THE LIVING

The Living World

What is living? ; Biodiversity; Need for classification; Three domains of
life; Taxonomy & Systematics; Concept of species and taxonomical hierarchy;
Binomial nomenclature; Tools for study of Taxonomy – Museums, Zoos,
Herbaria, Botanical gardens.

What is living? ; Biodiversity; Need for classification; Three domains of

S life; Taxonomy & Systematics; Concept of species and taxonomical hierarchy;
y
l Binomial nomenclature; Tools for study of Taxonomy – Museums, Zoos,
l Herbaria, Botanical gardens.
a

Chapter Index :
• What is living? • Taxonomical aids
Characteristics of living beings Botanical gardens
Biodiversity Herbarium
Need for classification Key
Taxonomy and systematics Zoological parks
• Nomenclature Museums
International code of nomenclature Flora, manuals, monographs
and
Rules for binomial nomenclature catalogues
• Taxonomic categories • Summary
Concept of
species Types of
species

WHAT IS LIVING?
Life is a unique, complex organisation of molecules expressing itself through chemical
reactions (metabolism) which lead to growth, development, responsiveness, adaptation and
reproduction. Hence, "the object by itself exhibiting the growth, development, death,
consciousness, reproduction etc. is designated as living being."

A. Characteristics of Living Beings

THE LIVING

All the living beings share certain unique and basic characteristics which set them apart
from
1. Growth 2. 3.
4. Cellular Reproduction

1. Growth:
• Increase in mass and increase in number of cells are twin characters of growth. Growth refers
to irreversible increase in mass or overall size of a tissue, an organism or its parts.

 Growth is the result of difference between anabolism (building up reactions) and catabolism
(breakdown reactions).
THE LIVING

 Growth occurs when anabolism or synthetic processes exceeds catabolism.

 Degrowth or negative growth will occur when catabolism exceeds anabolism. It will decrease
the mass of body.

 Unicellular organisms also grow by cell division. In majority of higher animals and plants,
growth and reproduction are mutually exclusive events, but in unicelled organisms like
Amoeba, reproduction is synonymous with growth, i.e., increase in number of cells.

 Non-living objects also grow if we take increase in

body mass as a criterion of growth. But in these
objects extrinsic growth is present i.e. increase in
the mass of body from outside e.g., mountains,
boulders and sand mounds. Growth, therefore,
cannot be taken as a defining property of living
organisms.

2. Reproduction:

• Reproduction is the formation of new individuals of similar kind. It is, however, required for
survival of the population as it compensates for the loss of life due to death.

• Reproduction is of two types, asexual and sexual. Asexual reproduction is uniparental

multiplication that occurs through binary fission, multiple fission, spore formation,
fragmentation and vegetative multiplication.

• Fungi multiply by asexual spores, yeast and Hydra show budding, Planaria exhibits true
regeneration. Fungi, filamentous algae, protonema of mosses easily multiplies by
fragmentation. But, when we notice single-celled organisms like bacteria, unicellular alga
and Amoeba, we are not clear about the usage of these two terms -growth and reproduction,
i.e., increase in number of cells.

• Hence, reproduction also cannot be an all inclusive property of living organisms. Still, no
non- living object is capable of reproducing or replicating by itself. Further, there are some
organisms which do not reproduce at all, e.g., worker bees, mules etc.

3. Metabolism:

 Life is a never ending flow of energy and materials.

 The energy are required by all living cells for building

THE LIVING

and functioning of their living matter.

 Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical reactions

occurring in an organism due to specific interactions
amongst different types of molecules within the
interior of cells.
THE LIVING

• Metabolism involves exchange of matter and energy between an organism and its
environment and transformation of matter and energy within an organism.

• Despite vast differences occurring in structure and functioning of cells in different

organisms, metabolic reactions are unusually similar.

Metabolic reactions can be demonstrated outside the body in cell free systems.

• An isolated metabolic reaction(s) in a test-tube is neither living nor non-living. Hence, while
metabolism is a defining feature of all living organisms without exception , isolated
metabolic reactions in-vitro are not living things but surely living reactions.

4. Cellular Structure:
Body of all living organisms consists of cells and their products. Hence, cellular organisation
of the body is the defining feature of life forms.

