecessors with dexterity. It was characterized
by parallelism, regular flow and ebb, and clear wit

4.13.2 Publius Ovidius Naso: Life and Works

On March 20, 43 BC, Publius Ovidius Naso, better known to modern readers as
Ovid, was born at Sulmo, 90 miles from Rome. Ovid’s father, who was a respected
member of the equestrian order, expected Ovid to become a lawyer and official and had
him schooled extensively for that purpose. After working in various judicial posts, Ovid
made the decision to dedicate himself to a life of poetry instead. Ovid’s elegance, both
in verse and comportment, made him a favorite among the moneyed class of Rome, and
it was not long before Ovid was widely hailed as the most brilliant poet of his
generation. His elegant verses on love appealed to a society being forced into a period
of moral reformation by the emperor, Augustus.
The reason for Ovid’s exile by Augustus is unknown. It is said that, he was working
on Fasti, a poem on Roman Calender, when, in AD 8 Ovid was sent to the bleak fishing-
198  CC-EG-02  NSOU

village of Tomi on the Black Sea. Ovid describes the cause as, “a poem and a mistake”.
There was probably a political aspect to the affair. Ovid attempted on numerous
occasions to find his way back into the good graces of Augustus, writing poems to the
emperor and other influential friends. The poems, which were far less polished and
elegant than his previous works, had little effect on Augustus, and Ovid remained in
exile until his death in AD 17.

4.13.3 Ovid’s Contribution to Roman Poetry

Ovid’s poetic influence continued long after his death. His most famous work, The
Metamorphoses (AD 8), had a great influence upon writers of the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance, and the 12th century was named the Ovidian age for the numerous poets
writing in Ovidian hexameter.
His published works include, Amores, a collection of short love poems; Heroides,
verse letters written by mythological heroines to their lovers; Ars Amatoria, a satirical
handbook on love; Remedia Amoris, a sequel to the Ars; and Metamorphoses, his epic
work on change. Although he never returned to Rome, he continued to write notably,
Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto and revised Fasti.

4.13.4 Summing Up
Classical Roman poetry, as we see, thus exhibited the major types and forms. Not
only were many of the genres established, they were perfected too. Leaving apart the
exceptions, Latin poetry served as a model for the later world. We also observe that
though Ovid was born in a relatively peaceful and calm nation freed of the wars, his life
underwent a lot of turmoil. Yet the poet was ambitious and did not lose his objective
of entertaining the masses. His poetry however displayed the same and characteristic
finesse of his predecessors in terms of manner and technique.

4.13.5 Comprehension Exercises

 Broad Questions:
1. Write an essay on the various forms and types of Latin poetry with reference to
the major contributors of each type
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  199

2. Briefly, comment on the contribution of Ovid to the oeuvre of Latin literature.

Mention, the ways in which he was a pioneer in many respects
3. Discuss the development of satire as an independent genre in Latin poetry.
4. Distinguish between the epic and epyllion. Show, how they both contributed as
a type in contributing to the culture of Rome.
5. Comment briefly on each of the following types in Roman poetry: Epic, satire,
elegy, didactic poetry, lyric
 Short Questions:
1. Which parts of history do the Roman epics deal with?
2. Why would you consider Georgics by Virgil as a political poem?
3. How did Lucilius use the medium of satire? In what way did the later poets
deviate from it?
4. In what way did Catullus and Propertius establish the mood of elegy?
5. Why and how did Ovid become the favourite among the aristocracy of Rome?

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
200  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 14  Text and Analysis

Structure
4.14.0 Introduction
4.14.1 Contextualising Metamorphoses
4.14.2 Metamorphoses: Significance of the Text
4.14.3 Text of ‘Diana and Actaeon’ (Book 3)
4.14.4 Glossary and Notes
4.14.5 Analysis and Detailed discussion of ‘Diana and Actaeon’
4.14.6 Key Issues
4.14.7 Summing Up
4.14.8 Comprehension Exercises
4.14.9 Suggested Reading (Units 12 to 14)

4.14.0 Introduction
The unit describes the personal and political conditions under which Ovid wrote the
mock-epic, Metamorphoses. You have been prescribed only a section of this work in
your syllabus. This is to be found in Book III of Metamorphoses (“Diana and
Actaeon”). Further, the unit also explains the importance of this long poem in the entire
Roman Literature. The issues embedded in the section prescribed for you are also
discussed. At the end of this Unit, this is where you should be able to find yourself:
 Know when, why and how was Metamorphoses written
 Comprehend the significance of the work in the entire Roman culture and literature
 Become familiar with the text of “Diana and Acteaon”(Book III) prescribed in your
syllabus
 Understand and appreciate the literary merit of the poem
 Comprehend the major issues foregrounded by the poet in the section recommended
for you.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  201

4.14.1 Contextualizing Metamorphoses

When Ovid was in his mid forties, somewhere around 2 BC, he started composing
two very different kinds of poems simultaneously-one was the Fasti (‘Calender’) and
the other was Metamorphoses (‘Transformations’). Fasti was to be in elegiac metre,
conventionally a metre used for comparatively short works. But Fasti was planned to
be in twelve books, one for each month of the Roman year. The Metamorphoses was
to be even longer, fifteen books-three longer than twelve of Virgil’s Aeneid and in
dactylic hexameter of Homeric epic, used by Virgil too. The scope too was to be a
mighty one- the whole of human experience from the beginning of the world down to
Ovid’s times.
Unlike his earlier poems Ovid shows a keen interest in the social rituals and the
power structures operating in the new political order which he had been observing as
an adult. Unlike the poets of the generation before him, Ovid had not been personally
affected by the chaos associated with the disintegration of the Senatorial government of
the Republic. He had grown up in a political environment of relative stability and calm.
However his boyhood was lived against a background of civil wars and a growing threat
of another such war between Mark Antony and Caesar Octavian, the adopted son of
Julius Caesar. Ovid was only twelve years old when Octavian won his victory over
Antony and Cleopatra at Actium on 2 September 31 BC. After ascending the throne in
27 BC, Octavian took up the name of Augustus and the informal title of ‘Princeps’ or
‘First Citizen’, thereafter, he never stopped experimenting while he consolidated his
control over the Roman world. The people knew that any overstepping could begin
fresh chaos and disorder. After, Augustus’s death at the age of thirty nine there
continued an anxiety over the succession of the Principate from its earliest days.
The readers do find therefore, in Ovid’s works and particularly in the
Metamorphoses a symbolic reflection of a prolonged observation of the Principate as a
gradually evolving institution, together with all the evolution for Roman politics,
religion and society in general. What appears as flippancy in Ovid is perhaps because of
his being unchallenged with major political upheavals in the sense of Virgil or Horace.
It is therefore wrong to say that Ovid’s creations are entirely divorced from reality.
Ovid’s interest in the contemporary power structures become evident very clearly in the
last books of the Metamorphoses where the readers are exposed to a journey through
the
202  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Roman history with deification of Julius Caesar and his adopted son Augustus. Ovid’s
preferences are clear in Book fifteen where there is a contrasting depiction of the
personal power and self aggrandising religious policies of Augustus with the religious
solidarity displayed by the Senate and the people of the Republic when they import the
god Aesculapius from Greece to save the whole state from plague.
Although he committed no real crime, Ovid got somehow involved in a scandal that
touched the royal family, when he was almost about to finish the Metamorphoses. An
outraged Augustus banished him into an informal exile apparently by citing the flippant
attitude of the poet in Ars Amatoria that disrespected Augustus’s efforts to elevate the
morals of an increasingly degenerate Roman public.

4.14.2 Metamorphoses: Significance of the Text

Metamorphoses by Ovid, is a work shockingly different from everything that ever
had been written in the Roman world. Funny, devastating and sometimes intimidating
too, there are as many moods in the poem as the hundreds of stories that make the work.
The title of the poem, Metamorphoses, is a Greek word for ‘transformations’, and the
myths that provide the source material for Ovid in stories after stories are all linked by
this theme of transformation. Most of the changes occur as a result of characters having
incurred the displeasure of Gods or have surprisingly proved to have amorously
attracted the Gods. In the process some of the humans as well as the Gods invite the
wrath of other gods/goddesses leading to their transformation.
Many episodes, for example, deal with illicit or unlawful loves, such as Tereus’
for his sister-in-law, Philomela (book 6), Byblis’ for her twin brother, Caunus
(book 9), and Myrrha’s for her father, Cinyras (book 10). Other episodes depict
the folly of mortals who set themselves up as rivals to the gods; their punishments
of these offenders reveal the gods’ own capacity for jealousy and cruelty—in
short, their human side. The line between mortal and divine blurs continually and,
in some instances, disappears completely—as when a mortal is deemed worthy of
godhood, undergoing the most glorious of all metamorphoses. (Loy 232)
This, otherwise chaotic package of utterly dissimilar tales are tied together with this
unifying thread. In spite of not following the beaten track of serious epical grandeur like
Virgil’s Aenead, Metamorphoses is liked by readers who are smitten by the sheer
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  203

iconoclasm of the content, the wit and the irony of the poem. Just like the poet had
written in the last lines of the poem, Metamorphoses actually leaves the reader engaged
and mersmerised:
The people shall read and recite my words.
Throughout all ages,
If poets have vision to prophesy truth, I shall live in my fame.
The significance of the poem lies in the fact that, no European poet, author or
playwright could ignore the myths treated in the poem. Ovid leaves his fingerprints
everywhere, from ‘Pyramus and Thisbe’ or ‘Diana and Actaeon’ in Shakespeare or the
Adonis of Spenser’s Fairie Queene to Tales from Ovid of Ted Hughes. It is pertinent to
quote Alan H.F. Griffin here, who says,
“The quantity of Ovid’s poetry, of course, cannot made an excuse for lack of quality,
but no indulgence need begged and no allowances made for his masterpiece, the
Metamor- phoses.” (2)
Written in 15 books and finished around 8th AD, in the genre of a mock-epic or anti
epic, Metamorphoses contains 250 myths spanning from creation to the deification of
Julius Caesar. As written earlier, the books are written in Dactylic Hexameter like Iliad
and Odyssey.
Just like Metamorphoses itself influences virtually all of European authors, it is in
turn influenced by various other works and traditions. In this regard, Karl Galinsky
comments,
Ovid’s relation to the Hellenistic poets was similar to the attitude of the Hellenistic
poets themselves to their predecessors: he demonstrated that he had read their versions
... but that he could still treat the myths in his own way. (2)
It is said that Ovid’s decision to make myths the subject of his poetry was got from
the Alexandrian Poetry. However, the moral implications of the former tradition, was
manipulated to depict a playful mode.The model for a collection of metamorphosis
myths derived from a pre-existing genre of metamorphosis poetry in the Hellenistic
tradition, of which the earliest known example is Boio(s)’ Ornithogonia—a now-
fragmentary poem collecting myths about the metamorphoses of humans into birds.
This apart the, Heteroioumena by Nicander of Colophon is clearly an influence on the
poem—21 of the stories from this work were treated in the Metamorphoses.
204  CC-EG-02  NSOU

In spite of its apparently unbroken chronology, scholar Brooks Otis has identified
four divisions in the narrative:
 Book I–Book II (end, line 875): The Divine Comedy
 Book III–Book VI, 400: The Avenging Gods
 Book VI, 401–Book XI (end, line 795): The Pathos of Love
 Book XII–Book XV (end, line 879): Rome and the Deified Ruler (83)
The structure of the 15 books can be summarized in the following manner:
Book 1 The Creation; The Ages of Mankind; The Flood [Lycaon]; Deucalion and
Pyrrha; Apollo and Daphne; lo [Syrinx]; Phaethon
Book 2 Phaethon (eont); Cailisto; The Raven and the Crow [Apollo and Coronis];
Ocyrhoe; Mercury and Battus; The Envy of Aglauros; Jupiter and Europa
Book 3 Cadmus; Diana and Actaeon; Semele and the Birth of Bacchus; Tiresias;
Narcissus and Echo; Pentheus and Bacchus [Acoetes]
Book 4 The Daughters of Minyas; Pyramus and Thisbe; The Sun in love; Salmacis and
Herroaphroditus; The Daughters of Minyas Transformed; Athamas and Ino; The
Transformation of Cadmus; Perseus and Andromeda
Book 5 Perseus’ Fight in the Palace of Cepheus; Minerva Meets the Muses on Helicon
fContest with PieridesJ; The Rape of Proserpine [Cyane]; Arethusa; Triptolernus
Book 6 Arachne; Niobe; The lycian Peasants; Marsysas; Pelops; Tereus, Procne, and
Philomela; Boreas and Orithyia
Book 7 Medea and Jason; Medea and Aeson; Medea and Pelias: Her Flight; Theseus;
Minos, Aeacus/the Plague at Aegina, and the Myrmidons; Cephalus and Procris
Book 8 Scylla and Minos, The Minotaur, Daedalus and Icarus; Perdix; Meleager and the
Calydonian Boar [Atalantal; Althaea and Meteager; Achelous and the Nymphs;
Philemon and Baucis; Erysichthon and his Daughter
Book 9 Achelous and Hercules; Hercules, Nessus, and Deiantra; The Death and
Apotheosis of Hercules; The Birth of Hercules; Dryope; lolaus and the Sons of
Calfirhoe; Byblis; tphis and lanthe
Book 10 Orpheus and Eurydice; Cyparissus; Ganymede; Hyacinth; Pygmalion; Myrrha;
Venus and Adonis; Atalanta
Book 11 The Death of Orpheus; Midas; First Foundation and Destruction of Troy;
Peleus and Thetis; Daedalion; The Cattle of Peleus; Ceyx and Alcyone; Aesacus
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  205

Book 12 The Expedition against Troy; Achilles and Cycnus; Caen is; The Battie of the
Lapiths and: Centaurs; Nestor and Hercules; The Death of Achilles
Book 13 Ajax and Ulysses and the Arms of Achilles; The Fall of Troy; Hecuba,
Polyxena, and Polydorus; Memnon; The Pilgrimage of Aeneas; Acis and Galatea;
Scylla and Glaucus
Book 14 Scylla and Glaucus (cont); The Pilgrimage of Aeneas (cont); The Island of
Circe; Picus and Canens; The Triumph and Apotheosis of Aeneas; Pomona and
Vertumnus; Leg-ends of Early Rome; The Apotheosis of Romulus
Book 15 Numa and the Foundation of Crotona; The Doctrines of Pythagoras; The Death
of Numa; Hippolytus; Cipus; Aesculapius; The Apotheosis of Julius Caesar; Epilogue
Ovid subsequently describes how the universe, which first existed in a state of
chaos, was itself shaped by a god into its more ordered form. The “great Creator”
established separate domains for the heavens, air, earth, and waters, shaped the world
into a sphere, and populated it with plants, animals, and, finally, men (Metamorphoses,
1.76).
Ovid next tells of the Four Ages of Mankind: 1) the Golden Age, when all men
were innocent, faithful, and good, needed neither laws.
The work, on the whole, inverts the accepted order, elevating humans and human
passions. Gods and their desires are objects of low humour.

4.14.3 Text of ‘Diana and Actaeon’ (Book 3)

Metamorphoses: A New Verse Translation
Translated into English from Latin by David Raeburn
(Penguin Books: 2004)
Actaeon
Thebes had her walls, and Cadmus’ exile might have been thought
to have brought him nothing but luck. He had married Harmonia,
daughter of Mars and Venus, a most prestigious match which
had yielded
a brood of numerous sons and daughters and much-loved grandsons,
grown into fine young men. But never forget the ancient 135
saying: ‘Wait for the final day. Call no man happy
until he is dead and his body is laid to rest in the grave.’
206  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Prosperous in so much, great Cadmus was struck by disaster.

First, Actaeon, his grandson, had antlers sprout from his brow
and his dogs were allowed to slake their thirst in their master’s blood. 140
If you look at the facts, however, you’ll find that chance was
the culprit. No crime was committed. Why punish a man for
a pure mistake?
Picture a mountain stained with the carnage of hounded beasts.
It was now midday, the hour when the shadows draw to their shortest;
the sun god’s chariot was halfway over from east to west. 145
A band of huntsmen was strolling along through the pathless
glades, when their leader, the young Actaeon, calmly made an
announcement: ‘Comrades, our nets are soaked, our spears are
drenched in our quarry’s blood. Our luck is enough for today.
When the goddess Aurora.
appears tomorrow and shows the gleam of her rosy wheels, 150
let us all return to the chase. Now Phoebus is halfway
over from east to west and cutting the fields with his
burning rays.
Leave off what you’re doing and stow your knotted nets for the
moment.’ The men did just as he told them and took a break
from their hunting.
Now picture a valley, dense with pine and tapering cypress, 155
called Gargaphie, sacred haunt of the huntress
Diana; there, in a secret corner, a cave surrounded
by woodland, owing nothing to human artifice.
Nature had used
her talent to imitate art: she had moulded the living rock
of porous tufa to form the shape of a rugged arch. 160
To the right, a babbling spring with a thin translucent
rivulet widening into a pool ringed round by a grassy
clearing.
Here the goddess who guards the woods, when weary with
hunting, would come to bathe her virginal limbs in the
clear, clean water.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  207
On this occasion she made her entrance and handed her javelin, 165
quiver and slackened bow to the chosen nymph who carried
208  CC-EG-02  NSOU

her weapons. Another put out her arms to receive her dress
as she stripped it off. Two more were removing her boots, while
Crocale, more of an expert, gathered the locks that were
billowing over
her mistress’ neck in a knot, though her own stayed floating and free.
Niphele, Hyale, Rhamis, Psecas and Phiale charged
their capacious urns with water and stood all ready to
pour it. And while the virgin goddess was taking her
bath in her usual pool, as fate would have it, Actaeon,
Cadmus’ grandson,
wandered into the glade. His hunting could wait, he thought, 175
as he sauntered aimlessly through the unfamiliar woodland.
Imagine the scene as he entered: the grotto, the splashing
fountains, the group of nymphs in the nude. At once, at the
sight of a man, they struck their bosoms in horror, their
sudden screams re-echoing
through the encircling woods. They clustered around Diana 180
to form a screen with their bodies, but sadly the goddess was
taller; her neck and shoulders were visible over the heads
of her maidens.
Think of the crimson glow on the clouds when struck by
the rays of the setting sun; or think of the rosy-fingered
dawn;
such was the blush on the face of Diana observed quite naked. 185
Although her companion nymphs had formed a barrier round her,
she stood with her front turned sideways and looked at the rash
intruder over her shoulder. She wished that her arrows were
ready to hand,
but used what she could, caught up some water and threw it into
the face of the man. As she splashed his hair with revengeful drops, 190
she spoke the spine-chilling words which warned of impending
disaster: ‘Now you may tell the story of seeing Diana naked –
If story-telling is in your power!’ No more was needed.
The head she had sprinkled sprouted the horns of a lusty stag;
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  209
the neck expanded, the ears were narrowed to pointed tips; 195
210  CC-EG-02  NSOU

she changed his hands into hooves and his arms into long and
slender forelegs; she covered his frame in a pelt of dappled
buckskin;
last, she injected panic. The son of Autonoe bolted,
surprising himself with his speed as he bounded away from the clearing.
But when he came to a pool and set eyes on his head and antlers, 200
‘Oh, dear god!’ he was going to say; but no words followed.
All the sound he produced was a moan, as the tears
streamed over his strange new face. It was only his feelings
that stayed unchanged. What could he do? Make tracks for
his home in the royal palace?
Or hide in the woodlands? Each was precluded by shame or fear. 205
He wavered in fearful doubt. And then his dogs caught sight
of him. First to sound on the trail were Blackfoot and sharp-
nosed Tracker Tracker of Cretan breed and Blackfoot a
Spartan pointer.
Others came bounding behind them, fast as the gusts of the storm wind:
Ravenous, Mountain-Ranger, Gazelle, his Arcadian deerhounds; 210
Powerful Fawnkiller, Hunter the fierce, and violent
Hurricane; Wingdog, fleetest of foot, and Chaser, the
keenest-scented; savage Sylvan, lately gashed by the
tusks of a wild boar;
Glen who was dropped from a wolf at birth, and the bitch who gathers
the flocks in, Shepherdess; Harpy, flanked by her two young puppies; 215
River, the dog from Sicyon, sides all taut and
contracted; Racer and Gnasher; Spot, with Tigress
and muscular Valour;
Sheen with a snow-white coat and murky Soot with a pitch-
black; Spartan, wiry and tough; then Whirlwind, powerful
pursuer;
Swift, and Wolfcub racing along with her Cypriot brother; 220
Grabber, who sported an ivory patch midway on his ebony
forehead; Sable, and Shag with a coat like a tangled thicket;
two mongrel hounds from a Cretan sire and Laconian dam,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  211
Rumpus and Whitefang; Yelper, whose howls could damage the eardrums-
212  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and others too many to mention. Spoiling all for their quarry,
over crag, over cliff, over rocks which appeared to allow no approach,
where access was hard and where there was none, the whole pack
followed. Actaeon fled where so many times he had been the
pursuer.
He fled from the dogs who had served him so faithfully, longing to shout
to them, ‘Stop! It is I, Actaeon, your master. Do you not know me?’

