CHAPTER 7

LESSON 1
Understanding the Atom

Discovering Parts of an Atom

Key Concepts
• What is an atom?
What do you think? Read the three statements below and decide • How would you describe
whether you agree or disagree with them. Place an A in the Before column
the size of an atom?
if you agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. After you’ve read
this lesson, reread the statements to see if you have changed your mind. • How has the atomic model
changed over time?
Before Statement After
1. The earliest model of an atom contained only
protons and electrons.
2. Air fills most of an atom.
3. In the present-day model of the atom, the
nucleus of the atom is at the center of an
electron cloud.

3TUDY #OACH

Create a Quiz Write five

Early Ideas About Matter questions about discovering
Look at your hands. What are they made of? You might parts of the atom to create a
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

answer that your hands are made of things such as skin, quiz. Exchange quizzes with
bone, muscle, and blood. Recall that each of these is made a partner. After taking the
of even smaller structures called cells. Are cells made of even quizzes, discuss your answers.
smaller parts? Imagine dividing something into smaller and Reread the parts of the lesson
smaller parts. What would the smallest part be? that cover the topics you
don’t understand.
Greek philosophers discussed and debated questions such
as these more than 2,000 years ago. Most of them thought
that all matter is made of only four elements—fire, water,
air, and earth. However, they could not test their ideas.
The scientific tools and methods for testing, such as Reading Check
experimentation, did not yet exist. The ideas proposed by
1. Define What was
the most influential philosophers usually were accepted over
Democritus’s definition
the ideas of less-influential philosophers. The popular idea of of an atom?
matter was challenged by Democritus (460–370 B.C.).

Democritus
The philosopher Democritus believed that matter is made
of small, solid objects that cannot be divided, created, or
destroyed. He called these objects atomos, from which the
English word atom is derived.

Reading Essentials Understanding the Atom 115

 Atomic Theories
Democritus 1. Atoms are small, solid objects that cannot be divided, created, or destroyed.
2. Atoms are constantly moving in empty space.
3. Different types of matter are made of different types of atoms.
4. The properties of the atoms determine the properties of matter.
John Dalton 1. All matter is made of atoms that cannot be divided, created, or destroyed.
2. During a chemical reaction, atoms of one element cannot be converted into
atoms of another element.
3. Atoms of one element are identical to each other but different from atoms of an-
other element.
4. Atoms combine in specific ratios.

Interpreting Tables Democritus proposed that different types of matter are

2. Identify Which made from different types of atoms. For example, he said
philosopher in the table that smooth matter is made of smooth atoms. He also
above proposed that atoms proposed that nothing was between these atoms except
move in empty space? empty space. Democritus’s ideas are summarized in the table
above.
Although Democritus had no way to test his ideas, many
Reading Check of his ideas are similar to the way scientists describe the
3. Describe According to atom today. Because Democritus’s ideas did not conform
Democritus, what might to the popular opinion and could not be tested, they were
atoms of gold look like? open for debate. The philosopher Aristotle challenged
Democritus’s ideas.

Aristotle

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Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) did not believe that empty space
exists. Instead, he favored the more popular idea—that all
matter is made of fire, water, air, and earth. Aristotle was
highly respected. As a result, his ideas were accepted.
Democritus’s ideas about atoms were not studied again for
Reading Check more than 2,000 years.
4. Explain Why didn’t Dalton’s Atomic Model
many early philosophers
believe Democritus’s ideas? In the late 1700s, English schoolteacher and scientist
John Dalton (1766–1844) looked again at the idea of atoms.
Technology and scientific methods had advanced a great deal
since Democritus’s time. Dalton made careful observations
and measurements of chemical reactions. He combined data
from his own scientific research with data from the research
of other scientists to propose the atomic theory. The table at
the top of this page lists ways that Dalton’s atomic theory
supported some of the ideas of Democritus.

116 Understanding the Atom Reading Essentials

 The Atom
Today, scientists agree that matter is made of atoms with
empty space between and within them. What is an atom?
Imagine dividing a piece of aluminum foil into smaller and
smaller pieces. At first, you could cut the pieces with scissors.
But eventually, the pieces would be too small to see. They
would be much smaller than the smallest piece you could
cut with scissors. This small piece is an aluminum atom. An
aluminum atom cannot be divided into smaller aluminum
pieces. An atom is the smallest piece of an element that still
represents that element. Key Concept Check
5. Apply What is a copper
The Size of Atoms atom?
Just how small is an atom? Atoms of different elements
are different sizes. However, all are very, very small. You
cannot see atoms even with most microscopes. Atoms are so
small that about 7.5 trillion carbon atoms could fit into the
period at the end of this sentence.