5. Consciousness:

 All living beings, plants and animals, are aware of their environment. All organisms sense
their surroundings and respond to sudden or smooth changes in it.

 All organisms from prokaryota to eukaryota can sense and respond.

 Humans also have "self-consciousness" hence, this becomes the defining property of living
beings.

 It is most obvious and technically complicated feature of all living organisms.

 The foregoing discussion, nevertheless concludes that living beings are organized, self-
replicating, evolving and self-regulating interactive systems, with consciousness at the head
of all.
A question may arise whether a man lying in coma on the life support systems is living or non-
living? The answer lies in the quantitative presence of consciousness in the living being in that
particular state. Infact, the person in coma has lost the requisite quantity of consciousness to
exhibit the features of living being, but still exhibits life. If the requisite consciousness is
restored, the person may again start to be as living being or die otherwise.
Other characteristics of living beings are adaptation, life span, homeostasis, healing and repair,
movement and variation.
B. Biodiversity

• From a current estimation, approximately 1.7 million species have been scientifically named
and classified. These include nearly 1.2 million animals and over 0.5 million species of
plants.
THE LIVING

• Amongst animals, insects form the largest group, i.e., over 10,25,000 species. It is estimated
that majority of species diversity is confined to tropical rain forests and huge diversity exist
in under water reef formations in tropical oceans.

• Existing living species are the outcome of about 3.5 billion years of evolutionary process on
this earth. Nearly 15,000 new organisms are discovered every year.
THE LIVING

• A clearer understanding of this huge variety of organisms can be studied by dividing these
into smaller groups or sub-groups (categories) and each group or sub-group comprising of
organisms with more or less similar characters.

• Method of placing organisms into groups or sub-groups depending upon extent of

similarities and differences is called classification.

• The division of organisms into different groups follows certain rules, that is why the term
called taxonomy is used for classification of organisms following certain rules or principles.

C. Need for Classification

 There are millions of plants and animals varying greatly in their form, structure and
complexity.

 It is impossible to study all of them individually. To make the study of organisms possible and
easier, scientists have divided organisms into different ranks or categories on the basis of
similarities and differences.

 Classification is just like systematically arranged library where we can easily find out the
required book, in the same way, if the organisms are arranged according to a system, it makes
their study easy.
• Some important needs are
(i) It is essential to understand the inter-relationship among different groups of organisms.
(ii) It serves as a base for the development of other biological sciences like biogeography.
(iii)Various applied biology fields also depend upon exact identification and
classification.

D. Taxonomy and Systematics

Taxonomy: The branch of science dealing with the study of principles and procedures of
classification is called taxonomy. The term taxonomy was coined by A.P. de Candolle.
Linnaeus is considered as Father of Taxonomy. Santapau is considered as Father of Indian
Taxonomy. The fundamental elements of taxonomy are as follows :
• Characterisation and It is the determination of the similarities of an
organism with an already known organism, based upon specific characters.
• Nomencla It is the determination of correct name of an organism according to
established universal rules.
• Classificati It is grouping of organisms into convenient categories on the basis of
easily observable characters.
The classical taxonomy is based on observable morphological characters, however the
modern taxonomy deals with several characters for the classification of organisms like
External and internal structure alongwith the structure of cell.
Development process.
Ecological information of organisms.
THE LIVING

Systemati The word "systematics" is derived from Latin word systema which means
cs
systematic arrangement of organisms. It was first used by Carolus Linnaeus.

According to him, "systematics is the discipline of biology which deals with the kind and
diversity of all organisms and the existing relationships amongst them."
Generally, the terms such as classification, systematics and taxonomy are used
interchangeably but some taxonomists like Simpson (1961) relate them with a separate field.
He defined systematics as "The study of diversity of organisms and all their comparative and
evolutionary relationships based on comparative anatomy, comparative ecology,
comparative physiology and comparative biochemistry."

The main uses of systematics are as given below :

(i) It helps in providing knowledge of great diversity of animals and plants. It provides information
regarding evolution which took place among plants and animals by knowing the distinction,
relationship, habitat and habits. It thus, gives a vivid picture of entire organic diversity.
(i) It helps in the identification of fossils which gives useful information about the phylogeny of
organisms.
(ii) Newly discovered organisms can be identified through systematics.