230
But the words would not come. The air was filled with relentless
baying. Blacklock first inserted his teeth to tear at his back;
Beast-killer next; then Mountain-Boy latched on to his shoulder.
These had started out later but stolen a march by taking
a short cut over the ridge. As they pinned their master down, 235
the rest of the pack rushed round and buried their fangs in
his body, until it was covered with crimson wounds. Actaeon
groaned
in a sound that was scarcely human but one no stag
could ever have made, as he filled the familiar hills with his
cries of anguish. Then bending his legs like a cringing
beggar, he gazed all round with his silently pleading eyes,
as if they were outstretched arms. What of his friends? In
ignorant zeal they encouraged the wild pack on with the
usual halloos. They scanned the woods for their leader,
shouting, ‘Actaeon! Actaeon!’, as if he were far away,
though he moved his head in response to his name.
‘Why aren’t you here, 245
you indolent man, to enjoy the sight of this heaven-sent prize?’
If only he’d not been there! But he was. He would dearly
have loved to watch, instead of enduring, his own dogs’ vicious
performance.
Crowding around him, they buried their noses inside his flesh
and mangled to pieces the counterfeit stag who embodied their master.
250
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  213
Only after his life was destroyed in a welter of wounds is
Diana, the goddess of hunting, said to have cooled her
anger.
214  CC-EG-02  NSOU

4.14.4 Glossary and Notes

 Notes:
1. Book 3 of Metamorphoses contains six main stories with a seventh inserted
within the sixth. All these stories are connected to each other with the common
context of Thebes and the House of Cadmus. The first two stories and the last
two are lengthy with epical grandeur and dimensions, but the second and the
third are shorter and lighthearted. The theme of Metamorphosis continues to
occupy the centre of these poems, sometimes centrally and sometimes
peripherally. Each story has a distinct content and a tone but, (in the words of
the translator, David Raeburn),
[…] in all six we can detect an underlying theme in the idea of ‘intrusion’ or
‘seeing the forbidden holy’, followed by unhappy, even violent, consequences.
In the four major tales (there is) also the ecphrases, formal descriptions of
natural surroundings which are more than purely decorative: they suggest that
elemental forces in nature are at work. (91)
2. In this edition, the tale of Diana and Acteaon begins at line number 131 and ends
at line number 252. The title of the story is “Acteaon” instead of “Diana and
Actaeon”
 Glossary:
L 131- Cadmus- Husband of Harmonia, Son of Agenor, Father of Agave and Autonoe.
He famously slays the dragon and founds Thebes. He had wandered in exile with
Harmonia.
L 133- Mars: (also known as Gradivus) god of War, son of Jupiter and Juno and had
affair with Venus.
L-133- Venus: Goddess of Love, wife of Vulcan, mother of Cupid.- Personification of
Sexual Love. She had an affair with Mars.
L 142- “No crime…a pure mistake”:The expression and the tone is identical to the
poet’s (Ovid’s) own condition and circumstances of exile to Tomis. In Tristia 2.ll103,
the poet actually compares himself to Actaeon. Many scholars suggest that these lines
(141-2) are a later addition where Ovid speaks about himself.
L 146- Glades: an open space in a wood or forest
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  215

L 148- Quarry: an animal pursued by a hunter

L155- Tapering: becoming thinner or narrower towards one end
L 156- Diana-[also known as Phoebe] virgin goddess of hunting, daughter of Jupiter and
Latona, sister of Apollo.
L 160- Rugged: rough
L 172- capacious: Large
L 177- Grotto: cave
L 194- stag: a male deer
L197- pelt: repetitive use
L 197- dappled: marked with spots or rounded patches
L 197-buckskin: the skin of a male deer
L198-Autonoe: One of the daughters of Cadmus and mother of Actaeon.
L 207-Blackfoot…Tracker: In the original Latin, Ovid uses common Greek names for
Acteaon’s dogs which many of his contemporary readers would have associated with
and enjoyed. The translator here uses English equivalents
L 213- Sylvan: consisting of or associated with woods
L 215- flanked: accompanied
L 216- taut: stretched or pulled tight
L218- murky: dark and gloomy
L225- spoiling: aggressively eager for
L 239- cringing: bent in fear or apprehension
L 246-lazy
L 250- counterfeit: imitate fraudulently
L 251- welter: lie soaked in blood

4.14.5 Analysis and Detailed Discussion of ‘Diana and Actaeon’

Translator Ian Johnston summarises, Book 3 of the Metamorphoses in the following
manner, Cadmus searches for Europa; he consults Apollo, who tells him to follow a
heifer; Cadmus fights and kills the dragon, sows the dragon’s teeth; warriors spring up
216  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and fight; Cadmus founds Thebes; Actaeon sees Diana naked, is changed into a stag,
and ripped apart by his dogs; Juno tricks and kills Semele; birth of Bacchus; Juno and
Jupiter argue about sex, agree to consult Teiresias; how Teiresias became a woman and
then a man again; Juno blinds Teiresias, Jupiter gives him the gift of prophecy;
Narcissus and Echo; Juno punishes Echo; Narcissus rejects Echo; suffering of Echo;
Narcissus falls in love with his own image, pines away, dies, and is changed into a
flower; Pentheus and Bacchus; the story of Acoetes; Bac-chus changes sailors into
dolphins; Pentheus is killed. (Intro)
As students, you will find the above summary useful in order to situate and
understand the Actaeon Diana myth.
The Actaeon myth is narrated in four parts. In the first part, lines 131- 154, Actaeon
returns from hunting. In the second part (lines 154 to 198) readers encounter the secret
Gargaphie valley where Diana and the nymphs are taking a bath and Actaeon,
accidentally enters the spot and sees the nude bodies of the bathing women. He is
transformed into a stag by the curse of Diana. Line 198 to line 231 show Actaeon being
pursued by his own hounds (Third part). Line 232 to line 251 (the fourth part) describe
Actaeon killed by his own dogs.
A first time reader could perhaps be repelled by the sheer irrationality of the
progress of events happening as well as the horror of the macabre act of letting loose
a pack of hounds on an innocent man. One might interrogate the logic of considering
the poet to be an extraordinary one. But the entire Metamorphoses is a veritable
cauldron of shocking and fantastic tales. That has not however deterred critics to detect
in it the characteristics imprinted by a genius. For Alan.H.F. Griffin: Metamorphoses is
a ‘universal poem of human experience’ (14). By human experience, Griffin meant the
gamut of emotions dealt with in the poem. In this sense, Ovid was much more
connected to reality inspite of writing fantastic tales because he sought to expose the
freeplay of a range of human emotions (ironically, exhibited more by Gods) which were
significantly spearheaded by personal motives rather than any political or social
maneuvers.
Going back to the tale of Actaeon,
 First part: Lines 131-154
-It begins with a brief introduction to the family of Actaeon who is one of the many
grandsons of Cadmus and Hermione. Cadmus was the founder of Thebes and while the
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  217

narrator describes the long lasting happiness of the Actaeon’s grandparents, he warns
that no man can be called happy ‘until he is dead and his body is laid rest in the grave’
(l137). He inserts into the narrative, the cause of Cadmus’s grief by summarizing in two
lines the fact of Actaeon’s transformation into a stag and his being brutally killed by his
own hounds. The narrative then goes into a flashback and readers are invited to find out
the reasons and retrospect whether a man should be punished ‘for a pure mistake’. Ovid
does not miss this opportunity to mock and emperor Augustus and his whimsicalities as
well as draw a parallel of himself with Actaeon to attract the sympathies of the reader.
It was midday with the sun overhead and Actaeon and his men and animals were tired
after a successful hunting expedition. As the huntsmen were wandering in the woods,
Actaeon ordered them to put away their nets which were soaked with the blood of
animals till the next down. He suggested that they take a ‘break from their hunting’ and
resume their ‘chase’ the next morning.
 Second part: Lines 154-198
- As the men and dogs take a break the scene shifts to ‘a secret corner, a cave
surrounded by a woodland’ called Gargaphie. This is the place which was often visited
by the virgin goddess Diana (very similar to the Greek Artemis in temperament) where
the Goddess came for a bathe now and then with her chosen nymphs. Each of the
nymphs had a particular duty. On the very fateful day, when Diana came to take a bath
in the magical pool, one removed the quiver and the bow (Diana was also a huntress)
while others helped her to undress. Two other nymphs removed her boots and Crocale
(Like Betty who was the special assistant of Belinda in the Rape of the Lock) did the
chosen job of ‘(gathering) the locks that were billowing over/her mistress’ neck in a
knot’. The narrator faithfully enlists their names-Nephele, Hyale, Rhamis, Psecas and
Phiale who stood waiting to bathe their mistress.
At this moment, Acteon who was aimlessly wandering through the woods,
accidentally entered the clearing and saw the nude bodies of Diana and her nymphs.
In a flash of a moment the nymphs surrounded their mistress to conceal her nakedness,
but ‘sadly the goddess was taller; her neck and shoulders were visible over the heads of
her maidens.’ Diana blushed in a crimson glow and was for a moment, but quickly
becomes, in the words of John Heath, “ the uncompromising agent, that the
compromised victim.” (55) We must remember that in the earlier Books-1 and 2,
women (nymphs) like Daphne, Io, Syrinx had all become victims of lust, greed and
jealousy, although the perpetrators of
218  CC-EG-02  NSOU

the crime had been Gods rather than men. Diana had missed the signs of Callisto, one
of her favourites (in Book 2) being raped. So with a human around her, she feels
threatened and in an act of subversion and teaches the (supposedly) voyeur a lesson of
his life, by turning him into a stag.
 Third Part: Lines 198 to 231
John heath emphasizes on Actaeon’s ‘oblivion’ or in other words bewilderment, when
he can feel himself transforming into a stag, ‘… last she injected panic. The son of
Autonoe bolted/surprising himself with his speed as he bounded away/from the
clearing.’ Ovid, as a poet in the third part of the tale definitely wanted to emphasize the
injustice meted out to an individual who was in oblivion and the overwhelming
amazement that came over him as he sees himself reflected in a pool. Ovid insists on
Actaeon’s ‘fearful doubt’ and indecisiveness. His profound sadness at being rendered
identity less. Actaeon in an instant becomes outcaste not knowing whether to go to
the palace or to hide in the woods. His victimisation is complete, notwithstanding the
fact that Actaeon could himself be blamed for his predicament. He had provoked divine
wrath by desiring to marry Semele, whom Zeus wants for himself. In Euripides, he
boasts of being a better hunter than Artemis[Diana] (Bacchus.337-341). But as readers,
we do feel a lot of sympathy for him. In this part of the tale Actaeon is chased by his
own dogs, each of a different breed and having a different expertise. Stylistically, this
section is unique for the names and the adjectives used to describe each one of them,
‘powerful Fawnkiller, Hunter the fierce, and violent Hurricane;/ Wingdog, the fleetest
of the foot, and Chaser, the keenest-scented.
Thematically, this part is a subversion of the eternal trope of the hunter and the
hunted: Actaeon (human) and dogs = Hunter/stag = Hunted: Dogs = Hunter/Actaeon
(Stag) = Hunted. It is this shift, or in other words the liminality of identities (in this case
the Hunter and the Hunted) through transformation that becomes the haunting theme of
Metamorphoses.
 Fourth Part: Lines 232-252
The last part of the passage is a macabre conclusion of the horrifying tale. Actaeon
is brutally attacked by his own dogs that pin him down and dig their fangs into his flesh.
As he prayed for mercy, understanding and recognition, the picture becomes too bizarre
and incredible a scene. Again Ovid and the translator take their time in mentioning the
flamboyant names of the canines and to take away the horror of the scene,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  219

‘Blacklock first inserted his teeth to tear at his back;

Beast-killer next; then Mountain- Boy latched on to his shoulder.’ (ll 232-233)
The utter desperation of the protagonist is hinted by the narrator when he uses the
simile, ‘like a cringing beggar,’.
Actaeon’s trusted friends only add to the woe by encouraging the wild pack by their
hallooing. They ironically rue the absence of Actaeon and call him ‘indolent’ at a
moment when the dogs overpower the gods end game. Actaeon wished he were indeed
absent, but he was there; he wished he was watching, not feeling, the savage deeds of
his own hounds. Actaeon’s inability to even signal that he recognises his own name here
contrasts markedly with the articulate authority he had displayed earlier, giving
commands to his companions (Hawes 85). Such binaries (hunter/ hunted,
authority/servility, beauty/ ugliness) are iterative themes in the Metamorphoses.
Actaeon’s friends fail to recognize their own friend and leader metamorphosed into a
deer. The dogs ultimately tear his flesh, till he is covered with crimson wounds and
soaked in blood. It is said that only when Actaeon died in this manner was Diana’s
anger cooled.

4.14.6 Key Issues

1. Metamorphosis in Metamorphoses (Book 3, ‘Diana and Actaeon’)
Like all the other books and tales the myth of Diana and Actaeon also foregrounds
the transformation of Actaeon into a stag by the curse of Diana. While the initial
response of the readers (like in the other tales) is of incredulity, this initial response
slowly turns into horror and loathsomeness as the young and handsome man is hunted
down and killed in a gruesome manner by his own hounds. Ovid employs in each case,
plenty of space for such transformation:
“The head she had sprinkled sprouted the horns of a lusty stag;
the neck expanded, the ears were narrowed to pointed tips;
she changed his hands into hooves and his arms into long and slender
forelegs; she covered his frame in a pelt of dappled buckskin;
last, she injected panic. The son of Autonoe bolted,
surprising himself with his speed as he bounded away from the clearing.” (ll 194-
199)
220  CC-EG-02  NSOU

There is a certain relish on the part of the poet as he imagines the readers’ intial
shock as Io transforms into a heifer, Daphne into an oak tree, or Syrinx into a reed. It
is mostly women who bear the brunt of Gods and Actaeon’s change is important
because he is one of the men who too face god’s wrath. Few others being Cycnus in
Book 2 who is changed to a swan, Adonis in Book 10, changed into a flower or Atlas in
book 4 who is changed into a rock by Medusa’s head.
There is perhaps a similar disbelief when modern readers encounter Gregor Samsa
transforming into a fly in Kafka’s Metamorphosis. In both Ovid and Kafka who use
transformation as a trope in relatively lighthearted and serious contexts, there are
specific purposes behind their literary acts. This becomes clear when the readers
understand that the change should be a seen as a symbolic one rather than literal. The
issue of transformation becomes a ploy to explore identities and their crises. The
opportunity which arises allows readers to contextualize the relevance and role of not
only the victim but also the perpetrators in changed circumstances. In Felder’s
understanding, throughout the poem Indeed throughout the poem (Ovid’s Metamorphoses),
mortals will be punished precisely for failing to recognize that their capacity for
metamorphosis allows the Olympian gods of legend to appear as unremarkably realistic
figures. (166)
Read in these terms, Diana for the readers becomes a figure capable of displaying
base human emotions like anger, revengefulness, rashness and incapable of showing any
mercy. It is the gods whom Ovid chooses to satirize rather than humans who are
incapable of escaping punishments for their frailties. The case of Actaeon who is the
victim here, also allows us to understand that identities one is proud of might be taken
away from him/her. Actaeon who was once the skilled hunter, the commander and the
active agent is now transformed into the hunted, the commanded and the passive
recipient of aggression. Again, as readers we may interrogate, what constitutes the
identity? The mind within the body? The body only? Or the mind only? Ovid seems
to suggest that it is the body which helps others determine our identity, whereas we
ourselves determine our own identity in terms of our mind and thought processes. The
body, however is an appropriate vehicle to lodge our self (identity). Therefore when
Actaeon’ s body is transformed from a human to an animal one, he cannot express his
human thoughts.
“He fled from the dogs who had served him so faithfully, longing to shout to them,
‘Stop! It is I, Actaeon, your master. Do you not know me?’
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  221

But the words would not come. The air was filled with relentless baying.” (ll 229-
231)
Ovid’s Metamorphoses is abound such dichotomies between mind and body.
In a way Actaeon is also punished for his ambitions, for having desired to marry
Semele, for having boasted of being the best hunter in the world. But these are human
frailties. Ovid precisely challenges the well know idiom, “to err is human, to forgive
divine.” Therefore Diana is incapable of forgiving the braggadocio of the young man
and in order to erase any chances of having a competitor in hunting Diana gets him
killed. This could be a more plausible reason for transforming Actaeon into a stag rather
than teaching a lesson for being a voyeur.
One of the other problems which should bother us is the lack of proportion between
the crime committed and punishment meted out. In case of Actaeon, Ovid himself
writes,
“If you look at the facts, however, you’ll find that chance was the culprit.
No crime was committed. Why punish a man for a pure mistake?” (ll 141-142)
Such disproportionate penalties should egg readers to find out the real motive
behind the execution of it. Precisely Diana’s jealously and earlier premeditated vengeful
thoughts, rather than the immediate mistake of Actaeon when he accidentally sees Diana
bathing nude.
Transformation thus becomes an alibi to challenge and subvert existing dynamics
between the ruler and the ruled. In this case the Gods and the humans, respectively.
2. Gender and Sexuality
Although, in the ancient world, there was not much attention paid to ‘gender’ as a
social construct, there have been instances in the Metamorphoses of myths where girls
were brought up as boys. The story of Iphis, Book 9, is a clear example of how Iphis,
biologically a girl, is brought up as a boy, since her father had ordered that should the
child be a girl, she should be murdered at birth. To prevent the above fate, the girl grew
up secretly as a boy and wanted to marry a girl when of marriageable age. Since there
was no gay pride, or LGBT rights, during the times, this was a dangerous situation. So,
goddess Isis came to her rescue and transformed her to a man (biologically). Many such
aberrations in sexuality were to be found in characters like Narcissus who fell in love
with himself, Myrrha who was sexually attracted to her own father.
222  CC-EG-02  NSOU

In ‘Diana and Actaeon’ we find another extreme sexual aberration in the figure of
Diana who like her mortal counterparts, Daphne and Callisto vouched celibacy and
resisted sexual advances of men and Gods. In Book 1, Daphne pleaded to her father in
the following words,
“…Darling Father, I want to remain a virgin
for ever. Please let me. Diana’s father allowed her that.” (ll 486-487)
Added to this, for Diana, men were adversaries or at best competitors. Therefore,
Diana was already jealous of Actaeon since he was a comparable hunter. She roamed
freely in the woodlands, carried bow and arrows, wore a short skirt (which irked many)
and boots, so that she could hunt well. This should definitely remind us of the
upbringing of Iphis, mentioned earlier.
For many critics, Ovid had a soft corner for women. In a society which was tough
on women and victimized them for no reasons, saw them as sexual objects and
procreating machines, stories in Metamorphoses seek to expose the brutality and
discrimination meted out to women. In the process expose the irrationality of Gods
(read ‘authority’) Alison Sharrock explains the process in the following words,
While many modern feminists would be unhappy about this chivalric designation,
there is no doubt that the Ovidian corpus provides a particularly rich site for gendered
study. More than any other non-dramatic ancient poetry, male-authored as it
overwhelmingly is, Ovid’s work gives space to a female voice, in however problematic
a manner, and to both male and female voices which reflect explicitly on their own
gendered identity. It is also driven by a troubled relationship with the purveyors of
Roman masculinity – the army, politics, Augustus, epic, and so on. (95)
In this sense, Diana’s treatment of Actaeon, however harsh, is a depiction of her
gendered identity. She is viciously protective of her virginity and therefore cannot judge
the intruder’s entry into the secret spot as an error, rather than an act of deliberate
voyeur. Obviously, she is a goddess and therefore has to act fast in order to prevent the
fate of her mortal counterparts like Callisto, Daphne and Io. So, in Diana and Actaeon
we see an inversion of the normal rationale behind scheme of transformation where the
God is the predator and the mortal is the prey. While in other stories the reason for
transformation is the desire for the opposite sex, in this story the propelling reason is
repulsion for the other one.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  223