Seeing Atoms
Scientific experiments confirmed that matter is made of Key Concept Check
atoms long before scientists could see atoms. However, in 1981, 6. Describe How would
a high-powered microscope, called a scanning tunneling you describe the size of an
atom?
microscope (STM), was invented. With this microscope,
scientists could see individual atoms for the first time. An
STM uses a tiny, metal tip to trace the surface of a piece of
matter. The result is an image of atoms on the surface.
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Even today, scientists still cannot see inside an atom.

However, scientists have learned that atoms are not the
smallest particles of matter. In fact, atoms are made of much
smaller particles. What are these particles? How did scientists
discover them if they could not see them?

Thomson—Discovering Electrons
Not long after Dalton’s findings, another English scientist,
named J.J. Thomson (1856–1940), made some important
discoveries. Thomson and other scientists of that time worked
with cathode ray tubes. If you have seen a neon sign, an Make a layered book to
older computer monitor, or the color display on an ATM organize your notes and
screen, you have seen a cathode ray tube. diagrams on the parts of
an atom.
Thomson’s cathode ray tube was a glass tube with pieces
of metal, called electrodes, attached inside the tube. The Atom
electrodes were connected to wires. The wires were connected
to a battery. Protons
Tissue
Neutrons
Electrons

Reading Essentials Understanding the Atom 117

 Thomson’s Cathode Ray Tube Experiment
Electrically
charged plates 2 When the rays pass
1 When electrodes are Battery between charged plates,
Battery
connected to a they curve toward the
battery, rays travel - + + positively charged plate.
from the negative
electrode to the far
end of the tube.

Electrodes
Cathode ray
Glass tube -

Thomson’s cathode ray tube is shown above. Thomson

Visual Check
removed most of the air from the tube. When he passed
7. Recognize Did the ray electricity through the wires, greenish-colored rays traveled
in the experiment bend
from one electrode to the other end of the tube. What were
toward the plate with the
positive charge or the plate these rays made of?
with the negative charge?
Negative Particles
Scientists called these rays cathode rays. Thomson wanted
to know if these rays had an electric charge. To find out, he
placed two plates on opposite sides of the tube. As shown in
the figure above, one plate was positively charged. The other
plate was negatively charged. As the cathode rays passed

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between the plates, the rays bent toward the positively
charged plate and away from the negatively charged plate.
Recall that opposite charges attract each other, and like
charges repel each other. Thomson concluded that cathode
Reading Check rays are negatively charged.
8. Analyze If the rays Parts of Atoms
were positively charged,
Through more experiments, Thomson learned that these
what would Thomson have
observed as they passed rays were made of particles that had mass. The mass of one of
between the plates? these particles was much smaller than the mass of the smallest
atoms. This was surprising information to Thomson. Until
then, scientists understood that an atom is the smallest
particle of matter. But these rays were made of particles that
were even smaller than atoms.
Metal Atoms Where did these small, negatively charged
particles come from? Thomson proposed that these particles
came from the metal atoms in the electrode. Thomson
discovered that electrodes made of any kind of metal
produced identical rays.

118 Understanding the Atom Reading Essentials

 Charged Particles Putting these clues together, Thomson
concluded that cathode rays were made of small, negatively
charged particles. He called these particles electrons. An
electron is a particle with one negative charge (1–). Atoms are
neutral, or not electrically charged. Therefore, Thomson
proposed that atoms also must contain a positive charge that
balances the negatively charged electrons.

Thomson’s Atomic Model

Thomson used this information to propose a new model
of the atom. Instead of a solid, neutral sphere that was the
Reading Check
same throughout, Thomson’s model of the atom contained
both positive and negative charges. He proposed that an 9. Differentiate How did
Thomson’s atomic model
atom was a sphere with a positive charge evenly spread
differ from Dalton’s atomic
throughout. Negatively charged electrons were mixed model?
through the positive charge, similar to the way chocolate
chips are mixed in cookie dough. The figure below shows
this model.