S.N Taxono Systamati

o. my cs
1. Taxonomy includes following points Systematics deals the study of
(i) Characterisation, diversity of living being. It includes
(ii) Identification, (i) Characterisation, (ii) Identification,
(iii) Nomenclature, (iii) Nomenclature, (iv) Classification
(iv) Classification (v) Affinity
2. Unit of taxonomy is species Unit of systematics is population
3. This term given by A.P. De Candolle This term is given by Linnaeus
4. New systematics given by Julian Huxley
α, β and ω Taxonomy given by Turril
(1940)
THE LIVING

organisms. Phylogeny is the

evolutionary history of organisms.
3. Systematics is taxonomy alongwith phylogeny.
4. Classical or old or descriptive
systematics is based upon
morphological characters. According
to it basic unit of classification is
species. Pioneer workers are Aristotle
and linnaeus.
5. New systematics /

?
Biosystematics / Neosystematics
is based upon all characters" i.e.,
DO YOU morphological, cytological, ecological,

KNOW biochemical, genetical etc. The term

was coined by Julian Huxley. Basic
1. The reasons for large scale biodiversity amongst unit of classification is population or
living beings are : sub-species for the new systematics.
(a) Adaptations in organisms to diverse habitat in
6. Founder of taxonomy / Father of
order to reduce competition.
biology / Zoology–Aristotle, Father of
(b) Change in genetic constitution.
Botany –Theophrastus, Father of
(c) Isolation
Indian Botany/Indian herbaria -
2. Ontogeny is the life history of
William Rouxburgh.

7. About 5-30 million species of living organisms exist today. Taxonomically

or scientifically known number of species is 1.7 million or 13 percent.
8. Representing global biodiversity: proportionate number of species of
major taxa of plants, invertebrates and vertebrates
 C
onceptual
Reproduction is synonymous with growth for which group of organisms?
Multicellular filamentous organisms (2) Colonial organisms
(3) Unicellular organisms (4) All of these

Find correct match from Column-I and Column-II

Column-I Column-II
Protonema of moss (i) Consciousness
Metabolic reactions in vitro (ii) Living reactions
Defining property of living beings (iii) Fragmentation
Taxonomy term (iv) C. Linnaeus
Father of taxonomy (v) A.P. de Candolle
(1) a-(iii), b-(ii), c-(i), d-(v), e-(iv) (2) a-(ii), b-(iii), c-(iv), d-(v), e-(i)
(3) a-(i), b-(ii), c-(iii), d-(v), e-(iv) (4) a-(ii), b-(iii), c-(i), d-(iv), e-(v)

Choose the correct statement

A multicellular organism grows by increase in mass only
Extrinsic growth is characteristics of non-living objects
Metabolic reactions cannot be demonstrated in a cell-free system
First step of taxonomy is classification

ns : Q.1 (3), Q.2 (1), Q.3 (2)

NOMENCLATURE
There is a need to standardize the naming of living organisms, such that a particular organism
is known by same name all over the world. A variety of nomenclatural methods are described
below :
1. Vernacular Name Names in local or common language are called vernacular names.
So, many vernacular names exist for an organism in different languages. These may vary from
place to place.
2. Scientific Names These names were based on definite rules and criteria. These are
of following types :
(i) Polynomial nomenclature
(ii) Trinomial nomenclature [both given in concept builder]
(iii) Binomial system of nomenclature:
a. Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus established binomial nomenclature though, it was
first proposed by Casper Bauhin in his book PINAX.
b. In binomial nomenclature, the first word is a generic name and second word is a specific
epithet like Mangifera indica Linn.
c. After end of biological name, the name of author is written in abbreviated form who gave
 the name of the organism.
d. Scientific names are in Latin, because Latin was the language of scholars at the time of
Linnaeus, and no change is possible in the language because this language has no
synonyms.
e. Linnaeus gave some principles of the binomial nomenclature in Philosophia Botanica.
f. The nomenclature was used first in Species Plantarum (1753), where names and
description of 5900 species of plants were given.
g. He published Systema Naturae (1758), where 4326 species of animals were described.

A. International Code of Nomenclature

Scientific names have been standardised through some international agencies, viz.,
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN, 1961) and International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN, 1964), International Code for Nomenclature of Bacteria
(ICNB), International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP) and currently
being developed is International Committee for the Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).