Ovid, as a narrator seems to justify the wrongs done to women by inserting counter
stories once a while. Besides, Actaeon was an ambitious youth who aspired to compete
with the gods. Sexually, he was attracted to Semele, already desired by Zeus, so like
Icarus, his fall was inevitable.
3. Revenge and Jealousy
So far, you have understood, how, Metamorphoses, inspite of being a collection of
fantastic tales is, to borrow the words of Griffin, a ‘universal poem of human
experience’ with a deep rooted connection to contemporary reality. The myth of ‘Diana
and Actaeon’ has a very strong echo of the injustice meted out to Ovid himself by
emperor Augustus. As you know, Ovid was exiled to Tomis because emperor Augustus
wanted to avenge the poet’s involvement in the royal scandal. But in reality, Ovid had
done no such significant crime.
One of the motives of the poet in this anti-epic, was to show how extraordinary
people, whom we often look up to are also capable of frailties and that no being is above
human emotions which can at times occlude their good sense. Thus, protectors become
avengers.
In this case, Diana the god, falls prey to such common emotions which veil her
sense of judgement, her good sense which should have perceived Actaeon’s accidental
entry while she was taking a bath. But rather than trying to understand, forgive and
forget, Diana displays a mercurial temper, takes revenge and turns the poor man into a
stag. Goddesses being unsympathetic angry, vengeful and jealous is an iterative theme
in the Metamorphoses. Goddess Juno, Jupiter’s (Zeus’) wife in particular shows an
abnormal jealousy by punishing and transforming all those women who are lusted after
by her husband. She leaves no stone unturned to harass and torture characters like Io,
Semele, Callisto and others. It is therefore nothing strange that Diana should display the
same tendency to show her authority and control. One such counterpart of Diana is
Artemis to be found in Greek myths who had stopped in her anger, the winds which
would have sailed the ships of the Greek army to Troy.
The other and hidden emotion displayed by Diana is jealousy which grew in her due to
Actaeon’s reputation and claim as a great hunter. The goddess wanted no competitor
and therefore took this opportune moment as an alibi to get her adversary killed.
While Diana displays anger, vengeance and jealousy, Actaeon displays initial shock
and dismay at the transformation, followed by fear,doubt, desperation and pain which
are all common and predictable feelings in the particular context,
224  CC-EG-02  NSOU

“[......................................................] Actaeon groaned

in a sound that was scarcely human but one no stag could ever
have made, as he filled the familiar hills with his cries of anguish.
Then bending his legs like a cringing beggar, he gazed all round
with his silently pleading eyes, as if they were outstretched arms.” (ll 237-241)
4. Narrative Technique in Metamorphoses
The Metamorphoses is as much a web of narratives, acts of story-telling, as it is of
stories. The act of story-telling is basic to the whole plot. When Longinus says that the
Odyssey is ‘mostly narrative’ (to pleon diegematikon) he is opposing dramatic intensity
and action (as seen in the Iliad) to a narrative mode defined by rambling curiosity and
story-telling. With Ovid we can go further and say that the poem is ‘mostly about
narrative’, if we consider the strategic importance of telling stories for the plot. The poet
narrates, the characters, when they have an occasion to speak, tend to become narrators.
Ovid develops the Odyssean tradition. A genre consisting in telling stories about actions
becomes increasingly interested in the action of storytelling. The text not only consists
of a mixture of narrative and mimesis, but also suggests the mimesis of a narrative. The
attention claimed by internal narrators within the plot sensitizes readers to the point
where we take very seriously the presence of a super-narrator within the text.
Communication becomes a central theme of the myths of metamorphosis, and this is
mostly a consequence of Ovidian innovations in inherited tales. At the same time as
collecting such diverse and separate subject matter, Ovid intended to write an epic
poem. He states his intentions clearly in the first four lines of the poem, which is brief
but packed with meaning:
“Changes of shape, new forms,are the theme which my spirit impels me
Now to recite. Inspire me, O gods (it is you who have even
Transformed my are), and spin me a thread from the world’s beginning
Down to my own lifetime, in one continuous poem.”
(Prologue ll1-4 translator David Raeburn)
The chronology of the poem confirms the greatness of Ovid’s undertaking, for it is
boundless, going from the beginning of the world down until Ovid’s own day. This
allowed Ovid to be active in fields both distant in time and myth as well as deal with
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  225

the issues of his own time, which he achieves by making the new Augustan regime the
crowning culmination of world history. Although highly intertextual with the Aeneid,
especially since he re-tells part of the story himself, Ovid nonetheless manages to create
a very different type of work, stylistically and tonally.
Possibly Ovid’s greatest achievement in writing this poem was the manner in which
he seamlessly tied the myths together, imposing a chronological structure which seems
entirely natural, so that when Ovid claims in Book 1, for example, Apollo killed the
Python and crowned himself with oak leaves, since the laurel has not yet come into
existence, and then moves on to tell that particular myth, it is easy to suspend disbelief.
A master of storytelling, each myth moves seamlessly into the next, merging
together through theme, subject matter, and verbal interplay, so that the poem truly
appears to be a carmen perpetuum (unbroken song.) The stories can be linked by
chronology, geographical continuity (as with the Theban tales from the third book
onwards), thematic parallels (eg loves of the gods, their jealousies and revenges)[ we
can place the tale of Diana and Actaeon in this scheme], contrast (stories concerning
piety and impiety placed in proximity), genealogical relations between the characters
and even by similarity of metamorphosis.
At the same time, Ovid does not strive for unity in content and form so much as
a calculated variety. It is the continuity of narrative, not subject matter, which creates
the impression of fluidity. A proof of this lies in the technique of division between the
books of the poem: unlike in Virgil’s Aeneid where each book has its own relative
completeness and independence, the breaks between the books of
the Metamorphoses frequently fall at the liveliest points, in the middle of an episode
(Pan and Syrinx myth is inserted inside the story of Io by pausing it at a critical
juncture). This sharpens the reader’s curiosity and keeps it aroused in the pauses within
the text, allowing no lessening of the narrative tension. Throughout the narrative the
narrator or Ovid remains as an omnipresent being oscillating between ‘telling’ and
‘showing’ which is also true of the Actaeon story. Ovid is detailed and descriptive
allowing the readers to feast their eyes and senses:
“Now picture a valley, dense with pine and tapering cypress,
Called Gargaphie, sacred haunt of the huntress Diana;
there, in a secret corner, a cave surrounded by woodland,
owing nothing to human artifice. Nature had used
226  CC-EG-02  NSOU

her talent to imitate art: she had moulded the living rock
of porous tufa to form the shape of a rugged arch.
To the right, a babbling spring with a thin translucent rivulet
widening into a pool ringed round by a grassy clearing.” (ll 154-162)
The employment of nature imagery, similes and metaphors (often the credit of the
translator) renders the poem a smooth reading.
But in spite of such smooth reading, at times, Ovid’s objective becomes difficult.
In the words of Andrew Feldherr again,
Should we read metamorphosis through epic eyes, with an even greater awareness
of its essential unbelievability and trivializing effect? Can the epic form even save
the work from itself by transfiguring its fabulous subject matter into a grand
history of the Augustan world, just as Virgil allows metamorphosis a new role in
his poem? Or is the work fundamentally an anti-epic, lending the gravity of the
Homeric and Virgilian form to an antithetical vision of man’s place in the
cosmos? Or, a final alternative, should we simply avoid the question by allowing
the poem to decompose itself into a Hellenistic assemblage of separate tales?
Since Ovid often positions metamorphoses at the end of episodes, the
transformations within the narrative tend to occur precisely where the structure
of the work as a whole is most up for grabs. In deciding whether each
metamorphosis marks an ending, or merely a transition, readers are continually
confronted with the question of what kind of work they are reading. To get a
sense of what is at stake ideologically in the differing responses (169)
5. Treatment of Myths
Fritz Graf, in his essay “Myth in Ovid” points out to the contradiction inherent in
Ovid’s treatment of myths in the Metamorphoses in the following words:
[…]the deep seriousness of our own concept of what myths are—‘a traditional tale
. . . held to be not a passing enjoyment, but something important, serious, even
sacred’, ‘traditional tales with immediate cultural relevance’—seems to clash
violently with Ovid’s irreverent playfulness, as he most often is perceived. (108)
In late Republican and early Augustan Rome, myth (fabulae) were universally
understood as modes of poetic discourse. There were two ways of narrating events-
‘historia’, ‘historical narratives’ and ‘fabula’, ‘mythical narratives’. There was a third
type, ‘argumentum’ which basically referred to the plot (especially in ‘comedy’).
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  227

‘Historia’ as understood referred to real and factual events, whereas, ‘fabula’ referred to
imaginary or mythical ones. According to Graf, fabula ‘is a text which contains neither
true nor plausible things’ (109).
However, Ovid used the ‘fabula’ but with an objective whish was most suited to the
ends of a ‘historia’.
Ovid’s myths cover an extraordinary range of experience and he displays a
penetrating psychological knowledge of the variety of human motivations and
delusions. It is in the face of this variety and range, readers have regularly tried to
isolate what the unifying theme of metamorphosis might be. But it is hard to do so. It
can be banal or it can be sublime, or anything between the two, humans are capable of.
At times it can be a ‘a savage reduction’ (in the words of Leonard Barkan), as in the
case of Diana and Actaeon, where the Goddess shows an uncanny aggression and
vengeance. On the part of Actaeon, it is the fittest example of ‘abject and desperate
helplessness’, the nadir of a human condition. But whatever it may be Ovid does it with
a purpose as the bard would write for Hamlet, “there’s a method in his madness.” The
main connecting thread in these myths is an interest in identity: what is it that makes a
human, or does transformation into animate and inanimate things take away the essence
of being a human being. The myths are basically collected together and used to answer
these questions, and if not answer, at least make us, the readers ponder over them. For
Ovid, therefore, myths become ‘poetic texts’ for probing into the existential
questions.
Also, if myths are traditional tales with immediate cultural relevance, then mythical
narration explains and, when necessary, legitimates cultural, societal and natural facts in
a given society—cults and rituals, social structures, but also natural phenomena; the
mythical history of a group defines its identity and place in the contemporary world. In
this sense myths also reflect contemporary socio-political practices of the relevant
group. Ovid, in a way used the myths in this sense too—As a mirror to the social
practices of his times.

4.14.7 Summing Up
Even after two thousand years of its composition, Metamorphoses is a pervasive
influence in European Literature and Arts, particularly visual arts. It is a veritable
storehouse of every conceivable myth which one needs to know in order to understand
228  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and appreciate allusions used by numerous later writers in their texts. It has been
translated and dramatized by many and adapted by some of the modern world’s most
distinguished poets, most notably Ted Hughes (1997). As a work, Metamorphoses has
been different and iconoclastic, compared to what his contemporaries were writing,
particularly in being sensitive towards women and their plight in the contemporary
society. The poem is more real than many other realistic works in its approach to
society, politics and the perspective towards authority.

4.14.8 Comprehension Exercises

 Broad Questions:
1. Justify the inclusion of the tale of Actaeon in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
2. Comment on Ovid’s handling of the myth of ‘Diana and Acteaon’ in the
Metamorphoses.
3. Discuss Ovid’s treatment of gender and sexuality in Metamorphoses with the
story of ‘Diana and Actaeon’ in particular.
4. Comment on the narrative treatment and style in Ovid’s Metamorphoses with
particular reference to the myth of ‘Diana and Actaeon’.
5. Examine how Ovid reverses the role women generally play in his poem, by
portraying Diana differently in the ‘Diana and Actaeon’ myth.
6. Comment on the theme of metamorphosis with reference to the myth of ‘Diana
and Actaeon’.
7. Discuss the theme of identity, its change and its loss, in the myth of ‘Diana and
Actaeon’ in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.
 Short Questions:
1. When Actaeon turns into a stag and is pursued by hounds, what human
characteristics does he miss most? Why?
2. How does this story handle the theme of female violence? Does such violence
seem justified here? How does its significance go beyond the immediate tale?
Why do you suppose the narrator comments at the end on others’ views of
Diana’s conduct?
3. How does ‘nature’ and ‘art’ blend in the valley of Gargaphie?
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  229

4. Describe the situation which made Diana initially a helpless victim.

5. With the transformation of Actaeon into a hound we also see a loss of his
identity. Discuss briefly, how far is the above statement true.
6. Explain the way in which Actaeon’s story is a continuation of the tale of the
house of Cadmus.
7. Comment on the circumstances that made Actaeon lose his way into the
Gargaphie.
8. Comment on the horror and pathos created in the dying moments of Actaeon.

4.14.9 Comprehensive Reading List for Module 4

Kumar Rakesh. Ancient and Medieval World: From Evolution of Humans to the crisis
of Feudalism. Sage publications private Ltd, 2018
Price, Simon and Thonnemann, Peter. The Penguin History of Europe. Penguin Books,
2011.
Fantham, Elaine. Roman Literary Culture: From Cicero to Apuleius. John Hopkins
University Press, 1996.
Chaitanya, Krishna. Ancient Roman Literature: Poetry v.1 (Cameos in History and
Culture). Sangam Books Limited, 1998.
Ovid, P.N. Metamorphoses. Translated by David Raeburn. Penguin Books, 2004.
Ovid, P.N. Metamorphoses. Translated by Charles Martin. W.W. Norton & Company
Inc, 2005.
Harrison, Stephen. A Companion to Latin Literature. John Wiley and Sons, 2005.
Hardie, Philip (ed.). The Cambridge companion to Ovid. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2002.
Habineck, Thomas N. And Habineck, Thomas N.N. The Politics of Latin Literature :
Writing, Identity and Empire in Ancient Rome. Princeton University Press, 2001.
William S. Anderson, ed. (1998). Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Books 1-5. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press
Otis, Brooks. Ovid as an epic poet (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2010.
230  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Galinsky, Karl. Ovid’s Metamorphoses: An Introduction to the Basic Aspects. Berkeley:

University of California Press, 1975.
Loy, Pamela, S. Metamorphoses. Joyce Moss ed. Vol. 8: Classical Literature and Its
Times. Detroit, MI: Gale, 2006.
Hawes, Greta. “The story of Actaeon and the inevitability of myth” https://
www.academia.edu/35817863/The_story_of_Actaeon_and_the_inevitability_ of_myth
Koen Vanhaegendoren. “Ovid, Metamorphoses 1.258 Textual Criticism and Ovidian
Mockery.” L’Antiquité Classique. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41666135
H. F. Griffin, Allan. “Ovid’s ‘Metamorphoses’”. Greece & Rome, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Apr.,
1977), pp. 57-70. Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical
Association. http://www.jstor.org/stable/642689

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  227

Module-5
Plautus: Pot of Gold
Unit 15  Society and the Beginnings of Comedy in Rome
Structure
5.15.0 Introduction
5.15.1 Roman Society
5.15.2 The Beginnings of Roman Comedy
5.15.3 Old Latin Comedy: Features
5.15.4 Summing Up
5.15.5 Comprehension Exercises

5.15.0 Introduction
In this introductory Unit to Plautus’ text, Pot of Gold that is on your syllabus, we
will begin with some basic ideas about Roman society in order to understand how the
soil was germane to the flowering of Comedy. In that context, we will further discuss
the beginnings of comedy, and then the style and features of old Latin comedy. With
this understanding of the socio-cultural background, you will be able to proceed on a
study of the text in a more comprehensive manner. While going through this Unit, you
should be careful to mark how certain features of classical comedy have survived in
later practice, and how some of it has been adapted to suit later contexts.

5.15.1 Roman Society

You know by now that ancient Rome, which was situated on the banks of the river
Tiber is now in modern-day Italy. It was inhabited by the Latin tribes (Latini or
Latians), almost a thousand years before the birth of Christ. The city of Rome, however,
was, according to historians, founded, in circa 753 BCE. Legends often tend to associate
the foundation of Rome to the story of the Trojan Prince Aeneas, hailed in Virgil’s epic;
but a more popular story regarding the foundation of Rome owes its origins to the
mythical character of Romulus.
Roman society was patrilineal since its foundation, with a Father-god, like Jupiter,
at the head of its polytheistic pantheon. However, as in many other primitive
communities, women had to play a vital role in consolidating the society, stopping war
and bloodshed,
230  CC-EG-02  NSOU

and by peacemaking through marriage. The story of Romulus’ wife Hersilia can be cited
as a mythical representation of this role played by women in ancient Roman society.
The development of Rome continued through such major phases as the Republican
(590-27 BCE) and the Imperial (27 BCE-476 CE in the west, 330-1453 CE in the east).
The political structure of the society involved a powerful patriarchal leader at the top—
called the ‘Consul’ during the Republic, and ‘Emperor’ afterwards. The administration
consisted of the senate, judges, and assemblies, which operated under the Consul or the
Emperor.
There was a major social division between two classes—the aristocratic Patricians,
mainly the landowning gentry; and the working-class Plebeians—involving not only the
poor labourers but farmers, artisans, small traders, craftsmen and even teachers—
basically those who were non-aristocratic. The Roman laws were heavily in favour of
the upper class Patricians – until a power-struggle, called the ‘Conflict of Orders’,
ensued in the period c. 500-287 BCE. The Plebeians made up a large portion of the
army needed by the Patricians to fight against the neighbouring tribes. Notice how the
concept of different social classes, and conflicts between them have characterised
every phase of social existence at all points of time!
In 494 BCE, the working-class Plebeians refused to continue fighting until their
demands were addressed properly. New laws were framed to give the Plebeians some
voice by allowing them to send to the Senate a ‘Tribune’ as their representative. By the
time the Conflict of the Orders was resolved, Roman society was hierarchically divided
into five social classes: (1) Patricians, (2) Equites, (3) Plebeians, (4) Freedmen and (5)
Slaves. Gradually, however, some of the Plebeians gained importance in society and
marital relationships between Patricians—the traditional landed gentry and some
Plebeians who later gained some wealth and position—became possible.
The Equites (the equestrian class, associated with horses or the cavalry) came from
the class of knights who later became associated with trade and commerce. They also
belonged to the upper class but were inferior to the Patricians who made up the Senate.
The freedmen, former slaves who had been able to buy their freedom or set free by
their masters and were recognized as citizens but did not have any representation in
politics. Former slaves could choose any common profession according to their capacity
or serve their former masters as clients.
Slaves belonged the lowest position in society; they had no rights and were
considered to be the property of their owners. Yet, Roman civilization depended
heavily
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  231

on the manual labour of the slaves. Their lives were spent in tremendous hardship and
there was a major protest, by Spartacus and his followers, in 71 BCE. The story of
Spartacus has hence been severally adapted and performed across different media all
over the world, each time exemplifying the spirit of resistance and rising up for rights.
From these distinct divisions into classes, you can have a clear idea of Roman social
organisation, and how strategic that was.
The family was at the base of Roman society where women were, in general, under
the jurisdiction of men—a legally appointed father-figure, a husband, or some male
guardian. However, experienced elderly ladies and mothers were influential in
maintaining the stability of the family. Aristocratic ladies hardly had a public life
outside the household whereas, slave-women, along with their male counterparts, had to
work hard mostly in their owners’ houses. Despite a few worthy examples of learned
women, women, in general, were denied education. Roman citizenship was granted to a
male who belonged to one of the Latian tribes and was above the age of fifteen—
according to his ancestry, landed position, and profession. For a detailed idea about the
Roman society, students may refer to such books as Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome
(1998) by Lesley Adkins and Roy A. Adkins, and The Oxford Companion to Classical
Civilisation (2014) by Simon Hornblower and Anthony Spawforth.