Thomson’s Atomic Model

Positively
Negatively
charged sphere
charged electrons

Visual Check
10. Describe How were
Rutherford—Discovering the Nucleus
Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the positive and negative

The discovery of electrons stunned scientists. Ernest charges arranged in
Thomson’s model?
Rutherford (1871–1937) was Thomson’s student. He later
had students of his own. Rutherford’s students experimented
with Thomson’s model and discovered yet another surprise.

Rutherford’s Predicted Result

Imagine throwing a baseball into a pile of table tennis
balls. The baseball likely would knock the table tennis balls
away and continue moving in a mostly straight line. This is
similar to what Rutherford’s students expected to see when
they shot alpha particles into atoms. Alpha particles are Reading Check
dense and positively charged. Because they are so dense, 11. Explain why
only another dense particle could deflect the path of an Rutherford’s students did not
alpha particle. According to Thomson’s model, the positive think an atom could change
charge of the atom was too spread out and not dense enough the path of an alpha particle.
to change the path of an alpha particle. Electrons wouldn’t
affect the path of an alpha particle because electrons didn’t
have enough mass. Rutherford expected the alpha particles
to travel straight without changing direction.

Reading Essentials Understanding the Atom 119

 Rutherford’s Predicted Result
Alpha Cross section of gold foil
particle source Evenly distributed
Expected path of positive charge
alpha particles

Detector screen Gold foil

Spot of light Electron

The figure above shows the result that Rutherford’s students

Visual Check
expected. They expected the positive alpha particles to travel
12. Draw Highlight the straight through the foil without changing direction.
expected path of the alpha
particles. The Gold Foil Experiment
The students placed a source of alpha particles near a thin
Key Concept Check piece of gold foil made of gold atoms. A screen surrounded
13. Interpret Given the the gold foil. When an alpha particle struck the screen, it
results of the gold foil created a spot of light. The students could determine the
experiment, how do you path of the particles from the spots of light on the screen.
think an actual atom differs
from Thomson’s model? The Surprising Result
The figure below shows what the students observed.
Most of the particles did indeed travel through the foil in
a straight path. However, a few particles struck the foil

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and bounced off to the side. And one particle in 10,000
bounced straight back! Rutherford later said that this result
was almost as surprising as if you fired a bullet at a piece
Visual Check of tissue paper and it came back and hit you. The alpha
14. Recognize What do the particles must have struck something dense and positively
dots on the screen indicate? charged inside the atom. Thomson’s model had to be
refined.

The Surprising Result

Alpha Particles with little Cross section of gold foil
particle source Particles bounced or no deflection
backward

Empty
space
Detector screen
Gold foil
Electron
Nucleus
Spots of light (dense positive charge)

120 Understanding the Atom Reading Essentials

 Rutherford’s Atomic Model
The result showed that most alpha particles traveled
through the foil in a straight path. Therefore, Rutherford
concluded that atoms are made mostly of empty space. The
alpha particles that bounced backward must have hit a
dense, positive mass. Rutherford concluded that most of an
atom’s mass and positive charge is concentrated in a small area in the
center of the atom called the nucleus. Reading Check
Rutherford’s atomic model, shown below, contains a 15. Explain How did
small, dense, positive nucleus. Further research showed that Rutherford explain the
observation that some of
the nucleus was made up of positively charged particles
the alpha particles bounced
called protons. A proton is an atomic particle that has one positive directly backward?
charge (1+). Negatively charged electrons move in the empty
space surrounding the nucleus.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model

Nucleus

Visual Check
16. Identify In Rutherford’s
model, what makes up most
+ of the area of an atom?
(Circle the correct answer.)
a. the nucleus
b. electrons
c. empty space
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Electron

Discovering Neutrons
The modern model of the atom was beginning to take
shape. James Chadwick (1891–1974) worked with Rutherford
and also researched atoms. He discovered that in addition to
protons, the nucleus contained neutrons. A neutron is a
neutral particle that exists in the nucleus of an atom.

Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model explained much of his students’
experimental evidence. However, the model could not
explain several observations.
Colors of Light Scientists noticed that if they heated certain
elements in a flame, the elements gave off specific colors of
light. Each color of light had a specific amount of energy.
Where did this light come from?