B. Rules for Binomial Nomenclature

ICBN and ICZN formulated certain rules and regulations for giving scientific names to all
organisms. These rules are as follows :

• The valid name of an organism has two components, i.e., a generic name and a specific
epithet. The generic name should begin with a capital letter and species name should begin
with a small letter.

• Both the words in a biological name when handwritten are separately underlined or printed
in italics to indicate their Latin origin.

• The name of the author should be written after the scientific name in Roman type with
capital letter without any comma in between and is written in an abbreviated form, e.g.,
Homo sapiens Linn. is the complete scientific name for modern man. This shows that
Linnaeus was the first scientist who named man as Homo sapiens.

• Scientific names should not contain less than three and more than twelve letters.

• Principle of priority: It is the most important of all the rules of ICBN. If first name given to
the organism is valid (in terms of rules), that will be considered at the first preference. Any
other valid name given after that will be considered as synonym. No names are recognised
prior to those used by Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae for animals
and 1753 for plants.

• All the three words (generic name, species epithet and author citation) collectively form
Binomial epithet.
• If a species name has two or more words in its name, a hyphen is put between these. Such
names are compound specific names (e.g., Hibiscus rosa-sinensis).
 Other scientific Methods of Nomenclature and additional Rules
(a) Polynomial nomenclature This system was used before 1750. In this system, names of
the plants are based upon morphological characters, e.g., Caryophyllum. The name given was
"Caryophyllum saxatilis folis gramineus umbellatis corymbis" meaning it is caryophyllum
growing on rocks having grass like leaves and umbellate corymb arrangement of flowers. But
these names became lengthy and difficult to remember.
(b) Trinomial Proposed by Lamarck, it involves the use of three words for a
Nomenclature
name so that the names of subspecies (animals) or varieties (plants) can also be incorporated. For
example, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, Corvus splendens splendens.
Some examples of subspecies and varieties are given below:
Corvus splendens splendens – Indian crow
Gorilla gorilla gorilla – Gorilla
(animal) Brassica oleracea var. capitata –
Cabbage
Acacia nilotica var. indica – Indian Babul

(c) Synonyms In case two or more names are given, the oldest, i.e., the name given first is
recognised as valid name and all other names are called synonyms. e.g, Albugo candida (=
Cystopus candidus)

Tautonyms : When generic and specific name are same, e.g., Rattus rattus. Tautonyms are not
recognised by botanists. Autonyms: When species and subspecies or variety names are same,
e.g., Corvous splendens splendens, Acacia nilotica nilotica.
Homonyms One name for two different plants. e.g., Prunus dulsi, (For both almond and plum)

M
ultiple Choice
Q.1. Select incorrect statement w.r.t. growth
Increase in body mass is criterion for growth in non-living objects
Animals grow upto a certain age
Growth in plants is definite
In living organisms, growth is from inside
Q.2. Regeneration can be observed in
(1) Fungi (2) Planaria
(3) Hydra (4) More than one option is correct
Q.3. Taxonomically known number of species is
(1) 1.7 billion (2) 17 lakh (3) 5 to 30 million (4) 17 million
Q.4. Which one of the following does not form basis of modern taxonomic studies?
 (1) Structure of cell and morphology (2) Development process
(3) Genetic basis (4) Ecological information of organisms
m systematics was derived from word "systema" which means
(1) Greek, Evolutionary classification (2) Latin, systematic arrangement of organisms
(3) English, Taxonomy of organisms (4) Both (1) & (3)
ication of Linnaeus with the classification of 5900 plants is
(1) Systema Naturae (2) Species Plantarum
(3) Genera Plantarum (4) Philosophia Botanica
ct incorrect statement w.r.t. binomial nomenclature
(a) Biological names are generally in italics and written in Latin
(b) Generic epithet starts with capital letter
(c) Both names are separately underlined to indicate their Latin origin
(d) Author's name is written after the scientific name in Roman type
ect binomial epithet of garden pea is
(1) Pisum sativum (2) Pisum sativum Linn.
(3) Pisum sativum Linn. (4) Pisum Sativum Linn
Q.9Which one of the following scientific name represents both trinomial nomenclature and autonym?
(1) Acacia nilotica indica (2) Brassica oleracea botrytis
(3) Corvus splendens splendens (4) More than one option is correct
Q.10 Standardisation of scientific name for plants is done by
(1) ICBN (2) ICNB (3) ICNCP (4) Both (1) & (3)
Ans : Q.1 (3), Q.2 (4), Q.3 (2), Q.4 (3), Q.5 (2), Q.6 (2), Q.7 (1), Q.8 (3), Q.9 (3), Q.10 (4)

TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES

• Classification is not a single step process. It involves

hierarchy of steps in which each step represents a rank
or category.