5.15.2. The Beginnings of Roman Comedy

An exposure to Greek culture, mostly through the influx of Greek people brought
to Rome as slaves during the 3rd century BCE, initiated the beginnings of Roman
drama. The history of Roman comedy has become available to today’s world mostly
through the writings of Livius Andronicus, a Greek, who came to Rome as a slave but
later earned his freedom and was made to tutor the children of some noble Roman
households. In 240 BCE, he presented a play before a large Roman audience, an
adaptation from the Greek, and this event played a great role in triggering a Roman
interest in the Greek classics. His translation of Homer’s Odyssey in Latin was
considered a pioneering work. The other texts he adapted into Latin include,
Sophocles’s Ajax, Andromeda, Gladiolus and Ludius.
For Roman society, the adaptation of a Greek cultural ethos, was not an easy task.
Though we often utter Greco-Roman in one breath, one needs to understand that the free
232  CC-EG-02  NSOU

individualism of the Greeks would have been problematic in imperial Rome. As the
Classical scholar W.A. Oldfather observes in his essay on ‘Roman Comedy’,
Perfect solidarity in public action and in private conduct, and hence in thought and
belief, could alone save the imperilled nationality. Out of this spirit grew that
sturdy sense of public duty which governed the whole moral life, a recognition of
the superior claims of social justice, and of the need of uniformity in regulating
the intercourse of men. These qualities, together with the indomitable will of
generations of fighting men, produced the incomparable Roman achievements in
character, administration and jurisprudence. (218)
However, as the politico-social situation of old Rome left little scope for literature
and cultural modes of self-expression, the Romans thus turned to Greek literature and
its liberal spirit for these activities. Thus the adaptation of Greek works in Latin gave
an impetus to the shaping of what we call ‘Roman literature’ of the early period. Soon
the Romans became exposed to the Greek comic theatre, and turned to adapting Greek
comedy into Latin. Of course, there had been a tendency to introduce ‘Roman’ elements
of society, events, and characters, into typical ‘Greek’ plots and settings—elements
which would help the Roman audiences to relate with the plays. For instance, when the
setting of a play was Athens, a Roman playwright would use a ‘Prologue’ which would
set the tone of the play, adding local colour and situations, thereby, acclimatizing
Roman audiences with the different milieu.
Gnaeus Naevius (c. 235-204 BCE) adapted many of Euripedes’ tragedies and
Menander’s Kolax. He also composed historical plays and about thirty comedies are
ascribed to him— the most famous of them was Tarentilla. He was a predecessor to
Plautus, who gave Roman drama a distinguished position. Naevius introduced songs
and a variety of metres. His plays were rich in critical commentaries on Roman social
and political life, which led to his imprisonment in 207 BCE. In many ways, his use
of stock characters, well-knit plots and colourful, colloquial language, his vivid
portrayal of the common people’s lives with intrigues, amusement and romantic
engagements would later be found more vividly in Plautus, who was respectful of the
elder poet. His application of the device of mingling or fusing plots (known as
‘contaminatio’) had been a major influence on two of his most famous successors,
Plautus (254-184 BC) and Terence (185-159BC).
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  233

In the hands of Plautus, the plays of Menander and the other Greek playwrights
were adapted into musical Latin comedies. His stock characters involved—the braggart
soldier, the parasite, the old miser, the identical twins and the resourceful slave - the last
providing a major force behind the comic action. Plautus confined himself to a single
literary species, and brought the Greek masters onto the Roman stage, with a renewed
vigour. Some Critics have, however often charged him later for not trying to produce
a genuine ‘national’ comedy for Rome as all his works had been adaptations of Greek
comedy wrapped with some local flavour.
In this discussion, we should also include, however briefly, the contribution of
Caecilius Statius (c. 220 BC-c. 166/168 CE) who marks an ‘intermediate’ phase in the
development of old Latin Comedy. According to W.A. Oldfather, “Neither so original
as Plautus nor so refined as Terence, he left much to be desired in point of good taste
and of good Latinity. But he followed his originals, principally works of Menander,
more closely in the construction of plots.” (220) His plays were marked by a tendency
towards debate and argument.
With Terence the development of Roman Comedy was believed to be complete. His
plays mark a distinctive aesthetic achievement in language involving an uniformity of
elegant style giving to the plays of Terence, in the opinion of many scholars, a greater
sense of ‘refinement’ than those of Plautus. Terence’s use of the verse-form was more
polished, more stylistic in conception and structure, coupled with a subtlety of humour,
avoiding the farcical and the ‘lowly comical’. But this element of sophistication
perhaps rendered his plays less popular to the Plebeian audiences than those of Plautus.
Plautus’s plays, on the other hand, was more vivacious and full of energy. Oldfather,
thus points out that he was essentially nearer to the Greeks than was Terence and,
consequently, he developed the style and structure of what we call ‘closet’ drama.

5.15.3 Old Latin Comedy: Features

The Atellan farce, a native form of the Old Latin comic-dramatic endeavour did
exist before the Romans’ association with Greek drama. This kind of farce, originally
from the Oscan town of Atella in Sothern Italy, used to be performed with masks, and
was popular for almost half a millennium in Italy. Historians would date its origin
around 300 BCE. This form had similarities with the improvised Greek farces known
234  CC-EG-02  NSOU

as komos (revels). The use of masked stock characters and slapstick gags were a
common feature in this farce; plots generally involved domestic affairs, mostly as in
Greek New Comedy—‘boy meets girl, falls in love, but parents object to their union,
finally a loyal and clever slave intervenes and makes the marriage possible’. Thus
Atellan farce could be easily mixed up with the spirit of Greek New Comedy in
adaptations that were called fabulae pallaitae (‘plays in a Greek cloak’). The scripts
were rich in lively action, robust puns and jokes. The reliance on boisterous scenes of
physical comedy was significant as it undermined Roman etiquette in a licensed
manner.
Performed as a popular form of entertainment in ancient Republican and early
Imperial Rome, Attelan farces originally came from an oral tradition, mostly in the
Oscan dialect. Later they became a literary genre and came to be performed in Latin by
the 1st century BC, but only a few fragments have survived. Lucius Pomponius of
Bononia and Novius were among the writers who used the form of Attelan farce in Old
Latin comedies, but their written legacy is almost extinct. The stock characters in these
farces included Maccus, the clown; Bucco (“Fat Cheeks”), the simpleton; Pappus, or the
old fool; Dossennus, perhaps meaning the “Hunchback”; and Manducus, who can be
understood as “the Glutton.” There is no evidence of farces in existence beyond the 1st
century AD, but as a matter of ‘legacy’, we may trace some of the stock characters used
in the 16th-century Italian ‘commedia dell’arte’ from this tradition. These old Roman
farces, with a typical use of mimicry and a reliance on stock characters, got incorporated
into the new strain of Latin comedy which flourished under the Greek influence.
Having a meagre pre-existent tradition to adhere to, Plautus retained some features
of the Atellan farce, and freely adapted Greek comedies, especially Menander’s New
Comedies. Except for the period called the ‘Middle Ages’, Plautus’s comedies hardly
failed to attract audiences when performed; his plays, therefore remained popular
through European history and its cultures of theatre. His works were even quoted and
appreciated by strict and conservative church fathers like Saint Jerome and so on.
The plays had the richness, energy and complexity of Greek plots but were free of
unwanted Hellenisms as they were strongly embedded in the contemporary Roman
context. In temperament, Plautus was nearer to Aristophanes. Avoiding Menander’s
subtle character portrayals, Plautus’s exaggerated depiction of character verged on
caricature. Plautus had an infallible instinct and a perfect sense of comic timing to turn
his art into achieving stage success, for it was dedicated to amuse with compulsive,
extravagant laughter and musicality.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  235

5.15.4 Summing up
 The Romans lived in a society that was patrilineal, strictly following a social
hierarchy.
 Their society was basically an administrative and law-abiding body but their
exposure to Greek culture, through the translations of Livius Andronicus, made
them eager to express their talents by adapting Greek plays to Latin.
 Naevius, Plautus and Terence were some of the major exponents of the developing
Latin Comedy.
 Considering the native form of old Roman farces, one may assume that the use of
stock characters and a tendency towards comic mimicry went well with the spirit
of Greek New Comedy and so these features were more or less retained in Plautine
comedies.

5.15.5 Comprehension exercises

 Long Answer Type Questions:
1. Discuss the structure of Roman society, with special reference to its social
hierarchy.
2. Briefly comment on the ‘Conflict of Orders’.
3. Give a brief sketch of the position of women in Roman society.
 Medium Length Answer Type Questions:
1. Give and account of the early native form of farces in Rome.
2. What were the points of similarity between these farces and Greek ‘New
Comedy’?
3. Give some examples of the stock characters.
 Short Answer Type Questions:
1. How did the Romans become exposed to the Greek culture?
2. Discuss how differently Plautus and Terence adapted Greek comedies into
Latin.
3. Briefly discuss the role of Naevius and Statius in the development of comedy.
236  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 16  From Menander to Terence: The Tradition of

Roman Comedy
Structure
5.16.0 Introduction
5.16.1 Menander’s New Comedies in Greek
5.16.2 Menander’s Influence on Writers of Roman Comedy
5.16.3 Terence and the Achievements of Roman Comedy
5.16.4 Summing up
5.16.5 Comprehension Exercises

5.16.0 Introduction
This Unit proposes to trace the tradition and the development of Greco-Roman
Comedy from Menander to Terence, so that learners are able to historicise the Plautine
plays in general and the Pot of Gold in particular. It is therefore incumbent that you look
upon this Unit as a continuation from where we left off in the previous one.

5.16.1 Menander’s New Comedies in Greek

We have already discussed that the fascination of the Romans with the Greek
culture started with Livius Andronicus’s translation of Odessey and some Greek plays.
In the genre of comedy, Menander with his Greek New Comedies has been the major
influence.
The Athenian Menander was considered the greatest among the comic playwrights
of the third and the final stage of Greek comedy—known as New Comedy. By the time
he started writing, Greek comedy was no longer interested in satirizing public affairs as
in the time of Aristophanes. Menander concentrated more on domestic affairs and young
people’s love-intrigues. He also used stock-characters, suitable for a romantic-familial
plot. Characters in his plays could often be identified as stern fathers, boastful soldiers,
young lovers, cunning slaves, and so on.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  237

Despite his use of stock characters, Menander excelled in characterization sometimes

with a touch of subtlety, for example, the portrayal of the old misanthrope Knemon—
a typical ‘stern father’ in Dyscolus (the only complete text we have among his surviving
plays) who is not without a touch of sympathy, especially when he relinquishes
everything and retires towards the end leaving the stage for the lovers’ union. Menander
dispensed with the chorus and instead of mythical or social plots, introduced domestic
problems of daily life and, finally, their happy resolutions. Menander’s works were
adapted by the Roman playwrights Plautus and Terence and, through them, the
influence continued to work upon the development of European comedy during the
Renaissance. It is from their work and some writings by other Latin authors that the
twentieth century has come to know about the lost corpus of Menander’s plays,
before.
The discovery of several fragments of Menander’s texts in Egypt in 1898 and 1900
—more than the halves of two plays, Witnessess or By-Standers, and The Girl Whose
Hair Was Cut Short—had revived interest in some of his lost work. Subsequent
discoveries were made and scholarship on Menander flourished in the 20 th century.
More than a hundred plays were attributed to Menander, of which mostly fragments
have been discovered till now. While compiling the fragments in an accessible form, for
students of Roman comedy, W C Wadell relied largely upon Koch’s Comicorum
Atticorum Fragments, Volume III, Edward Capps’ Four Plays of Menander(1910), Van
Leeuwen’s Menandri Fabularum Reliquiae (1919), and Francis G. Allinson’s
Menander (Loeb Classical Library, 1921). Wadell’s compilation, Selections from
Menander (Oxford University Press, 1927) remains, till date, a significant text for the
study of Greek influences on Roman Comedy.
It is to be noted, however, that Menander’s significant influence has caused general
readers (except a dedicated group of Classical scholars) forget the other exponents of
New Comedy—including Alexis—Menander’s uncle, Philemon and Diphilos—who
were ‘rivals’ of Menander and more oriented towards the farcical, and also Hegesippus
and Euphron. Recent scholarship has drawn attention to the notion that Philemon and
Diphilos were more of an influence on Plautus whereas, Terence was closer to
Menander. In her 2015 paper on ‘New Comedy and Roman Comedy : With and
Without Menander’ Sophia Pappaioannaou shows that Plautus “was better inclined
towards models that favored less refined speech, cruder jokes, farcical violence, and
more impressive dramatic effects, and were closer to the prankish and paradramatic
character of Middle Comedy. Diphilos and Philemon comply much better with this
238  CC-EG-02  NSOU

profile, and it is not fortuitous that they have been classified as writers of the Mése by
later critics in antiquity”. (69). The term ‘Mése’ literally stands for ‘Middle Street’—the
main road running through Constantinopole was known as the Mése. So the phrase
‘writers of the Middle Street’ suggests that Diphilos and Philemon were more associated
with the mass-audiences, than the aristocrats. Pappaioannaou also points out that
Philemon’s Thensaurus and Emporos provided the models for Plautus’ Trinummus and
Mercator (70). William S. Anderson (1993) mentions that Diphilos was the main source
for Plautus’ Rudens and Casina and his Vidularia and Captivi also includes elements
from the fragments of Diphilos. (45-69) However, Terence’s Adelphoe, once thought to
be inspired fully by Menander, was at least partially indebted to Diphilos’ Companions
in Death. (Petrakis 55)
However, it is historically recognized that Menander’s leading position as the most
notable playwright of New Comedy, remains unchallenged both for his Roman
successors and students of classical literature. Ovid expresses his appreciation for his
writing, Plutarch compares Menander’s skill to that of a skilled craftsman, musician or
painter and Quintillian’s praise of him is reiterated by a 20 th century Classical scholar
like Sidney G. Ashmore (Introduction, The Comedies of Terence, New York : Oxford
University Press, p. 7) Summarising Menander’s achievement C.R. Post, therefore
writes:
Preeminently a Greek, he excels in those very qualities which always lend charm
to the most insignificant literary products of Hallas, which were always less
possible to the heavier Roman mind and the more cumbrous Latin tongue, and
especially, despite the more advanced stylistic art of Terence, to that mind and
that tongue in their as yet inchoate condition of the second century before Christ.
(Quoted in Petrakis, 64)
Considering Menander as the chief exponent of New Comedy, we may take a brief note
of its major features. In ‘The Argument of Comedy’ Northorp Frye argues,
New Comedy unfolds from what may be described as a comic Oedipus situation.
Its main theme is the successful effort of a young man to outwit an opponent and
possess the girl of his choice. The opponent is usually the father. (450)
Therefore, it is basically concerned with a domestic-romantic plot which seeks its final
resolution in marriage and in the ‘triumph’ of the younger over the ‘traditional’ and
sometimes ‘dogmatic’ elderly generation which also tends to harp on a social
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  239

reconciliation. As Frye adds: “The essential comic resolution, therefore, is an individual

release which is also a social reconciliation. The normal individual is freed from the
bonds of a humorous society, and a normal society is freed from the bonds imposed on
it by humorous individuals” (452).

5.16.2 Menander’s Influence on Writers of Roman Comedy

It would be best to begin with a question here: How closely did Roman Comedy
follow the Greek originals? The legacy remained alive not merely in translation but, in
this period, much more in the spirit of adaptation. Considering the differences in cultural
setting, much of the subtle nuances, literary and historical allusions and, sometimes, the
delineation of characters, originally done by Menander with a finer touch of the Attic
language, had to be modified.
For a long time, Classical scholarship maintained that Plautus had rather ‘freely’
reworked the original texts of Menander or his contemporaries like Diphilos and
Philemon, adapting them to indigenous settings and by adding local colour thereby
making them suitable for his contemporary Roman society, whereas Terence offered a
comparatively ‘Romanised’ version of New Comedy. For both Plautus and Terence,
more action was infused to fill up the corpus of the play to satisfy the expectations of
the local audiences; and, according to early sources, they sometimes achieved this, by
a combination of plots and elements of two or three plays.
According to Oldfather, “Such combinations were, with the stock figures and when
made on a small scale, comparatively easy, and Terence was especially successful
therein. Names of personages were changed freely, sometimes, as in the Eunuchus,
without any very obvious purpose, but with Plautus, in the main, no doubt, for comic
effect”. (220)
Another way of reworking was accomplished by substitution of characters—one for
another [for instance, the character of the misanthrope Knemon in Dyscolos is
substituted by the miserly Euclio in the Pot of Gold, where some similarities between
the two characters can be found, but the plot and contexts, on the whole are very
different] and, sometimes, by suggesting a change of situation. Plautus’ plays did not
‘defamiliarise’ the originals by Menander, but they excelled in structurally and
thematically modifying the Greek plays, in mixing up plots and characters and,
sometimes, deconstructing the
240  CC-EG-02  NSOU

original with a vibrant, populistic approach. Another major difference was in the use of
language, and meter, especially in the inclusion of rhythm and music.

5.16.3 Terence and the Achievement of Roman Comedy

Publius Terentius Afer, better known as Terence in English, was born in the Roman
colony of Carthage in Africa. He was brought to Rome as a slave by a senator called
Terentius Lucanus, who gave him his own name, and impressed by his intelligence,
helped him to get a fair education, and finally, set him free. Since the revival of classical
learning in Europe during the Renaissance, Terence was held, after Plautus, as the
greatest comic playwright of Rome. For the classical and Neo-classical scholars, his
dramatic verses were celebrated as the model of simple and conversational yet, refined
Latin. However, in his lifetime, he was not as popular as his famous predecessor,
Plautus. Moreover, he faced slanders from his senior contemporaries and, his
association with the Scipian circle—a group of cultured Roman nobles named after one
called Scipio Africanus the Younger, who was an admirer of Greek literature—also led
to the accusation that his plays might have been written by some noble patron.
Terence’s plays differed in presentation and structure from those of Plautus, and
also in their use of language. Terence’s humour depended more on a literary sensibility,
whereas, Plautus excelled in its dramatic and visual presentation which might have been
crude and physical at times but able to please his audiences. Plautus used to add a
prologue at the beginning, so that the audiences could be given an idea of the plot.
Terence, on the contrary, did not suggest the plot in his prologues. Using shorter
prologues he would rather defend himself against the attacks from “malicious old poets”
like Lucius Lanuvinus, who accused him of meddling with the originals—combining
materials from two Greek plays by the same author or by different authors. It was true,
Terence did sometimes incorporate some extraneous sources into the main plot, but that
could not be labelled a ‘discredit’. For Instance, in the Andria (The Andrian Woman), he
combines the Greek play by Menander, sharing the same title, with materials from
another play, also by Menander-Perinthia (The Perinthian Girl). Terence’s Eunuchus
was an adaptation of Menander’s Eunouchos , in which the Roman playwright added
two characters, a soldier and his parasitic flatterer from another play called Kolax (The
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  241

Flatterer)—also by Menander. As already mentioned in the previous unit, in

the Adelphoe, Terence added extraneous material into the main plot in the form of an
interesting scene from a play by Diphilos, a contemporary of Menander.
Both Plautus and Terence added much to the development of Roman comedy, but
their aims and approaches were different. During Plautus’ writing career, a steady form
of Latin comedy was yet to be conceptualised. The Greek models were available but a
simple translation of them would not be accepted by the local audience. Plautus had to
improvise considerably and make the plays more interesting than intellectual. Plautus’s
challenge was in providing genuine laughter, often mixed up with crude farce, for the
common audiences—otherwise they would leave and seek other kinds of entertainments
such as a gladiator fighting with lions, or a wrestling match. This was exactly the case
with the two productions of Terence’s play, Hycera: people left in the middle of the
play, and the productions failed. Thus we can see that by the time Terence started to
write comedies, the situation of the general public was approximately the same though,
Roman theatrical culture had by then, been able to claim a stronger appeal—at least
among a chosen few. Terence wrote mostly for the educated ‘Scipionic’ coterie, whose
taste demanded more refinement than that of the general Roman mob.
Modern scholarship on Terence has often faced a problem, regarding the question
of his ‘originality’ as a playwright. However, as Roman literature and culture owed
considerably to the Greeks, the question of ‘originality’ could not be viewed
unequivocally. The term should not be used in a modern-day sense, to criticize or
appreciate plays of classical antiquity. Here, the question of ‘originality’ is important,
however, because it has enabled modern scholarship to trace the tradition, through
Plautus and Terence, back to Menander whose plays could not be preserved in their
entirety. Terence indeed found his model mostly in Menander and, in some cases, also
adapted from the works of other Greek poets. Four of his plays were based on Menander
and the other two mentioned Apollodorus of Carystus—a follower of Menander—as the
original author. Classical scholars have shown that Terence did not fully ‘translate’ the
Attic Koine of Menander but he maintained a studied adherence to his style which gave
to his use of Latin a sense of ‘standard’ artistry. Besides his skill as a translator or
adapter, he dressed his plays with a sophisticated, sensitive approach to individual
characters and their problems. His combination of two plots, known as ‘contaminatio’,
was not uncommon: Plautus also used it even with more creative freedom and vivacity.
Terence aimed at a conversational
242  CC-EG-02  NSOU

realism, and reduced the long, expository prologues or such conventional devices as the
character’s address to the audience.
He died young, and was not so successful in gaining the favour of the audiences in
his lifetime. History, however, gave him his due, for with Terence, Roman comedy
reached its final stage of development and, after him, it is difficult to find any comic
playwright worthy of mention. The age of Roman comedy survived only a short time
after Terence. His life was short and his works were not many in number but his
language and art of presentation set a standard for “pure Latin” for a long time. Finally,
for classical and neo-classical studies, Terence is now even a part of the curriculum.