Reading Essentials Understanding the Atom 121

 Bohr’s Experiments Niels Bohr (1885–1962), another student
of Rutherford, proposed an answer to why certain elements
heated in a flame give off light of specific colors. He studied
hydrogen atoms because they contain only one electron.
Bohr experimented with adding electric energy to
hydrogen and studying the energy that was released. His
experiments led to a revised atomic model, shown in the
figure below.

Electrons in the Bohr Model

Visual Check Bohr proposed that electrons move in circular orbits, or
17. Predict According to energy levels, around the nucleus. Electrons in an energy
Bohr’s atomic model, what level have a specific amount of energy. Electrons closer to
would happen to the electron the nucleus have less energy than electrons that are farther
in a hydrogen atom if you away from the nucleus.
added energy to the atom?
When energy is added to an atom, electrons gain energy
and move from a lower energy level to a higher energy level.
When the electrons return to the lower energy level, they
release a specific amount of energy as light. This is the light
that appears when elements are heated.

Bohr’s Atomic Model

When energy is added to a hydrogen atom, When the electron moves from the fourth
its electron moves from the lowest energy level to one of the three lower levels, a
level to one of the higher energy levels. In specific amount of energy is released,
this example, it moves to the fourth level. depending on which level it moves to.

Copyright © Glencoe/McGraw-Hill, a division of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Least
- - energy
Energy - Specific
added - Most amount of
energy energy released
+ +

Limitations of the Bohr Model

Key Concept Check Bohr reasoned that if his model were accurate for atoms
18. Contrast How did with one electron, it would be accurate for atoms with more
Bohr’s atomic model differ than one electron. However, this was not the case.
from Rutherford’s?
More research confirmed that electrons do have specific
amounts of energy, but energy levels are not arranged in
circular orbits. How do electrons move in an atom?

122 Understanding the Atom Reading Essentials

 The Modern Atomic Model
In the modern atomic model, electrons form an electron
cloud. An electron cloud is an area around an atomic nucleus where
an electron is most likely to be located. Imagine taking a time-lapse
photograph of bees around a hive. You might see a blurry
cloud. The cloud might be denser near the hive than farther
away because the bees spend more time near the hive.
In a similar way, electrons constantly move around the Key Concept Check
nucleus. It is impossible to know the speed and the exact 19. Summarize How has
location of an electron at a given moment. Instead, scientists the model of the atom
only can predict the likelihood that an electron is in a changed over time?
particular location. The electron cloud, shown in the figure
below, is mostly empty space. It represents the likelihood of
finding an electron in a given area. The darker areas represent
areas where electrons are more likely to be located.

The Modern Atomic Model

Neutron

Nucleus
Proton Visual Check
20. Consider Why do you
think this model of the atom
doesn’t show the electrons?
Electron cloud
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Quarks
You have read that atoms are made of smaller parts—
protons, neutrons, and electrons. Are these particles made of
even smaller parts? Scientists have discovered that electrons
are not made of smaller parts. However, research has shown
that protons and neutrons are made of smaller particles.
Scientists call these particles quarks. Scientists theorize that
there are six types of quarks. They named these quarks up,
down, charm, strange, top, and bottom. Protons are made of
two up quarks and one down quark. Neutrons are made of
two down quarks and one up quark.
As you have read, the model of the atom has changed
over time. The current model also might change with the
invention of new technology that aids the discovery of new
information.

Reading Essentials Understanding the Atom 123

Mini Glossary
atom: the smallest piece of an element that still represents neutron: a neutral particle that exists in the nucleus of
that element an atom

electron: a particle with one negative charge (1–) nucleus: a small, positively charged area in the center of an
atom that contains most of the atom’s mass
electron cloud: an area around an atomic nucleus where an
electron is most likely to be located proton: an atomic particle that has one positive charge (1+)

1. Review the terms and their definitions in the Mini Glossary. Write a sentence that describes
how neutrons and protons are related to a nucleus.

2. Name the parts of the modern atomic model in the diagram using the terms provided.
electron cloud neutron nucleus proton

b.
atom

electron -

- c.
a. +

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+
d.
-

3. On the lines below, write one question from your partner’s quiz that helped you learn an
important concept about atoms. Then write the answer.

What do you think

Reread the statements at the beginning of the Connect ED
lesson. Fill in the After column with an A if you Log on to ConnectED.mcgraw-hill.com
agree with the statement or a D if you disagree. and access your textbook to find this END OF
Did you change your mind? lesson’s resources. LESSON

124 Understanding the Atom Reading Essentials