• The category is a part of overall taxonomic arrangement.

All categories together make taxonomic hierarchy.

• Each category is also termed as a unit of classification.

It represents a rank and is commonly called as taxon.

• The taxon must be recognisable and order should belong

to a category.

• Taxonomic hierarchy is a series of different ranks

placed in ascending or descending order.
• It was Linnaeus who for the first time introduced five
categories in the taxonomic hierarchy, viz., class, order, genus, species and variety.

• Later on three more categories, viz., kingdom, division or phylum and family were added.
• Variety was Species discarded to make a hierarchy of seven obligate categories.

• Taxonomic categories kingdom -division (in plants) or phylum (in animals) -class -order -
family -genus -species. (descending order)

• Higher the category, higher is the number of organisms in it. Higher the category, fewer
will be the number of common characters and greater is the difficulty of determining the
relationship to other taxa at the same level. Hence, the problem of classification becomes
more complex.

• Taxonomic categories and hierarchy can be illustrated by an example. Insects represent a group
of organisms sharing common features like three pairs of jointed legs.

• It means insects are recognisable concrete objects which can be classified, and thus were given
a rank or category.

• Similarly, mammals represent animals with external ears, body hairs, mammary glands etc.
Dog, mammals, animals are all taxa but of different categories.

• Taxon dog, mammals and animals represent categories like species, class and kingdom

Species
respectively.

• Term given by John Ray. It is lowest category of classification. It is a group of closely related
individuals with similar morphological, anatomical, biochemical and cytological characters.

• It is a group of naturally interbreeding population with the ability to produce fertile offsprings.
Individuals of a species share common gene pool.

• It is reproductively isolated, thus genetically closed system.

e.g, Pisum sativum – Pea
Mangifera indica – Mango
Solanum tuberosum – Potato
Panthera leo – Lion
Homo sapiens – Human being
In these, sativum, indica, tuberosum, leo, sapiens represent the specific epithet, while
Pisum, Mangifera, Solanum, Panthera and Homo represent genus.
Genus

• Genus is a group of related species. Species has more characters in common in comparison
to species of other genera.
 • e.g., Potato, (Solanum tuberosum), makoi (S. nigrum) and brinjal (S. melongena) are
three different species belonging to same genus Solanum.

• Lion, leopard and tiger with several common features belong to the same genus Panthera.

Family

• It is a group of related genera with still less number of similarities as compared to genus and
species. Families are characterised on the basis of both vegetative and reproductive
 features of plants.

• For example, four related genera Solanum, Petunia, Datura and Atropa belong to the family

Order
Solanaceae. Genus Panthera and Felis (cat) are put together in family Felidae.

• It is a group of related families which exhibit a few similar characters. The similar
characters are less in number as compared to different genera included in a family.

• For example, plant families like Convolvulaceae and Solanaceae are included in
order Polymoniales mainly based on floral characters.

• In animals, order carnivora includes families like Felidae (cat) and Canidae (dog).

Class

• It is a group of related orders.

• For example , plants order like Sapindales (mango) and Polymoniales are included in Class
- Dicotyledonae, Order -Volvocales (Volvox) and Conjugales (Spirogyra) are included in Class -
Chlorophyceae (green algae).
In animals, order Primata (man, monkey) and Carnivora (cat, dog) are included in class -
Mammalia.
Phylum/Division

• It is a group of related classes.

• The phylum Chordata of animals contains not only the class mammalia but also aves
(birds), reptilia (reptiles) amphibia (amphibians) and osteichthyes (fishes).

• In case of plants, classes with few similar characters like dicots and monocots constitute
division -Angiospermae.
The category phylum is used in animalia while division is used in plantae.

Kingdom

• It is highest category in hierarchy with related phylums or divisions.