5.16.4 Summing up
 The plays of Menander, the Greek playwright had been the model mostly sought by
the writers of Roman Comedy. Before the 20th century discovery of some of his
fragments, we could know about his work chiefly from the adaptations of his plays
by his Roman successors.
 Plautus and Terence, with different approaches and style, contributed to the
development of Roman comedy. Plautus was more dramatic and physical in his use
of humour, whereas Terence was more refined.
 Both writers combined plots from more than one Greek original but Plautus did it
more freely whereas Terence, even while combining elements from two plots,
remained a faithful adapter.
 Terence’s language and style have been considered the model for “standard Latin”.

5.16.5 Comprehension Exercises

 Long Answer Type:
1. Discuss the influence of Menander on his Roman successors.
2. Discuss the achievement of Plautus and Terence, with reference to their
different approaches to comedy.
 Medium Length Answer Type:
1. Comment briefly on Menander’s New Comedies.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  243

2. What do you know about Terence’s style of combining plots? Explain with
examples.
 Short Answer Type:
1. Briefly discuss any two features of Greek New Comedy.
2. Write a short note on the dramatic style of Terence.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
244  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Unit 17  Plautus and his Plays

Structure
5.17.0 Introduction
5.17.1 Plautus: A Bio-Brief
5.17.2 Plays of Plautus: An Overview
5.17.3 Plautus’ plays: Major Features and Style
5.17.4 Summing Up
5.17.5 Comprehension Exercises

5.17.0 Introduction
This Unit will be helpful for students for understanding Plautus and his plays as a
whole. They will be able to gain an understanding of the features of his plays, his use
of stock characters, and gain an insight into the style and technique used in his plays
before engaging in a deeper reading of the prescribed text. The Unit will also help the
learner to place Plautus within the larger frame of Classical Literature.

5.17.1 Plautus: A Bio-Brief

Though the plays of Plautus are more or less accessible to the present generation
of readers, it is difficult to know the man behind them. According to recent research,
though there is no definite proof, yet Plautus is believed to have lived approximately
between 254 and 184 BCE. As it is clear to us that the time when Plautus lived is
historically so remote and the literary and cultural remnants of this age are so few and
fragmentary that it is difficult to make any claims. However, Plautus’s comic plays are
one of the literary relics of that time gone by and remain as important documents that
testify to the abiding values of humanity. The common desires and concerns that existed
in that civilization now lost seem to find an echo even today. Therefore the plays seem
to unify human civilizations across time and space.
According to knowledge now available to us, Plautus was originally called Titus
Maccius Plautus. This tripartite name was a convention in the names used by Roman
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  245

aristocrats. A closer look will, however, prove that this name was itself a deception. The
very name is a comic artifice on part of the classical dramatist. Thus, a close analysis
will show that the first name (praenomen), that is, Titus; the second (nomen)—Maccius
and the third (cognomen)—Plautus, taken together, as the full name suggests “Titus
belonging to the Flatfoot clan of the Maccus family”. It can be noted in this context that
Maccius refers to the son of “Maccus”, where Maccus was the clown figure of Atellan
farce. Moreover, in Latin Titus was slang for “penis”; thereby revealing that Titus
Maccius Plautus was just a contrived name. It is, therefore quite apparent that the name
of the comic dramatist was itself a joke—a joke in the typical Plautine style—
remarkable for its exaggerated coarseness.
Plautus was not born into the upper class of the Roman society. His close references
to ordinary life, in many of his plays give us ample proof of that. In fact, the name he
uses may have only been a stage name for the playwright might have been trained as
a performer in the genre of Atellan farce. Many fabricated stories have been doing the
rounds since Plautus’s death. There is one which states that he was born about 254 BCE
in Umbria. His early associations with theatre probably began as an actor and he came
to Rome when travelling with a theatre-group. He is said to have fallen out of luck
several times as he had worked in a theatre, saved a little money and lost it subsequently
in a trading venture. After this he returned to Rome in a state of insolvency and had to
work in grain mills. While working in the mill he wrote three of his plays in a row, and
encouraged by their success, went on to write more comedies. These are some of the
available information on Plautus’s life but these are not based on any factual evidence.
These biographical details are conjured from his own comedies. Similar kinds of
fabricated stories have been created about the great Greek dramatist Euripedes.
Twenty one comedies by Plautus are still extant. For his source materials, Plautus
depended on the New Comedy of Menander and other Greek dramatists. He adapted
them freely, often retaining the Greek setting but using references to Roman lifestyle
and local scenario. Sometimes he used to give topical references—such as the
imprisonment of the comic poet Naevius (207 BCE), or incorporated scenes of a Roman
city or marketplace and sometimes even referring to Roman politics or laws. However,
in general he avoided political satire and relied more on the ridiculous follies of human
nature. Most of the stories of his plays came from the life of the lower or middle-class
Roman citizens. As a result of his skilful adaptation of Greek comedies into the new
Roman context, Plautus’s lines serve not only as important examples of Roman theatre
246  CC-EG-02  NSOU

of what later came to be known as the Classical age, but also as indications of the
linguistic and cultural peculiarities of late third-century and early second-century Rome.
The comedies employ archaic Latin vocabulary full of what might be considered
unusual by later civilizations but, nevertheless developed around Roman culture.
Extensive study and experimentation have been conducted by academics and translators,
regarding the language of the Plautine plays. Despite such scholarly efforts, it is
impossible to properly transfer these into modern languages—as they are a storehouse
of realistic and brilliant colloquial idioms. The plays dramatise the humour that won the
appreciation of Roman audiences. Recurrent rhetorical devices like the pun, quipping,
alliteration, assonance that run through Plautus’s texts are the hallmarks of his comic
technique.

5.17.2 Plays of Plautus: An Overview

A number of plays are attributed to Plautus, but only twenty one of those plays are
authentically recognised, and revived mostly in entirety. The dates of his plays are
rather disputed yet, we can include Cistellaria (202 BCE), Miles Gloriosus (200 BCE),
Stichus (200 BCE) among his early plays. On the other hand, Pseudolus (191 BCE)
Bacchides, Persa, Trinummus and Truculents are assumed to be written in his later life.
The dates of many other plays like Amphitrion, Asinaria, Auluraria (The Pot of Gold),
Captivi and the famous Menaechmi, are difficult to determine.
The original versions of the Plautine texts are mostly lost, what have survived are
basically ‘performing editions’. These had been prepared for production purposes, with
necessary interpolations, expansions, modifications and reductions. The plays
continued to hold popularity on the stage until the time of Cicero and Horace. In the
Middle Ages, Plautine plays lost their popularity, but literary interest in them revived
during the Italian Renaissance. In 1429, Nicholas of Kues revived twelve of his plays. It
was through Ariosto that Plautine adaptations, in the Italian vernacular, came to light.
Amphitruo was the first Plautine play to be translated into English during the
Renaissance. Edwardes’ Damon and Pythia, Heywood’s Silver were some others based
on Plautine models. The most famous example of a Plautine influence on Shakespeare
is The Comedy of Errors, which is modeled on Plautus’ Menaechmi. However,
Menaechmi presents only one set of twin brothers, whereas Amphitruo offers a double
set of twins—both masters and slaves. It can also be assumed that Shakespeare, for
his Comedy of Errors, combined
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  247

the ideas from two plays by Plautus. The degree of esteem in which Plautus was held
in the Elizabethan age, can be justified by the speech by Polonius, introducing the group
of actors and their talents, refers to Seneca and Plautus, as models for tragedy and
comedy—“Seneca cannot be too heavy, nor Plautus too light” (Hamlet, 2.2). Molière’s
play L’Avare (1668), The Miser (1672) by Sheridan and also by Fielding (1732) were
notably inspired by Aulularia. It is worth noting that the influence of Plautus was not
exhausted even in the age of Hollywood movies. A Funny Thing Happened on the Way
to the Forum, the 1963 musical motion picture can be regarded as a 20 th century
adaptation of Plautus. Those of you who are interested to know more on this can well
google the 20th century musical.

5.17.3. Plautus’ Plays: Major Features and Style

A major aspect of Plautus’ plays is his innovative use of stock characters. In terms
of stock characters, Plautus served as an important source of inspiration for the English
and French playwrights of the 16th and 17th centuries, and beyond. The braggart soldier-
figure in Miles Gloriosus has its successor in the ‘type’ character of the ‘Capitano’, as
found in the Italian commedia dell’ arte. This Italian phrase basically means comedy of
the profession’ and was widely prevalent in Europe from the 16 th to the 18th centuries.
For more on the commedia dell’ arte you can check this webpage: https://
www.britannica.com/art/commedia-dellarte
We can also find a similar character in Nicholas Udall’s comedy, Ralph Roister
Doister—the first ‘comedy’ in English. Ben Jonson’s The Case is Altered (1609) is an
adaptation of Plautus’ Aulularia (Pot of Gold). The Plautine influence can be
recognized in iconic comic characters—ranging from Shakespeare’s Falstaff to George
Bernard Shaw’s Sergius in Arms and the Man (1894).
Plautus showed a careful organization of his plots and, as a popular playwright, he
was familiar with the methods of how to make the plot interesting with such devices
as farce, boisterous jokes, intrigues, the theme of mistaken identity and so on. The
Plautine plots often relied heavily on comic exaggeration, burlesque, robust humour and
often turning traditional values upside down with the purpose of achieving comic effect.
All these were done in the genial spirit of comedy and, in some of his plays, he also
upheld moral virtues. His plays displayed a wide thematic range from plays based on
248  CC-EG-02  NSOU

history, sentimental comedy (as in Captivi and Cistellaria) to plays which involved a
mockery of mythological stories (Amphitruo) and plays using coarse humour verging on
the farcical (Asinaria).
The use of rhythmical lines gave a musical quality to Plautus’ plays. He employed
the long, six-or seven-foot line in iambic and trochaic meters, as found in the Greek
originals of his plays. However, Plautus also introduced variations by employing
colloquial dialogue to suit the mood and temperament of the characters and also
included songs. His use of alliteration and the pun made his dialogues racy and
vigorous; he picked up the colloquial idioms used by the common people to achieve the
effect of a fleshly realism.
Therefore, there is a common consensus that Plautine stock characters had an active
life on stage centuries after his death. Let us discuss some notable character types, with
examples:
Pargopolynices, the “braggart soldier” in Miles Gloriosus amuses the audience with
his vain-glorious posturing and tendency towards self-aggarndisement, while
Artotogrus, his parasite or flatterer, keeps on filling him up with newer and ridiculous
claims of glory.
The ‘cunning slave’ or ‘intriguing slave’ was a character type familiar in
Menander’s New Comedies, but the way Plautus used this figure, is more interesting in
its variety. While in Menander the slave was an intelligent comic character and helpful
to his young master, Plautus made him more active in devising ingenious schemes of
action and, sometimes, even controlling the action of the play. The slaves in Plautus
often turn the comic world topsy-turvy by controlling their masters, boasting like
military heroes and becoming the driving force of the plot. The ingenious deal-making
Pseudolous in the eponymous play, is a major example. Sometimes the characters are
very sure of their specific roles: both Strobilus in Auluraria (Pot of Gold) and Chrysalus
in Bacchides have pointed out what a ‘good’ (i.e., clever) slave should be. C. Stace,
however, in his essay on “The Slaves of Plautus”, has categorized Plautine slaves into
‘cunning’, ‘deceived’, ‘ordinary’, and ‘slaves of special interest’. [64-77]
In Greek comedies, the character of the old man is sometimes typified as an ill-
tempered miser, a misanthrope, or a stern father opposing the marriage of his son with
his beloved. The lustful old man or sensex amator is a character improvised by Plautus
upon the mere sensex or ‘stern old father’ which was a staple in Greek New Comedies.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  249

Thus, the old lech develops a passion for the beautiful heroine and seeks opportunities
to satisfy his desire but ultimately he is outwitted and removed from the path of the
young lovers. Demaenetus in Asinaria, Demipho in Cistellaria, Lysidamus in Casina,
Demipho in Mercator, and Antipho in Stichus— aged men driven by a sort of ‘vulgar’
amorous passion, are recognized as belonging to this type. All these characters share a
similar purpose of winning the young woman but their situations and the procedures
they adopt vary. Despite his repeated use of stock characters, Plautus saves his plots
from monotony by providing different settings and courses of action. Ben Jonson’s
Volpone, the title character in the eponymous play, the ‘miser’ is also a Platuine type,
possessing the traits of the ‘lusty old man’. As you proceed with your course, you will
repeatedly find the influence of Plautus in English comedies from the Elizabethan to the
Modern periods.
The women characters in Plautus are not lacking in variety either, as they are
modelled on the common types also used by other playwrights of Roman comedy.
‘Mulier’ is usually the wife of the sensex, sometimes supportive of her husband,
sometimes dominating and shrewd. Meretrix is the courtesan, often the love-interest of
more than one young men; Ancila is the slave-woman always loyal to her mistress—a
female counterpart of the male servus or ‘slave’, but not as clever or resourceful as the
male. Virgo is the young woman, rarely presented on stage but traditionally viewed as
an epitome of beauty and innocence. If you go back to your study of the development
of English drama towards the end of the Middle Ages, you will find that this trend of
using abstractions to name characters was also prevalent in the Morality Plays.
As for themes, Plautus showed his skill in such essentially comic themes such as
those of mistaken identity and impersonation, that of the twin brothers, the problem of
the generation gap leading to a father-son conflict but, ultimately, giving way to a happy
resolution — themes which remained to entertain the audiences of the European stage
and screen till the middle of the 20th century.

5.17.4 Summing up
 Plautus was the most popular comic dramatist of ancient Rome. He adapted freely
from Greek New Comedies, and gave a Roman setting and sensibility to his plays.
 He used the colloquial idiom of the common people and excelled in the application
of robust humour, pranks and musical meters.
250  CC-EG-02  NSOU

 Plautine themes of ‘mistaken identity’, ‘twin brothers’, ‘impersonation’, the ‘old-

man- desiring-young -women’ continued to provide materials for Elizabethan and
Jacobean comedies.
 Plautus’s use of stock characters continued to influence several character-types on
the European stage in later times.

5.17.5 Comprehension Exercises

 Long Answer Type Questions:
1. Write an essay on the available body of Plautus’ works and the controversy
regarding their dates.
2. Discuss the themes of the Plautine plays and assess their influence on
subsequent English dramaturgy.
3. What aspects of Plautus’ characterisation bring out a comprehensive picture of
contemporary Roman culture?
 Medium Length Answer Type Questions:
1. Discuss the figure of the cunning slave as a stock character in plays by Plautus.
2. Write a brief essay on Plautus’ use of language and style.
3. Show how Plautus’ use of poetic style, rhythm and music impact his plays.
 Short Answer Length Questions:
1. Briefly discuss Plautus’ influence on Shakespeare.
2. What understanding of women in contemporary society do you get from
Plautus’ plays?
3. Classify the plays of Plautus into early and late ones based on available
information.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  251

Unit 18  Understanding the Text

Structure
5.18.0 Introduction
5.18.1 Plot Summary (Scene-wise)
5.18.2 Plot Analysis
5.18.3 Characterisation
5.18.4 The Use of Humour
5.18.5 Key Issues
5.18.6 Representation of Society
5.18.7 Significance of the Title
5.18.8 Summing Up
5.18.9 Comprehension Exercises
5.18.10 Suggested Reading (Units 15 to 18)

5.18.0 Introduction
Having learnt about Roman theatre in general and Plautus in particular in the earlier
Units, here we come to a detailed analysis of the text, The Pot of Gold. This will provide
the students with a detailed summary of the scenes, a close understanding of the
characters and thematic issues, along with the representation of Roman society that is
attempted in this play. While going through this Unit, students are expected to take note
of the close bearings that comedy has on real life, and from that perspective their
understanding of the genre should have a universalist approach about it.