• Kingdom animalia includes all animals belonging to different phyla. Kingdom Plantae
includes all plants of various divisions.
Organisms with their taxonomic
Comm Biologic Genus Family Order Cla Phylum/
on al ss Division
Name Name
Man Homo Homo Hominidae Primata Mammalia Chordata
sapiens
House Musca Musca Muscidae Diptra Insecta Arthropoda
domesti
fly ca Mangife Anacardiace Sapindal Dicotyledon Angiosperm
Mangif
Mango era ra ae es ae ae
indica
Wheat Triticu Triticum Poaceae Poales Monocotyledona Angiosperma
m e e
aestivum

Concept of Species
Biological concept of species (was given by Ernst : Species is the fundamental unit of
Mayr)
classification. A species is a group of organisms (i) which are closely related (structurally and
functionally) sharing a common gene pool (ii) which can interbreed freely in nature and
produce fertile offspring in a natural environment. This concept of species is based upon
reproductive isolation and called biological concept.
Some important inter specific hybrids (exception of biological concept of species)
Sterile Hybrid (under natural conditions)
Mule = Between male donkey and female horse (Mare)
Hinny = Between male horse (Stal'lion) and female
donkey
Fertile Hybrid (under captive conditions) Tigon = Between male tiger and female lion Liger =
Between male lion and female tiger

Types of Species
1. Morphospecies : Species erected on the basis of morphological characters only.
2. Taxonomic species : Species having a definite binomial name.
3. Sibling species : True species which do not interbreed, but are otherwise difficult
to separate on the basis of morphological characters alone.
4. Allopatric species : Species having exclusive areas of geographic distribution.
5. Sympatric species : Species having overlapping areas of geographic distribution.
6. Parapatric species : Species with adjacent geographic ranges meeting in very narrow
zone of overlap.
7. Neontological species : Living species
8. Allochronic species : Species belonging to different time period.
9. Synchronic species : Species belonging to same period of time.
10. Polytypic species : Species which have more than one ideal types (subspecies)
according to their geographically isolated areas.

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature

(a) In accordance with International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, the names of different
categories must end in the standard endings (suffixes) given below :
Term given by: Suf
 Eichler Division -phyta
Linnaeus Class -phyceae or -opsida or -ae
Linnaeus Order -ales
John Ray Family -aceae
Tribe -eae
Suffixes used in the animal kingdom are:
Fa -
mily id

Tournefort gave the term genus and John Ray gave the term species

(b) Names of some families are changed according to ICBN rules for suffixes.
Old New
Name Name
Palmae Arecacea
Graminae e
Legumino Poaceae
sae Fabaceae
Composit Asterace
ae ae
Cruciferae Brassicac
Umbellife eae

(c) Tribe is an intermediate category between sub-family and genus.

(d) In asexually reproducing organisms, physical resemblances and differences are used for
delimiting species.
(e) Basic function of biological classification :
Recognition and description of species.
Grouping the species on the basis of similarities and relationship.
To establish evolutionary relationship amongst different organisms.
(f) The genera which have more than one specific epithets, are known as polytypic. Lion –
Panthera leo
Leop Panthera
ard pardus
(g) There are 7 obligate categories and about 21 intermediate categories. Prefixes: sub-and super-
used for intermediate categories.

(h) Species name is given on the basis of some characters or habit, colour and distribution, e.g.,
niger (black), alba (white), tuberosum (tuber).

(i) Taxon is a group of real organisms which is assigned for any category. It is the unit of
classification for any rank. Term taxon was introduced by ICBN in 1956 and defined by Mayr
(1964).
 (j) Category is an abstract term and represents only rank or level in a hierarchy and does not
represent the living organisms. Example: Reptile is taxon but reptilia is category.

(k) Typological concept of Species

It was proposed by “Aristotle” and “Plato”. According to this concept, “There is a definite type or
pattern of characters are present in the each species and all the members of species shows
maximum resemblance with this pattern”. The species in which one fixed pattern of characters is
present are called as monotypic species. e.g., Bacteria, Blue green algae if more than one type of
pattern of characters are present. These are called “Polytypic species” or “Macrospecies”. e.g.,
Brassica oleracea  Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Knol.

Type of Polytypic Species

Biotyp Members of same species inhabiting similar environment and having some
genetic variations are known as biotypes. Variations found in these members are permanent.
These members can not interbreed among themselves. e.g. Cauliflower, Cabbage, Knol-Khol
are three biotypes of one species
Ecoty Members of same species inhabiting different environment and having some
genetic variations are known as ecotypes. Variations are permanent. These members can
interbreed among themselves but due to geographical barrier they can not interbreed.
e.g., Crow (Corvus splendense) found in different regions are ecotype of one species
Corvus splendense splendense - Indian crow
Corvus splendense insolense - Myanmar crow
Corvus splendense protegatus - Srilankan crow
Ecospec It contains one or more ecotype which although interfertile (capable of
interbreeding), but do not produce viable offsprings due to some natural interruption (mountain,
ocean etc).
Ecads or Members of same species having some non genetic variation due to
environment. These variations are temporary.

TAXONOMICAL AIDS

• The laboratory and field studies are required for identification of various species and their
placement in taxonomical hierarchy.

• The information thus gathered about the species, needs to be stored for future use.

• The taxonomical aids developed by biologists have established certain procedures and
techniques to store and preserve the information as well as the specimens.
1. Botanical Gardens

• From the time of Theophrastus, gardens have contributed to the science of botany. But, there
was an impetus to the botanical explorations only in the Post-Linnean period.

• In ancient Indian culture, cultivation of food and medicinal plants is known since 4000 to
2000

• B.C. The 'Hanging Gardens of Babylon' are amongst the wonders of the ancient world.

• During the Middle Ages, from A.D. 600-1600, there was a lapse in learning and introduction
of plants.

• In the seventeenth century, there was a revival in the interest and by eighteenth century, most
of the famous Botanical Gardens known today had already been established.

Fu
nctions of a botanical
1. Provide records of local flora for monographic work.
2. Provide facilities for collections and identification of living plant material for biosystematic
studies / references.
3. Supply seeds and material for botanical investigations.
4. Botanical gardens have an aesthetic appeal and attract a large number of visitors for
observing general plant diversity.
5. Provides means of ex-situ conservation strategies.
6. There are about 525 botanical gardens in various countries, but only about 125 have documented
collections of authenticated taxa.
7. The International Association of Botanical Gardens was established in
1962. This association has published the International Directory of Botanical Gardens
(1983).
 Important Botanical
Gardens
1. Royal Botanical Garden, Kew, England : It was founded in 1759 by William Alton, but
was officially opened in 1841 and was called the Botanical Capital of the World. Sir J.D.
Hooker was one of its directors. It is famous for its Alpine house, Rose Garden, Green house,
Temperature house, Bamboo garden and Lily pond. It is associated with Jodrell laboratory of
experimental taxonomy. It is spread in 200 acres. It is famous for collection of Acacias,
Acer, Rhus, Citrus, Rosa, Prunus, Magnolia. It has Chelsa Physic Garden for horticulturists.
Kew
2. Orto Botanico (Padua Gardens), Italy: It is said to be the first botanical garden. It is
famous for collections of grasses, Alliums, Irids, Paeonias, succulents and hydrophytes.
3. Pisa, Italy: Almost as old as Padua Gardens, it was the first to introduce palaeontological
practises; for the study of plants fossils. It is known for trees like Magnolia grandiflora,
Liriodendron tulipifera etc. Caesalpino and John Ray have been associated with this garden.
4. Villa Taranto, Italy: It is the most beautiful garden of Italy and important from the
horticultural study point of view.
5. Main Botanical Garden, Moscow: Largest Botanical Garden, spread over an area of 900
acres.

BOTANICAL GARDENS OF INDIA

• The Indian Botanical Garden, Kolkata, India: It was founded in 1787, by Lt.Col. Robert
Kyd. It covers an area of 273 acres and contains collections of world's tropical plants.

• It is one of the greatest botanical gardens of the world and one of the first to be established
in tropics.

• William Roxburgh, 'Father of Indian Botany' was its director from 1793 to 1813.

• It has the largest herbarium of east and is famous for the Great Banyan tree, Ficus
benghalensis, which is two centuries old, the palm houses, nurseries and the Amazon lily,
Victoria amazonica (Nymphaeaceae), the plant with the largest leaves.

• It is now under control of BSI (Botanical Survey of India).