5.18.1 Plot Summary (Scene-wise)

Plautus’s artistry regarding plot-construction is etched in perfection. The well-knit
structure of this play, which might have partially been adapted from Menander’s
Dyskolos or some other ‘lost’ play, is the basis for its timeless commercial success. Let
us have a look at a detailed plot-summary:
252  CC-EG-02  NSOU

 Prologue
Lar Familliaris, Euclio’s household God introduces the context of the play. The pot
of Gold entrusted by Euclio’s grandfather to him was kept secret from Euclio’s father
for his neglect of the God. Euclio’s daughter Phaedria regularly worships the God, much
to his pleasure. Therefore the God has revealed the treasure to Euclio for her dowry. He
also proclaims to generate a process of the wedding of Phaedria, who is made pregnant
by Lyconides, whose uncle Megadorous seeks to marry her. Thus the Deity’s prologue
introduces all the thematic concerns in the play, and also establishes the symbolic and
metaphorical significance of the titular ‘pot of gold’.
 Act 1, Scene 1
In the first scene of first act of the play readers visualize the protagonist Euclio,
chasing and beating his old slave Staphyla angrily, because he suspects her of spying
and prying. Staphyla wonders why her master is behaving so strangely. From her
utterance the readers get to know that Euclio does this with her repeatedly in course of
a day. Staphyla describes how Euclio behaves all day: he does not sleep at night, he sits
at the house all through the day. She is also concerned for the young mistress, and
wishes to protect her from any kind of ‘disgrace’. This natural impulse to protect the
lady from the trouble gives a motherly streak to the character of Staphyla who has been
growing old slaving at this household and looking after it.
 Scene 2
Euclio is unwilling to go out of his house leaving the house unwatched. He asks
Staphyla to watch over the house. Staphyla is surprised that there is nothing valuable
in the empty house other than cobwebs. Euclio’s gripping insecurity runs through his
instructions to Staphyla: he asks her to bolt the door and let no outsider in. Euclio’s
greatest fear are the neighbours who might knock and enter to fetch day to day
household items like fire, knife, axe, mortar, pestle and so on.
Once outside, Euclio informs the audiences that director of their ward has called
them for doling out a present of two shillings per head. The amount is very little, but
if Euclio skips the visit he will attract undue attention. It will make people think that
he has got a pot of gold at home. To assuage that suspicion he has to leave the house
against his wish. Euclio also reveals his suspicious mind which believes that everyone
has found out the truth about the gold he has got and has a changed response now.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  253

Act 2, Scene 1
In this scene a conversation takes place between Eunomia and her brother
Megadorus. Eunomia urges Megadorus to marry and give birth to a son, to continue the
family-line. A suitable mature lady who is fit to be his wife can be found. Megadorus
objects to Eunomia’s proposition as a middle aged lady will not be able to give birth
as unproblematically expected. Megadorus rather wishes to marry the young daughter
of his neighbour Euclio. Eunomia accepts the proposition. Megadorus prepares for an
interview with Euclio to this purpose.
Scene 2
Euclio returns home. His visit has been of no use. Neither the director nor anyone
from his ward was present to keep the promise. As a result Euclio did not receive the
promised shillings. He is terribly anxious of having lost his gold which he has left home
unattended. At this point of time Megadorus comes his way. Megadorus’s polite
behaviour raises Euclio’s suspicion. When Megadorus finally reveals that he desires to
marry Euclio’s daughter, Euclio is shocked and refuses such an offer as Megadorus is
tremendously rich and Euclio is awfully, dreadfully poor. For a poor man to try and get
into an association with the rich would be like an ass yoked with a bull. An ass cannot
be in an equal set with the bull, says Euclio. Nevertheless, he finally agrees to let
Megadorous marry his daughter, without any dowry. Megadorus agrees and leaves with
his servant Pythodicus for preparation of the marriage. The marriage is to take place on
that very day itself without delay. Euclio thanks his lot because he thinks it is the secret
knowledge of inheriting the hidden gold that makes Megadorus act so.
Scene 3
Euclio calls Staphyla and tells her that her daughter would be married today. He
asks her to keep the door locked and prepare for the wedding by the time he returns
from the forum. Staphyla’s reaction is one of shock. She exclaims that the decision is
too sudden. Once Euclio exits Staphyla says that this situation ruins it totally. The secret
about the lady’s disgrace can no longer be kept. Meanwhile she has to prepare for the
occasion.
Scene 4
After an hour Pythodicus returns with Cooks—Anthrax and Congrio, and Music
Girls—Phrygia and Eleusium. He is accompanied by a few more attendants, with
provisions from the market. Pythodicus instructs that they have to divide into two parts.
254  CC-EG-02  NSOU

One part would attend to the house of Megadorus the other to that of Euclio. Humorous
chitchats take place in the process from the very onset of the scene. They observe in all
elaboration the miserly nature of Euclio who is unable to pay for catering of his
daughter’s marriage. They observe that he bawls about his bankruptcy. They joke about
the miserly nature of Euclio. At the end, their discussion unravels that it is normal for
cooks like Anthrax and Congrio to thieve things from the household they work in.
Scene 5
Pythodicus allocates the cooks, the lambs, and the music girls to each household
according to his wisdom. Anthrax is assigned to the household of Megadorus. Congrio
complains and is assuaged. Since the fattest lamb has gone to the household of
Megadorus, the fattest of the music girls, Phrygia is sent to the house of Euclio. Congrio
is sent to the house of Euclio.
Scene 6
Pythodicus calls Staphyla and leaves the cook, music girl and supplies in Euclio’s
house. When she says that there is no firewood for cooking Congrio suggests cooking
with the rafters or timbers. Staphyla is enraged at the suggestion of burning the house
down for cooking. The poverty of the house is reveled through this dialogue and the
unsuitability that comes with such poverty. Staphyla also remarks about the absence of
drink in the supply. Congrio suggests that Euclio might bring it from the forum.
Scenes 7-8
Pythodicus leaves for Megadorus’s house, to supervise things there. In the
meantime, Euclio returns from the Forum with a small package and a few forlorn
flowers. He found everything too costly. Fish, lamb, tunny, pork, veal everything has
become unaffordably expensive. It is all the more expensive because Euclio is terribly
poor. The miser’s psychology is beautifully developed as he gives logic against
unreasonable expenditure in wedding. The principle of economizing is put forward with
an adage equivalent to “Holiday feasting makes everyday fasting”. Euclio decides to cut
down his daughter’s wedding expenses just as much as possible. He finally comes home
with a little frankincense and some wreaths of flowers to honour their Household God,
so that he may bless the daughter’s marriage. At this moment he notices that unknown
people have entered his house. The cook talks about a pot for cooking. Euclio mistakes
it for his pot of gold. He thinks that the pot is found and robbed. He cries for God
Apollo’s help and protection before he is ruined completely.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  255

Scene 9
This scene opens with Anthrax, the cook employed for wedding preparations at the
Megadorus’s house. He gives instruction to his subordinates with boning and scaling of
fish so that in the meanwhile he can visit Euclio’s house to fetch a bread pan. At
Euclio’s house there is an uproar. Anthrax mistakes this sound of scuffle for cooking
preparation at its height. This makes him return to his own responsibilities instead of
going out. He fears that leaving his work station will create further trouble in his
domain.
Act 3, Scene 1
In continuation of the shouting that is heard from afar in the previous scene,
Congrio and his followers are awfully clubbed and beaten and they wish to run out of
Euclio’s house for their lives. As they tumble out of Euclio’s house they shout out loud
to all the Romans writhing in pain and give a brief idea about their predicament. Euclio
runs after them with a cudgel in his hand. Congrio resents that he has never been in such
a madhouse like this, never been so severely beaten.
Scene 2
Euclio shouts for stopping Congrio and his disciples as he intends to report them
to the police. Congrio has been holding and threatening Euclio with a knife, says the
latter. Euclio complains that they entered his house without his permission. Congrio
explains that he came to cook for the wedding. Euclio objects that it is none of
Congrio’s business whether he consumes his food cooked or raw. A miser’s miserliness
grows to absurd and impractical proportions. Congrio grudges that his two shilling job
here would cause him to pay more as doctor’s bill. Euclio forbids them to enter his
house, and leaves again, to hide the pot of gold.
Scenes 3-4
Euclio now hides his pot of gold under his cloak so that it does not get stolen. He
happily asks the cooks and music girls to cook, work and scurry about the house now.
They can work to their heart’s content as there is no need to watch out for anything
anymore. Congrio says that it is useless to have the promise of a good time now. The
harm has already been done when Euclio clubbed his head till it is all cracks. He also
threatens to present the doctor’s expenses before Euclio, who complains how the evils
of associating himself with a wealthy man like Megadorus are leading him into
insecurity and compromises. He observes that a cock came and started digging the place
256  CC-EG-02  NSOU

where the gold was hidden. He has no doubt that these are all a ploy of Megadorus to
steal his property.
Scene 5
Megadorus is returning from forum to his home and elaborately talks about the
wisdom of his choice. He says that his friends call it a fine idea and a sensible thing
to do. He says that marrying a poor girl like Phaedria is not only a wise choice but also
effective. Marrying into poor families will also lessen the divide between rich and poor
and the society will be more unified, in Megadorus’s opinion. It is easier to have control
over poor girls whereas the wealthy women pester their husbands’ lives out. Euclio
greatly appreciates this economizing impulse in the speech of Megadorus.
Scene 6
Euclio appreciates Megadorus’ speech and again harps on the idea that he is
extremely poor. Megadorous merely suggests, in an assuring tone, that what he has got
is enough. That causes the miserly Euclio to suspect that Megadorus has got to know
about the pot of gold. Euclio complains that Megadorus has peopled his house with
thieves and that itself is a cause of great worry. At the end of the scene, Euclio is
convinced that Megadorus is upto stealing his pot of gold and makes up his mind to hide
it outside, possible in the shrine of Faith.
Act 4, Scene 1
Strobilus, while waiting for his master, gives a soliloquy. He says that a good
servant should know his master’s inclinations like a book, so that he can read his wishes
in his face and act accordingly. His master Lyconides has learnt that his uncle
Megadorus is about to marry the lady he is in love with. He settles down behind a
sacred altar to keep an eye on things and report everything to Lyconides.
Scenes 2-3
Euclio is unaware of Strobilus’s presence around and enters to secretly keep his pot
of gold. He entrusts to the deity in the shrine of Faith the safety of his pot of Gold. He
plans to go for a bath so that he can sacrifice and not hinder his prospective son-in-law
from marrying his girl the moment he claims her. Strobilus is overjoyed to hear of the
treasure. The moment Euclio leaves he wonders about the prospect of procuring the
treasure. Euclio re-enters the shrine following an ominous sign. As soon as he left, he
heard a raven cawing on his left croaking away. He hurriedly goes back to the shrine.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  257

Scene 4
A few moment lapses and a scuffle between Euclio and Strobilus is heard on the
street. Euclio beats Strobilus hard and asks him to return whatever of Euclio’s property
he has stolen. Strobilus pretends ignorance. Suddenly Euclio hears Strobilus’s
accomplice carrying out his work inside the shrine and rushes towards the temple.
Scene 5
Strobilus stands up and resolves to give a lesson to Euclio. He is convinced that
Euclio will not keep his gold in this shrine after this event. He hides by Megadorus’s
house and watches over Euclio and his activities. He sees Euclio come out of the shrine
with the pot of gold.
Scene 6
Euclio exclaims that he had a great regard for Faith of all deities but this proved
to be impractical. He feels thankful towards the raven which croaked and warned him
against the danger. He wonders where he can safely hide his wealth and chooses the
grove of Silvanus. He pronounces that he trusts Silvanus more than Faith now.
Strobilus observes him closely. Strobilus plans to climb a tree and locate the place
where Euclio hides the gold. He fears that his master will punish him for leaving the
spot. Notwithstanding the prospect of being thrashed he undertakes the venture. He is
hopeful that it will be faced with cash in hand.
Scene 7
Lyconides enters with his mother Eunomia. He has told her the whole story and
Eunomia finds it a perfectly reasonable request to make Megadorus stop from marrying
a woman who is bearing his nephew’s child. In the middle of the conversation the
labour pangs of Phaedria from her house are heard and that further attests the truth of
Lyconides’s words. While Eunomia proceeds to talk to Megadorus, Lyconides looks for
Strobilus.
Scene 8
Strobilus enters with the pot of gold and gives a speech of joyful victory. He
jubilates on the fact that he is now richer than the most powerful king that ever was.
He narrates how he climbed a tree before Euclio came to the spot and watched where
he hid the pot of gold, and took it after Euckio’s departure. Towards the end of the scene
Strobilus sees that Euclio is coming and hides.
258  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Scene 9
Euclio runs wildly back and forth, having lost his pot of gold. The happy faces of
the passers by make him suspect the thief to be in them. He prays to God for justice
and asks and wants to know who the thief is. He observes how thieves dress up well
and pretend to be honest men. He guarded the gold carefully denying comfort and
pleasures to himself. Now others are making merry and he is sunk in the despair of loss.
At the end of the scene Lyconides hears Euclio’s howling in front of their house. He
thinks that Euclio has got to know about his daughter’s pregnancy.
Scene 10
Euclio has in mind the lost pot of gold. Lyconides has in mind the wrong he has
done to Euclio’s daughter. Euclio’s complaint and Lyconides’s desire for atonement
lead to a conversation with humorous interest for the readers/ audiences. At the end of
this dialogue comes the understanding that they are talking at cross purposes. Lyconides
confesses that he knows nothing about the pot of gold stolen from the grove of Silvanus.
He on the other hand shocks Euclio by saying that Megadorus has broken the
engagement. Euclio is furious to hear this. He is certain that stealing the pot of gold was
Megadorus’ actual intention. Now that the gold has been successfully appropriated,
Megadorus cancels the ceremony. Lyconides tries to cool him down and admits the
wrong that has been done by him to his daughter. Euclio is traumatised to hear that he
is a grandfather on his daughter’s wedding day as it is the tenth month since the festival
of Ceres, when being drunk and unable to control his passions Lyconides ravaged the
woman he loved, i.e., Euclio’s daughter. At the end of the scene Lyconides wonders
where his servant Strobilus is and leaves Euclio to himself so that he can find out the
truth enquiring with Staphyla- the old nurse who has been maid to Euclio’s daughter.
Act 5, Scene 1
Strobilus triumphantly tells Lyconides what he has found and begs to be set free.
Lyconides asks him to hand over the gold so that it can be restored to Euclio. Strobilus
rejects the proposition. After this point the play is lost, except a few fragments.
Apparently Lyconides, convinces his slave to return it to Euclio, so that he may be given
permission to marry Euclio’s daughter. The end possibly shows that Euclio, with a
change of heart, influenced by his Household God, gives the pot of gold to the young
couple as a wedding present.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  259

5.18.2 Plot Analysis

The plot of Pot of Gold has a simple yet very well-knit structure. The Prologue,
spoken by the household Deity of Euclio, brings together the themes, which are going
to discussed later. The first act, through the character of the miser, Plautus attracts
critical attention to his obsession with the wealth, and his alienation from social life.
Because his hoard is secret, Euclio is caught in a dilemma: if he stays home to guard
his pot of gold, he thinks that his refusal to go to the forum may arouse the curiousity
and suspicion of his neighbours. His sense of insecurity is revealed through his abusive
behaviour towards his loyal slavewoman Staphyla, and this action also brings out the
gendered context of the play: a slavewoman, in the strictly hierarchy-based society of
ancient Rome, was doubly bound: because of her gender, and also by virtue of her
bondage to her master.
Act 2 brings out the romantic theme, however verging on the farcical. Megadorus,
a mature and quite elderly rich man gains Euclio’s consent, after much persuation, to
have his daughter’s hand in marriage. He also sends a troupe of cooks and musicians
to prepare for the festivities, fearing that Euclio is too miserly to provide for the waiting
ceremony. The scene involving the jesting and howling of the cook and his associates
provides a “carnivalesque”(the term should not be used in a pre-Christian context, but
one may take a comic license in appreciating a comedy) flavour, and a means of social
reintegration—although on a farcical level. Euclio, however, returns home from the
market, and finding these people, drives them out. The theme involving a constant
conflict between the self-obsessed miser and the vibrant society is once again at play.
Suspicious of Megadorus and his slaves who frequent his house, Euclio decides to
hide the pot of gold in the temple of Fides. While Euclio is busy in hiding the pot, we
see the clever slave of Lyconides passing by the temple. This man, Strobilus, informs
the audience that his master is in love with Phaedria (603). As David Konstan aptly
points out, “Plautus does not explain Lyconides’ sudden feeling for the girl he raped
nine months before. Presumably, he is anxious lest, thus violated, she should become
his uncle’s wife, and Megadorus’ interest in her may also have awakened a slumberine
passion of his own.” However, Strobilus overhear Euclio’s injunction to the god of the
temple to protect his gold. He is not successful in his first attempt to appropriate the
gold; Euclio, seeing him, drives him away, and decides to hide the pot in a grove.
260  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Strobilus does not give up; as if, to teach the miser a ‘lesson’, he finally steals it from
the sacred grove—which is a symbolic admonition to the miser. His lack of trust in
everybody around him (which is a sort of dishonour to social life), even his shifting
faith in gods, is thus punished.

5.18.3 Characterisation
As already discussed, Plautus’ art of characterisation maintains the tradition of stock
characters as found in Greek New comedy, but projects it with a touch of ‘individual
talent’. Stock characters are indeed important, since they provide the audience with the
popular level of comic exuberance, but Plautus’ improvisation also attracts critical
interest. The stern ‘sensex’ of Greek comedies has become a character with many
shades: Euclio in Plautus’ play is one who can be laughed at, but also pitied.
Megadorous follow the type of ‘lusty old man’, but his generosity and sense of dignity
cannot be missed. Lyconides can hardly be called the ‘hero’, considering his act of
violating the modesty of a girl he loves, and remaining silent for a long time, but at the
end he repents and comes with a proper proposal of marriage. Such improvisations
deserve critical attention. Let us look at the characters in some detail :
 Euclio
Euclio, the miserly old man is a stock character since the time of Menander, but he
is presented with a Plautine flavour of novelty. He has found a pot of gold which has
been unveiled to him by the household God of his house so that his pious daughter can
have a good marriage and a good dowry for that. He is extremely possessive about the
pot and suspects everyone to be a thief. The portrayal of the psychology of a miser with
all his doubts and insecurities is one of the finest presentations of human mind from the
classical age. He is approached by his rich neighbour Megadorus for the hand of his
daughter. He thinks this to be a ploy to usurp his gold and repeatedly proclaims his
impecunious situation. He nevertheless agrees to the marriage as Megadorus promises
to accept Phaedria without a penny. The preparations begin. The cooks sent to his house
make fun of his peculiar miserly habits. He even beats Congrio, the cook, fearing theft
of his treasure—which reminds one of Menander’s Knemon, also beating a cook, in
Dyscolos. Finally Euclio goes out to the Shrine of Faith to hide his gold, wherefrom
Strobilus steals it. Euclio is ruined and devastated. At this point he has a revelation
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  261

about Lyconides violating his daughter and the child born of the act. The miser’s
breakdown is complete, but he shows a sign of changing his heart, finding that nothing
good has come of his self-obsessed, miserly and insensible nature. The situation is
saved as Megadorus cancels the engagement, Lyconides acquires and replaces his lost
treasure from Strobilus, his own servant and finally Euclio agrees to marry off Phaedria
to Lyconides. This section is however lost and exists only in fragments.
 Megadorus
Megadorus is a rich man who lives next door to Euclio. In the play his sister
Eunomia urges him to marry as he has grown old and needs to have a child. Megadorus
refuses to marry a middle aged woman as it is difficult to have a child from a mature
woman and the baby may be born posthumous. He also disapproves of the rich lady’s
baggage, her pretentious self- importance. Megadorus specifically desires to marry his
next door neighbour Euclio’s daughter. However, his specific interest in Phaedria is
unmistakable: he wishes to marry her to satisfy his desire, not out of ‘love’. His age,
in any case, has given him a sense of dignity: so he makes a formal proposal to the girl’s
father, and agrees to marry her without a dowry. So far he is a stock character, a typical
‘lustful old man’, but Plautus brings a touch of originality, showing the positive and
generous side of his nature at the end. When he comes to know about his nephew’s
interest in the same girl, he calls off his own marriage. Megadorus bears all the expense
of the marriage preparations and divides what he buys in the forum into the two
households-bride’s part of the celebration and bridegroom’s part of celebration. He
speaks of the efficacy of marrying a poor lady as it is hassle free and unifies the divided
rich and poor population of the society. On the other hand, his words against rich
women and their extravagance, appears to be misogynistic from a modern feminist point
of view.
 Lyconides
Lyconides (the name suggests, ‘wolfling’) has violated Phaedria in the festival of
Ceres. He blames his drunken condition for the wrong, but is unable to mend the
situation during the following ten months, till Phaedria is in labour. On the verge of the
end of this pregnancy Megadorus plans to marry Phaedria on a day’s notice. Now, with
a renewed ‘love’ for Phaedria, Lyconides asks for help from his mother Eunomia. He
explains the whole situation to Euclio and asks for his forgiveness and wishes to marry
his daughter. Lyconides is a flawed character but at the end he shows the honesty to
262  CC-EG-02  NSOU

admit his deed, and behaves like a mature lover. The lost fragments at the end possibly
contained a happy closure, showing Lyconides restoring the gold to Euclio and finally
marrying Phaedria.
 Strobilus
Lyconides’ slave Strobilus can be categorised as a “clever slave”, one of the
significant stock characters in Greco-Roman comedy. While waiting for Lyconides, he
gives a speech on what a good slave should be: clever, conscious of his master’s intent,
quick in action and so on. His soliloquy gives his self-impression, enumerating the ways
in which he has been so resourceful to his master. Strobilus also plays a significant role
in the discovery and theft of the pot of gold, giving a new turn to the development of
the plot. He watches over Euclio, when he comes to hide the pot in a grove, and
appropriates it once he is gone, leading to Euclio’s complete breakdown and change of
mind which comes afterwards. By the intervention of the slave, this incident becomes
instrumental in Lyconides winning Euclio’s favour, when he restores Euclio’s gold, and
gains his permission to marry Phaedria.
 Women characters:
Plautus’ treatment of women characters is rather conventional, as far as the Pot
of Gold is concerned. In the patriarchal society of ancient Rome, women were
subject to the rule of their fathers, guardians, or husbands. The condition of
slavewomen was worse. However, only mature and matronly ladies, by virtue
of their social and domestic position, had some motherly authorities. This is
exactly the picture we get through the portrayal of Eumonia, Staphyla and
Phaedria.
 Eunomia
Eunomia shifts her role from being a sister to Megadorus to the mother of
Lyconides. In the beginning of the play he urges Megadorus to marry and towards the
end she urges him to cancel the marriage and succeeds. At first, she proclaims her
loyalty and adherence to her brother’s cause. She advises him to marry a mature woman
suitable to his age, but in the end of the conversations agrees with his brother’s decision
to marry a younger lady, Phaedria in specific. Upto this point, she appears to be a mere
homespun woman, bound to agree with whatever a male authority proposes. However,
she shows her matronly qualities when Lyconides tells her everything about Phaedria.
Considering the young woman’s situation and her own son’s happiness, now she takes
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  263

a motherly, strategic role to convince Megadorous to cancel his engagement with

Phaedria. Her timely intervention earns a happy resolution for the crisis.
 Staphyla
Staphyla is a slave and housemaid for Euclio. She looks after and protects and
nourishes young Phaedria and keeps the secret of her sexual violation. She bears the
torture of Euclio when out of insecurity he beats her. As a female slave, she is extremely
loyal to the master’s family. She cordially cooperates with the gang of cooks who came
in to make preparations for the marriage. At the climax of the play Euclio goes to
Staphyla to know the truth of Phaedria’s pregnancy which has been unknown to him for
all these ten months.
 Phaedria
Phaedria is Euclio’s daughter. She is mentioned at the very beginning of the play
by their household God. Phaedria regularly worships the God with incense, garland and
wine. So the God is extremely pleased with her. He causes the discovery of the pot of
gold to her father for her to have a good marriage. God divulges that she has been
violated at the festival of Ceres by Lyconides, and to initiate the process of marriage
between the two the God will make Megadorus, Lyconides’s uncle come and propose
to marry her on that very day.
Phaedria does not appear in the action of the play, but her offstage voice is once
heard calling for the nurse during the pains of childbirth. Phaedria is a passive character.
She does not have a say in her marriage. She also did not have the power to protect
herself when Lyconides raped her. However, the readers and audience of Plautus like
to believe that Phaedria is also in love with Lyconides, so ultimately she wins her love,
by the grace of their household Deity.

5.18.4 Use of Humour

In ‘The Argument of Comedy’, Northrop Frye describes Greek New Comedy as a
‘comic Oedipus situation’, where the father and son desire the same girl. The mother
becomes an ally of the son, and finally the young couple’s path is cleared. This is
exactly the situation in Plautus’ The Pot of Gold—possibly adapted from Menander.
The play is but partially similar to Dyscolos, whereas the main content is different—
which might have been adapted from some lost play of Menander’s. However, the
situation
264  CC-EG-02  NSOU

really puts Megadorous the uncle (father-figure) as an opponent to the nephew,

Lyconides (the son-figure)—who gets help from his mother, Eumonia. Besides this
essentially comic ‘Oedipus situation’, the play also generates humour in a typically
Plautine process, distinct from Menander. Euclio’s miserly attitude turns him into an
extreme character type, a laughable ‘stock’. The common Roman audiences were fond
of mimicry and caricature. Relying on the Roman audiences’ appreciation of jesting,
repartee and quipping, Plautus successfully creates intelligent and comic conversations
in his play. The comic humour results from Plautus’ keen observation of class-attitudes,
reflected in the speeches and gestures of his characters. The vibrant jokes played in the
conversation among the cooks and servants—Anthrax, Congrio and Pythodicus, and
their symbolic names—are sources of hearty laughter. ‘Anthrax’ stands for ‘coal’, and
‘Congrio’ for the ‘eel’—suitable names for people who are associated with the kitchen.
The ironic speech of Megadorus, commenting on the vanities and expensive nature of
the rich women—provide much amusement. The irony becomes all the more sharp
because Megadorous himself is a rich man and has irrational desires, but as a man he
can take the upper hand and satirize women belonging to his own class.
The play can also be viewed in terms of a satire on the Roman upper-classes, though
his characters share Greek names. The lusty old man, Megadorous, becomes a target of
satire—showing his foolish desire for a girl who could be his daughter as well.
However, at the end he realises the absurdity of his desire and breaks off his
engagement with Euclio’s daughter. The character of Euclio the miser is a favourite
laughing stalk. He is so obsessed with the treasure that he is always in fear, he beats up
his maid- servant unnecessarily, assaults the cook, and the height of irony comes when
he cannot understand what Lyconides has to say about his daughter, he is thinking of the
loss of his pot of gold instead. The misguiding conversation, with obviously serious
connotations underlying, apparently leads to enough of verbal humour.
The cook and his party, joking about Euclio’s miserly character, provide another
sort of racy humour. Megadorous has begun preparations for his wedding, and with an
attitude of favouring his would-be ‘father-in-law’, sends cooks and flute-playing girls,
who come and create havoc in Euclio’s house. Euclio comes back and finds his house
full of unknown, rowdy people. He panics that these people must have come to steal his
gold, and beats them up. This is a situational irony, because Euclio is panicking over
a matter which is already exposed in a different way, of which he knows nothing. Thus
the play is rich in both verbal and situational humour, which often verges on the
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  265

ironical, and dramatic actions like Euclio running wildly in search of the lost gold, or
beating up the cooks, or the slave Strobilus entering triumphantly with the ‘prize’—also
provide a sense of physical humour, with vigour and immediacy.

5.18.5 Key Issues

The Pot of Gold revolves around two themes—one of avarice or obsession with
wealth, and the other concerning love, marriage and sexual morality. So it is of prime
interest to explore how Plautus weaves together these two themes within the frame of
the comic. It will therefore be interesting to understand if the comic as a genre is also
used to bring in serious considerations of life and livelihood with an apparent tone of
the jocular. Along with these come the concerns of ‘gender’, society’ and ‘religious
faith’. In the ancient Roman society, ‘marriage’ and ‘commerce’ had long been
associated, and the custom of dowry from the bride’s family can be viewed as symbolic
of the monetary concern for marriage. Plautus carefully merges these two themes within
the comical structure of his play. The role of Lar Familiaris, functioning as a guiding
spirit behind the action, also reflects the importance of religious belief in Roman life.
Euclio, for all his faults, has some kind of respect for the God, and his daughter is
earnestly devoted to the God, so the God has taken responsibility to save the girl from
her disgrace, and allow her a happy marriage with a handsome dowry. Thus the
prologue itself defines the thematic associations—the position of a young woman is
determined by her prospects of marriage; and for that marriage, a large dowry is
required, and that dowry is granted by a benevolent Deity, who has revealed the treasure
to the girl’s father for the purpose of her marriage.
On the other hand, we find Eumonia urging her brother Megadorous to get married,
for the continuation of the patrilineal structure of the family. She has been married to
another family, and has nothing to say about a man’s choice—even if that man is her
brother. However, she is concerned of the continuation of her father’s line, which will
be secured if her brother gets married. In the character of Eumonia as a matronly,
mature lady, we have an example of patriarchal family structure getting internalised.
Later, when she comes to know about her son’s interest in the same girl chosen by her
brother, she has to intervene, learning that Phaedria is carrying the child of her son.
Such concerns are not explicitly said, but a sensible reader can feel that now Eumonia
has to think of Phaedria and her child as involved with the honour of her husband’s
family, and
266  CC-EG-02  NSOU

the reputation of her son, Lyconides. Earlier, she did not object to her brother’s choice
of a young girl who could be his daughter. But now, considering the situation, she no
longer wishes to let her brother marry a girl who is carrying the child of her son. Thus
the question of sexual morality is portrayed through a typical viewpoint of patriarchy,
which, for the modern readers, leaves ample scope of argument.
Personal motivations often clashing with each other adds to the dramatic dynamism
of the play. The threefold concealment of the pot of gold, initially beneath the fireplace
in Euclio’s own house, then in the temple of Fides and finally in the grove of Silvanus,
in fact undermines the miser’s motivation to guard the treasure. Euclio cannot trust his
family Deity, under whose protection the treasure has really been safe. Next he moves
to the temple of Fides, the god who stands for good faith, which, in Roman society, was
looked upon as a bond of social importance, the very spirit of all pledges and contracts
in the community. Again, he is unable to keep faith on Fides, and goes beyond the
boundary of the city—to the wilderness, and nor can the god of the forests (Silvanus)
protect his gold, because he has estranged himself from the society. The role of the
divine authority thus functions in correspondence to the basic theme of the play—the
miser’srealisation of his fault and the futility of his self-absorption. When Lyconides
faces him, Euclio is still obsessed with his loss, and cannot understand that the young
man is actually talking of the wrong he has done to his daughter, and now he is willing
to marry her. Finally, when he comes to know about Lyconides’ motivation, and accepts
his offer, he is assured of being a grandfather—which reflects his humbling and attempt
to reintegrate himself with the society and a new generation.
It is further to be noted that the Plautine plays, especially the Pot of Gold has been
a major influence on the development of what we call ‘Comedy of Humours’ in the 17 th
century. You have read of the post-Shakespearean playwright Ben Jonson. Jonson’s
play Every Man in his Humour famously appropriates the Plautine type of the ‘braggart
soldier’, and his Volpone bears certain thematic resemblances with the Pot of Gold. As
a character, Volpone is a combination of Euclio and Megadorous, his worship of the
gold and his desire for a young girl reminds one of the Plautine themes. However,
Euclio retains the audiences’ sympathy to a certain extent, while Volpone is shrewder
and a cunning old villain, he resembles Megadorous to a degree, in his role as a lusty
old man, but he lacks the generosity and good sense which Megadorous shows at the
end. In the French playwright Molière’s (1622-1673) play The Miser, the titular
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  267

character of the miser is largely modelled on Euclio, though there is an interesting twist:
Harpagon, the miser in Molière is in love with the beloved of his own son. Plautus’
vibrant portrayal of comic characters, with their shortcomings and follies, and
sometimes, also a touch of redeeming sympathy never failed to inspire his European
successors on the English and French stage.

5.18.6 Representation of Society

Despite its essentially comic nature, the Pot of Gold offers a social commentary
without being didactic. Though the setting is Athens, it reflects the social disparity
between the rich and the poor. When Megadorous seeks to marry Euclio’s daughter, the
latter refuses him on the ground of the huge social and financial disparity between them.
Euclio may be a miser, and a target of joke for his obsession with the gold, but in this
case, he shows a clear-sighted and pragmatic understanding of his social position: if he
gets his daughter married to Megadorous, his own class will disown him, nor will he
be accepted by the upper class. On the other hand, the scenes involving cooks, servants
and music-girls draw attention to a vivid reality of the ‘lowly’ but vibrant life of the
commonfolk in a Roman city. However, Euclio’s maniacal harsh treatment on them also
betrays the way such ‘lowly’ people were treated, even by middle-class Plebeians.
Euclio’s self-centred avarice and miserly nature cause his estrangement from
society. In the very first scene of the first act, Euclio instructs Staphyla to bolt the doors,
so that nobody may enter into his house, to deny “fire and water” to anybody. As David
Konstan points out, in ancient Rome, denying fire and water was a symbolic act of
isolating someone from the society. To this social issue of disintegration, is added the
question of ‘disgrace’ which puts an unmarried but pregnant girl under a social stigma.
Thematically, thus the plot of an otherwise ‘comic’ play brings into consideration the
position of women in Augustan Rome.
Women in the Roman society were subjugated to men, and the play bears ample
proof of this reality. Eumonia is a mature, motherly lady, yet she has internalised
patriarchy so well that she openly admits that women are merely “chatter-boxes”, and
their talks are without any value. Yet, out of her sisterly regard for Euclio, she urges
Euclio to get married. She is a complex character—on the one hand, she knows her
‘shortcomings’ as a woman, and accepts them in a typical allegiance to patriarchy. She
268  CC-EG-02  NSOU

even agrees to Megadorous’ wish to get married to a young girl. However, when her son
reveals his love for Euclio’s daughter, she understands the situation and takes the
responsibility to persuade Megadorous to change his mind. Phaedria is not presented on
stage—she remains the innocent girl, who is ravished by her own lover, and waits
painfully for anything that may be imposed upon her, without having a voice at all The
position. When Euclio ultimately agrees to Megadorous’ proposal, he never feels like
asking the daughter about it—she is a ‘property’ to her father, just like the pot of gold.
The parallel between the woman as a ‘treasure’ and the pot (which may be taken as a
symbol of the womb) containing gold is reinforced, when Euclio loses the gold, panics
for it, and come to know about the violation of his daughter’s virginity, from a repentant
Lyconides. The condition of slave-women in Rome was even worse: Staphyla bears all
kinds of torments at the hand of her master, yet has to remain faithful and concerned
for the household, as well as for the fate of her young mistress, showing a helpless yet
genuine female solidarity.
Both structurally and thematically, the theft of the miser’s gold, and the violation of
the chastity of his daughter present a parallel situation. The theft exposes the miserly
social outcaste’s lack of self-sufficiency. Now made wiser by his loss, towards the end,
Euclio finally agrees to make a ‘deal’ with the thief—at least to recover the wealth
partially. He no longer wishes to keep it hidden, but wishes it back, to use it as dowry
for his daughter’s marriage, which points towards his conformity with the social norms
of his time. On the other hand, Lyconides, who has ravished Phaedria, becomes
conscious of his wrong-doing only when he fears a loss of his ‘woman’—finding that
his own uncle is willing to marry the girl he has ravished. His change of mind and
confessing gesture as a repentant lover, who is willing to marry the girl he has raped,
also acts as a redeeming factor towards a positive end and social reintegration.

5.18.7 Significance of the Title

Aulularia, the “little pot” or more popularly known as the Pot of Gold bears its
titular significance at more than one level, and this leads us to consider the title of the
play in some length. It symbolises, at first, the materialistic concern of Euclio. However,
the family Deity speaks of it as a treasure preserved for the purpose of the dowry of
Phaedria, a pious and loyal devotee of the god. Thus, the worth of a woman is measured
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  269

in terms of gold—a concern that brings out the commodification of women in ancient
Roman culture, and in many other cultures—a tradition which survived afterwards as
well. A virgin woman is to be ‘guarded’ by her parents before her marriage, and the pot
of gold is also to be preserved with care. However, the contrast between the woman and
the gold is also evident in a metaphorical level: a woman, however subjugated to male
guardians or husbands, is ‘productive’, since she continues the family-line through
procreation. Gold is an abstract embodiment of wealth and power, which, unless used,
remains unproductive. The miserly Euclio jealously guards the pot of gold against all
living creatures around—which leads to his social estrangement and lack of faith in
everybody. Such is his obsession with the pot that he suspects the cook, who wants a
larger ‘pot’ for cooking, and decides to hide it elsewhere. Finally, when it is stolen from
the grove of Sylvanus, Euclio behaves like a madman, and when Lyconides comes to
confess to him that he has violated the modesty of his daughter, he considers it to be
a confession of the theft. The double-meaning conversation, notwithstanding its obvious
comic overtones, once again captures the notion of a symbolic analogy between a
woman’s womb and the pot of gold. At the end of the play, which is lost but as far as
the indications (given in the prologue) can tell us, the pot of gold is restored to Euclio
and he, humbled by his miseries, uses it as dowry for his daughter’s wedding. Thus the
pot of gold transforms into a means of enabling social integration and a remedy of the
violation of a woman’s honour, offering a comic yet socially significant resolution to all
the key issues in the play.

5.18.8 Summing up
 Thematically and structurally, The Pot of Gold brings together two major concerns
in the Roman society: marriage and wealth.
 The play shows Plautus’ skill in his treatment of the stock characters, with a touch
of originality.
 The essential comic situation rendered in the play is not without glimpses of social
reality.
 Plautus’ use of humour ranges from the farcical to the ironic, but it is without an
overtly didactic tone.
270  CC-EG-02  NSOU

5.18.9 Comprehension Exercises

 Long Answer Type Questions:
1. Give an account of the different thematic issues interfused in the Pot of Gold.
2. Show how Plautus’ art of characterisation contributes to the unfolding of
themes in Pot of Gold.
3. What aspects of classical comedy can you identify in the play Pot of Gold?
 Medium Length Answer Type Questions:
1. What function does the Prologue have in the play Pot of Gold?
2. Bring out the significance of the pot of gold in the play. How does it become
the nerve centre of this Plautine comedy?
3. Write a brief essay on the aspects of social reality that Plautus deals with in Pot
of Gold.
4. How does humour form a vital aspect of Plautus’ plays? Discuss with specific
references to Pot of Gold.
 Short Answer Type Questions:
1. Write a brief note on the character of Euclio.
2. Show how Plautus designs the role of the clever slave in the figure of Strobilus
in Pot of Gold.
3. Comment briefly on the significance of the character of Megadorous.

5.18.10 Suggested Reading (For Units 15 to 18)

Adkins, L. & Adkins, R. A. Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. Oxford University
Press, 1998.
Anderson, William S. Barbarian Play: Plautus’ Roman Comedy. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, 1993.
Ashmore, Sidney G. (Ed.) The Comedies of Terence. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1910.
Frye, Northorp. ‘The Argument of Comedy’, in Paul Lauter (ed.) Theories of Comedy.
Anchor Books, New York, 1964. 450-460.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  271

Hornblower, S. & Spawforth, A. The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization.

Oxford University Press, 2014.
Konstan, David. ‘The Social Themes in Plautus’ Aulularia’ Arethusa Vol. 10, No. 2
(Fall 1977), 307-320.
McDonald, Marianne and Michael Walton. The Cambridge Companion to Greek and
Roman Theatre. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Oldfather, W.A. ‘Roman Comedy’. The Classical Weekly, Vol. 7, No. 28 (May 23,
1914), pp. 217-222.
Pappaioannou, Sophia. ‘New Comedy and Roman Comedy: With and Without
Menander’, in Christine Walde (ed.), Stereotyped Thinking in Classics. Literary
Ages and Genres ReConsidered = thersites 2 (2015) 52-80.
Plautus, The Pot of Gold; trans. by E.F. Watling; London: Penguin Books, 1965.
Stace, C. ‘The Slaves of Plautus’. Greece and Rome. Vol 15, No. 1 (April 1966), pp.
64-77.

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
272  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Timeline of Greek Society and Culture in Evolution

Date Major historical Date Major literary and
events cultural events
3400-2350 3000 Copper mined in
BC Cyprus
Early 3400-1200 Bronze age in Crete
Minoan
2870 First known settle-
ment in Troy
2350-1600 2000 Greek speakint peop-
BC le migrate to Greece
Middle 2100-1950 First series of Cretan
Minoan palaces. Proto-palatial
period of Minoan
civilisation on Crete,
palaces built on a
number of sites,
principally Cnassos,
Mallia and Phaestos.
1900 Destruction of the
palaces
1700-1450 Neo-Palatial period
(1600- on Crete when
1500) Minoan civilisation
reaches its height,
and it ends with
another destruction
of palaces.
1600-1200 1600-1200 Bronze age in 1600 A new dynasty at
BC Thessaly Mycenae on mainland
Late Greece. Shaft graves are
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  273

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
Minoan dated 1600 BCE and
the beehive tombs at
1450. These people built
towns not only at
Mycenae and Tiryns but
at Sparta, Amyclae,
Aegina, Eleusis,
Chaeronea, Orchomenos
and Delphi. Probably they
came from Thessaly.
Their architectural
designs and religious
practices prove instances
of cultural exchange with
the Minoans.
1582 Foundation of Athens
by Cecrops
1450 Destruction of second
series of Cretan
Palaces. The palace
at Cnossos on Crete
is re-inhabited by
Greek-speaking
people
1433 The Flood
1400-1200 The Mycenaen
civilisation is at its
height; trade with
Sicily and Italy
1313 Foundation of Thebes
by Cadmus
274  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
1300-1100 Age of Achaean
domination in Greece.
It is supposed that
the Achaeans were a
Greek tribe, expanded
from Thessaly and
mingled with the
Pelasgo-Mycenaeans
and towards the 1250
became the ruling
class.
1250 The Mycenaean 1250-1183 Age of Homeric heroes
(1194?) Greeks attack Troy
and destroy it. With
the defeat of the
Trojans, Aegean
civilisation dies and
Greek civilisation
begins.
1213 War of the Seven
against Thebes
1200 BC Accession of
Agamemnon
1176 BC Accession of Orestes
1104 BC Dorian invasion of
Greece. Greece
emerges from this
period with Dorians
in control of the
eastern Peloponnesus,
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  275

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
Crete and the south-
west portion of Asia
Minor, including
Rhodes; the Ionians
in control of Attica,
the island of Euboea
and the western
central coastline of
Asia Minor including
the offshore island;
and the Aeolians in
control of Lesbos and
a portion of the
northern Asia Minor
coastline.

1100-850 1000 Temple of Hera at

Age of Olympia
Migration 950-700 Vases are decorated
(Dark with geometric patterns
Age) and abstract representa-
tion in sculpture. This
is known as Geometric
period.
900 Sparta is founded
when four villages of
Dorian Greeks in the
Eurotas valley unite
to form a single
settlement.
276  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
814 The Phoenician city
of Tyre founds
Carthage in modern
Tunisia
800-600 776 Olympian Games
Age of Olympic games are
Coloniza- founded and we have a
tion: record of the victors
founding from this date till 217
of settle- CE
ments 750—550 Greeks expanded 750 Iliad (English transla-
abroad throughout the tion 1611)
by indivi- Mediterranean in this 730 Hesiod’s old epic
dual city- period, founding poetry
states; colonies in Sicily, Odyssey (English
develop- southern Italy, translation 1614)
ment of southern France, 725
political eastern Spain, Libya, Eighth century is
institution the north Aegean, probably the time of
and the Black Sea Homer. No fixed date
region. can be ascertained.
725-05 First Messenian war 700-500 Cycle of legends of Troy
by the Cyclic poets. Their
poems are lost but they
supplied the artists with
themes. Also composition
of hymns.
730 Poems of Hesiod.
680 Pheidon director at 690 Approximately, it is the
Argos; earliest state time of elegiac poetry.
coinage in Greece Earliest poets were
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  277

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
Callinus of Ephesus (690),
Tyrtaeus of Lacedaemon
(685), Archilocus of Paros
(680), Simonides of
Amorgos (660)
660-640 The Messenians
attempt to throw off
their Spartan over-
lords with help of
neighbouring Achaea,
Elis and Argos.
Sparta represses the
revolt only with diffi-
cultyand thereafter
develops into a
militaristic state in
order to maintain her
domination of her
helots.
670 Tempauder of Lesbos,
poet and musician;
Archilochus of Paros,
poet; Homeric hymns to
Apollo and Demeter
658 Byzantium created by
the Greeks, after the
native king Byzas.
This was a strategic
port and an example
of many cities created
by Greece in this
period.
278  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
640-31 Second Messianic 640 Thales at Miletus,
war philosopher and
proficiency in Geometry
and Astronomy,
predecessor to Euclid
624 Laws of Draco at
Athens; first written
law codes
600-400 600 Sappho and Alcaeus,
Golden poets of Lesbos.
Age: Alcaeus took active part
maturity in civic dissensions and
of popularised a metre
economic, called ‘Alcaic’ which
social and was full of invectives.
political Sappho was one of the
institu- greatest lyric poets of
tions, her age.
flourish
of finest 590 Age of Seven Wise
thinkers Men
546-527
Dictator- 580 Aesop of Samos, the
ship of fabulist
Peisistra- 570 Stesichorus of Himera
tus Estab- in Sicily, poet. He was
lishment famous for his odes on
of Demo- heroic subjects.
cracy Anaximander of Miletus
(611-549), philosopher
and student of Strabo
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  279

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
560 Pisistratus makes his
first attempt to make
himself a tyrant at
Athens
558 Carthage conquers
Sicily and Corsica
551 Confucius is born
546 Pisistratus finally
succeeds in making
himself a tyrant at
Athens and after his
death in 527 his son
Hippias takes over
as a tyrant
540 Hipponax of Ephesus
534 Pisistratus establishes the
great festival of Dionysia
in Athens. Thespis from a
village called Icaria wins
the first prize in the
tragedy contest.
529 Pythagoras, philosopher
at Crotona
520 Olympieum begun at Athens
517 Simonides of Ceos, poet.
Perhaps, born around 556.
Famous for his elegies and
lyrical odes. Lived in
Athens in the court of
280  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
Hipparchus together with
Anacreon and under demo-
cracy during Persian wars.
In 477 he got the winning
prize for the dithyrambic
chorus.
511 Phrynicus of Athens,
dramatist
510 A new temple of Apollo
is completed at Delphi
with the generous
donation made by the
noble Athenian family
of the Alcmaeonidae,
who gained considerable
power in contemporary
politics. Anacreon of Teos
(540-478) poet of love
songs and drinking songs.
Was in the court of
Hipparchus.
509-507 Under the leadership 508 A contest in
of Cleisthenes, who dithyrambic song and
belonged to the fami- dance is established at
ly of Alcmaeonidae the city of Dionysia in
establishes democracy Athens as distinct from
at Athensbased on the tragedy which had now
principle of equality developed into a
before the law dramatic presentation
500-499 A revolt against 500 Hecateus of Miletus,
Persian ruler breaks geographer
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  281

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
out in Ionia (the
northern part of the
Greek settlements,
presently in Turkey),
led by Aristagoras of
Miletus and Athens
and Eretria send help
to the rebels.
499 Aeschylus’ first play
494 The Ionian rebel fleet
is crushed by the
Persian navy at he
Battle of Lade.
Revolt fails.
490 The Athenians defeat
a Persian expedition-
ary force at the Battle
of Marathon. Legends
say that a herald was
sent running from
Marathon to Athens
running to announce
the victory. This is
how Marathon was
conceived in modern
sports.
485 Epicharmus (540-450)
establishes comedy at
Syracuse
282  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
480 Xerxes of Persia was
defeated by the Greek
navy at Salamis. His
army was again
defeated in the
following year in the
Battle of Plataea and
Battle of Mycale by
the Greeks (Sparta,
Athens and Corinth).
478 Pindar of Thebes, poet
(b. 522?). Well known
for his odes.
477 Delian Confederacy
founded under the
leadership of Athens
to counter any future
Persian expansionism.
472 Aeschylus’ The Persians.
Earliest extant tragedy.
469 Birth of Socrates
468 Persians defeated at 468 First contest between
Eurymedon Aeschylus and Socphocles
467 Aeschylus, Seven Against
Thebes
464-54 Helot Revolt: the
Spartan slaves
revolted against the
authority.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  283

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
460 Aeschylus, Prometheus
Bound
459-54 Athenian expedition 458 Aeschylus’ Oresteia
to Egypt fails
456 Temple of Zeus at
Olympia
450 Callimachus develops 450 Zeno of Elea, philosopher;
the Corinthian order Hippocrates of Chios,
mathematician; Philolatus
of Thebes, astronomer
449 Hostilities with Persia
cease (Peace of
Callais in 448), but
Athens forces the
Delian league allies
to continue paying
their annual tribute to
the League treasury
which Athens now
uses to finance the
Periclean building
programme.
445 Athens concludes a 447-32 Work begins on the
thirty years peace temple of Athena
with Sparta which Parthenos (The
recognises Spartan Parthenon) on the
hegemony in the acropolis of Athens. It
Peloponnesos and is concluded in 432.
Athens and Sparta
pledge not to interfere
with each other’s
sphere of influence.
284  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
443-429 After the ostracism— 437 Construction of the
exile for ten years— monumental entrance to
of his last serious the Athenian Acropolis,
political opponent, the Propylaea begins
Thucydides, Pericles and completed after five
holds unchallenged years.
power, being elected
year after year to the 443 Herodotus of
committee of ten Halicarnassus, a Dorian
generals. His colony, historian (b.
imperialist policy 484). Around this time,
gradually disturbs the he settled in Thurii, a
balance of power colony founded by
between Athens and Athenians in Italy.
Sparta.
442 Sophocles, Antigone
438 Euripedes, Alcestis
431 Peloponnesian war 431-24 Euripedes,
breaks out between Medea; Andromache;
Athens and Spartan Hecuba; Sophocles,
alliance. Electra
430 Plague at Athens and 430 Antiphon (480-411), orator,
a third of the popula- who opened a school
tion dies in four of rhetoric; one of his
years, including students was Thucydies.
Pericles. He was put to death in
411 for establishing the
oligarchy of Four Hundred.
429 Rise of Cleon, one 429 Sophocles, Oedipus the
of the most important King.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  285

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
generals for the
Athenians in the Plato born in Athens.
Peloponnesian War
428 Euripedes, Hippolytus
425 Aristophanes, Acharnians;
earliest extant comedy.
424 Aristophanes, Knights
423 Aristophanes, Clouds
422 Death of Cleon 422 Aristophanes, Wasps
421 Peace of Nicias or 421 Aristophanes, Peace
the Fifty Year Peace
was concluded
between Athens and
Sparta, restoring the
status quo ante.
420-06 The Erectheum, temple
at Acropolis
418 Spartan victory at 418 Euripides, Ion
Mantinea
416 Massacre at Melos. 416 Euripides, Electra
During the
Peloponnesian war
the Athenians sieged
the island of Melos
in the Aegean Sea.
the Melians had ance-
stralties with Spartans
but in the War they
were neutral.
286  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
415-13 Athenian expedition 415 Euripides, Trojan
to Syracuse Women
414 Siege of Syracuse 414 Aristophanes, Birds
413 Athenian defeat at 413 Euripides, Iphigenia in
Syracuse Taurus
413-404 In the last phase of
the Peloponnesian
War, Persia supplies
Sparta with subsidies
to build a fleet to
challenge the
Athenian navy.
412 Euripides,
Helen and Andromeda
411-410 Athens introduces an
oligarchic government
to replace its demo-
cracy but the Atheni-
an navy refuses to
accept the new const-
itution and democracy
is restored in the
following year.
408 Euripides, Orestes
406 Athenians the last 406 Deaths of Euripides and
victory of War over Sophocles; Euripides,
the Spartan fleet at Bacchae and Iphigenia
Arginusae islands. in Aulis
But the commanders
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  287

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
were sentenced to
death as they failed
to rescue the
shipwrecked crew.
405 Spartan fleet led by 405 Aristophanes, Frogs
Lysander captures the
Athenian fleet at
Argospotami; this
was the decisive win.
404 End of Peloponnesian 403 Thucydides of Athens,
War; Sparta takes historian (b. 471). After
over the Athenian spending 20 years in
empire except for the banishment, principally
Greek cities over the in Peloponnesus, he
coastline of Asia returned to Athens
Minor which are around this time. He is
returned to Persia. It well known for his
establishes a pro- historical account of the
Spartan oligarchic Peloponnesian war.
government in her
cities, though
Thrasybulus restores
democracy in Athens
in the following year
with the permission
of the Spartan king.
401 Sophocles, Oedipus at
Colonus
399 Trial and death of
Socrates
288  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
395-387 A coalition of Athens,
Corinth, Thebes and
Argos, encouraged by
Persia, fights Sparta.
In 394 a Spartan fleet
is defeated by a
Persian fleet led by
an Athenian general.
Faced with signs of
Athenian revival,
Sparta and Persia
settle their differences
(which begun in 399
when Sparta tried to
free the Ionian cities
of Asia Minor).
In 387, Athens and
Sparta sign a peace
treaty, under the aegis
of the Persian king.
This ‘King’s Peace’
ensures that Persia
keeps the Greek
cities in Asia Minor
but frees rest of the
Greek cities.
393 Plato: Apology; Xenophon
(b. 430?), historian, Anabis
: personal account of his
participation in war against
Athens; Hellenica:
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  289

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
continuation of Thucydides’
account of the Peloponne-
sian war; Memorabilia:
defence of his master
Socrates against the charges
that occasioned his death.
391 Isocrates, (b. 436),
professor of rhetoric opens
his school. His style has
great influence on Cicero.
386 Plato founds the Academy
384 Aristotle born at Stageira, a
seaport town.
382 Spartans occupy
Cadmeia, the Theban
acropolis,in a surprise
attack.
379 A group of young
Theban under
Pelopidas and Melon,
liberate Thebes. A
war between Thebes
and Sparta follows,
Thebes aims at unit-
ing all Boeotia, part
of central Greece.
378-54 377 Athens signs a naval
Athenian alliance with sixty
and autonomous members
290  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
Theban to stop Spartan
suprema- imperialism.
cy and 371 Sparta and Athens
the sign a peace treaty in
struggle which Thebes does
for not join. Sparta
power orders the king of
Boeotia to attack
Thebes but the
Theban army under
Pelopidas and
Epaminondas defeat
the Spartan army.
From 371 to 362
Thebes remain the
chief military power
in Greece.
362 Thebes defeats a
Spartan-Athenian
alliance at the Battle
of Mantinea, but the
Theban statesman
and military genius
Epaminondas is kill-
ed in the battle.
367 Aristotle comes to Plato’s
academy
Beginning 359 Philip II becomes
of Mace- king of Macedon
donian on his brother’s
suprema- death.
cy
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  291

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
356 Birth of Alexander 356 Isocrates, On the Peace
the Great
355 Isocrates, Arepagiticus
348-39 In 347, after Plato’s death,
Speusippus, son of Plato’s
sister becomes the head of
the Academy.
346 Demosthenes, On the
Peace. Demosthenes (b.
382-81?) was the greatest
orator of his time. He was
an active opponent of
Philip and considered him
to be enemy of the liberties
of Athens and Greece.
Isocrates, Letter
to Philip
338 At Chaeronea in 342-38 Aristotle tutor of
Greece, Philip of Alexander.
Macedon defeats the
combined armies of 338 Death of Isocrates
Athens and Thebes.
Thebes is punished
severely. In the
following year the
League of Corinth is
formed under the
patronage of Philip
of Macedon. The
league promises war
on Persia to avenge
292  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
the Persian invasion
of Greece in 480.
339-14 Xenocrates head of the
Academy
336 Assassination of
Philip and accession
of Alexander the
Great.
335 Thebes revolts from
Macedon on hearing
the death of Philip
only to be vanquish-
ed by Alexander who
burn the city down,
sparing only the
house of Pindar.
Alexander begins his
Persian campaign.
334 Alexander defeats the 334 Aristotle opens the
Persian satraps of Lyceum, where he spent
Asia Minor and next eighteen years of
recaptures the Greek his life.
cities along the coast
and places his own
officials instead. In
the following year he
defeats the Persian
King Darius III at the
Battle of Issus and
proceeds to conquest
Syria.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  293

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
331 Alexander defeats
Darius III at the
Battle of Gaugamela.
The Satrap of
Babylon, Mazaeus,
surrenders and joins
Alexander who seizes
the treasure in
Babylon and Susa.
He also founds the
city of Alexandria in
Egypt.
330 Alexander captures 330 Demosthenes, On the
and burns the Persian Crown
ceremonial capital of
Persepolis and fulfils
the promise of
avenging the
panhellenic campaign
of Xerxes’ invasion
of Greece in 480.
329-8 Alexander invades
central Asia
327-5 ‘Pages Cospiracy; is
supressed by
Alexander and his
court historian, and
nephew of Aristotle,
Callisthenes, is put to
death. He also
294  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
invades India.
Suddenly left when
a mutiny in the
Hyphasis broke out.
324 Currency is standardi-
zed throughout
Alexander’s empire.
This was the basis of
the great expansion
of economy in the
Hellenistic world.
Alexander also encou- 324 Exile of Demosthenes
raged race mixing of
the Macedonian and
Persian elites.
323 Death of Alexander.
His kingdom was
divided by his
generals: Antipater
takes Macedonia and
Greece; Antigonus,
Phrygia and Lycia;
Ptolemy, Egypt;
Lysimachus, Thrace.
Greece tried to free
itself from Macedo-
nian domination but
Antipater crushes the
insurrection. This is
known as the Lamian
War.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  295

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
However, in the years
to follow the generals
of Alexander tried to
prove their own
imperialist desires
and the political
situation in the zone
remains unstable.
322 Death of Aristotle,
Demosthenes and Diogenes
322-288 Theophrastus head of
Lyceum
321 Menander’s first play
319 Philemon and the New
Comedy
317-307 The Aristotelian phi- 314-270 Polemo head of the
losopher, Demetrius Academy
of Phalerum, who
was appointed the 307 Law against the
deputy ruler of philosophers
Athens (known as
the philosopher-king),
ruled for ten years.
He was later driven
out by Demetrius
Poliorcetes, the
Macedonian king of
the Antigonid
dynasty. Demetrius
flees to Egypt where
he advises Ptolemy to
296  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
establish the great
Alexandrian library to
promote Hellenistic
culture.
306 Epicurus opens his
school at Athens
301 After various battles 301 Zeno opens his school
four Hellenistic at the Stoa
kingdoms emerge:
Macedon under
Cassander, Egypt and
Palestine under
Ptolemy, Thrace and
Asia Minor under
Lysimachus, Persian
heartland and
northern Syria under
Seleucus. However,
this balance was
short lived, because
with Cassander’s
death in 297, fights
ensue between the
kings.
300 Euclid of Alexandria,
mathematician
290 Rhodian school of sculpture
286 In 286, Lysimachus 288-70 Strato head of Lyceum
adds Macedon to his
empire.
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  297

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
282 War breaks
out between Rome
and the Greek city
Tarentum.
281 Seleucus defeats
Lysimachus but is
assassinated by
Ptolemy the Thunder-
bolt, son of Ptolemy
I. Macedon comes
under his rule.
279 A horde of Celts,
known as Gauls
invade Macedon and
Ptolemy the Thunder-
bolt is killed.
Macedon is without a
king. The Gauls push
down to Greece but
their advance is
stopped by the
Aetolian League in
North-West Greece.
278 The Colossus of Rhodes
274 Antigonas Gonatas,
son of Demetrius
Poliorcetes, defeats
the Celts and
occupies the vacant
throne of Macedon,
where the Antigonid
dynasty rules until
298  CC-EG-02  NSOU

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
the last king, Perseus,
is defeated by
Romans in 167.
272 Tarentum surrenders 270-69 Crates of Athens, head
to Rome and the of the Academy
Greek cities of south-
ern Italy becomes
allies of Rome.
269-41 Arcesilaus, head of the
Middle academy
257-180 Aristophanes of
Byzantium, philologist
247 Archimedes of
Syracuse, scientist
229- Aratus, the Strategos
of the Achaean
league leads a battle
against Macedonia
240 Apollonius of Rhodes,
poet
229 Aratus frees Athens
229-21 Antigonus III king of
Macedonia
221-179 215 Alliance of Philip V
Philip V with Hannibal, the
king of Cathaginian general.
Macedo-
nia 214-05 First Macedonian
war with Rome
212 Death of Archimedes
 NSOU  CC-EG-02  299

Date Major historical Date Major literary and

events cultural events
210 Sicily becomes a
Roman province
200-197 Second Macedonian
war
197 Battle of
Cynocephalae
196 Flaminius proclaims
freedom of Greece 196 Foundation of Pergamene
Library
195-80 Aristophanes of Byzantium
librarian at Alexandria
179-68 171-68 Third Macedonian
Perseus war. Aemellius
King of Paullus defeats
Macedo- Perseus at Pydna
nia
167 Deportation of the
Achaeans
161 Judas Maccabee
makes treaty with
Rome. The following
year he is defeated.
146 Greece and
Macedonia become a
province of Rome

 All dates are in BCE unless otherwise mentioned.

 The dates of the cultural and literary figures are based on approximate calculation,
keeping in mind the years they were active, or, some historical account. However, in
some cases, their birth years are mentioned in parenthesis.
300  CC-EG-02  NSOU

NOTES
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................
.................................................................................... ....................................................................................