Other botanical gardens of India are –

Lloyd Botanical Garden –
Darjeeling National Botanical Garden
–
Lucknow
 Lalbag Gardens – Bangalore Saharanpur
Botanical Gardens – Saharanpur

2. Herbarium (Dry Garden)

• It is defined as "a store house of collected plant specimens that are dried, pressed and
preserved on sheets."

• These sheets are arranged in the sequence of an accepted classification system.

• These specimens, along with their description on herbarium sheets, become a store house or
repository for future use. The herbarium sheet contains a label on the right-hand side at
lower corner.

• Label provides information about date and place of collection, English, local and botanical
names, family, collector's name etc.

• Herbaria also serve as quick referral systems in taxonomical studies.

Herbarium Technique
The herbarium technique involves the following steps:
(a) Collection (b) Drying (c) Poisoning (d) Mounting
(e) Stitching (f) Labelling (g) Deposition
(a) Collection: Collection of plant material is done with an aesthetic sense and scientific
mind. The material should be perfect and complete for determination, i.e., must have
fully grown leaves, complete inflorescence etc.
Woody elements are well represented by flowering twigs with 30-40 cm in lengths, while
herbaceous plants are collected alongwith underground parts.
Diseased plants, infected twigs should be avoided.
The collections are kept inside metallic vasculum or polythene bags.
(b) Drying: The plant collections are pressed in ordinary newspaper folders, avoiding
overlapping. The folders, in turn, are pressed in a field press. The moistened folders are
changed frequently to avoid blackening and decay of plant material.
(c) Poisoning: The specimens are poisoned to keep away the microbes. When the specimens are
partially dehydrated, they are poisoned by using chemicals like 0.1% of corrosive, sublimate
(HgCl2).
(d) Mounting, Stitching and Labelling : Dried specimens are glued and stitched on herbarium
sheets made up of thick card sheets cut to the required size. The international size of the
herbarium sheet is 41× 29 cm (16 1 ×11 1 inches) . The field data is entered on label on the
2 2
right hand side lower corner of the herbarium sheet. Size of label is commonly 7 × 12cm. The
small paper envelopes called fragment packets are often attached to the herbarium sheet to
hold seeds, extra flowers or loose plant parts.
(g) Deposition: Arrangement of specimen, according to accepted classification, is called
deposition. In India, herbaria are arranged according to Bentham and Hooker system of
classification.
The specimens so preserved are sprayed with repellents or disinfectants such as DDT powder,
copper sulphate solution at intervals of 4 to 6 months to keep off small insect pests such as
silver
fish.
Functions of a Herbarium

The two primary functions of herbarium are accurate identification and alpha taxonomic
research (based on gross morphology).
The secondary functions include closer interaction between the student of general systematics
and the herbarium.
 Other Important Functions of a
To preserve plant wealth including type material and palaeobotanical collections.
To carry out exchange and loan of preserved plant material for research, exhibitions etc.
A list of important herbaria of the world is given below along with their standard abbreviations
and the approximate number of specimens they hold
1. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (K) over 6,000,000
2. Central National Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL) 2,000,000

TYPE SPECIMEN (HERBARIUM SHEET)

Type specimen (Herbarium Sheet) of newly discovered plant should be place in herbarium
(Dry garden). Standered size of herbarium sheet is 11.5 × 16.5 inches.
Holotype - Herbarium sheet on which the first description of plant is based.

Isotype - Duplicate of holotype - In presence of holotype a second herbarium sheet

prepared from the original plant is called isotype.
Paratype - Additional herbarium sheet used in the first description of plant is called
paratype. It is prepared from some other plant of same species having some variations.
Lectotype - In case of holotype is lost, second herbarium sheet prepared from the
original plant is called lectotype.
Neotype - In case of holotype and original plant is lost, then herbarium sheet prepared
from some other plant of same species is called neotype.
Syntype - In case of holotype and original plant is lost then many herbarium sheet
prepared from many plants of same species is called syntype.
Note : Nomenclature is invalid in absence of Herbarium sheet.

3. Keys [Given by John Ray]

The scheme for identification of plants and animals based upon similarities and dissimilarities is
known as a key. It is based on the set of contrasting characters known as couplet, each character of
couplet is called as lead. Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category. Keys
are generally analytical in nature and are of two types (1) Indented key (2) Bracketed key –
Indented Key: It has a sequence of choice between two or more statements of characters of
species. These require great taxonomic skills to prepare, so are generally less followed.

1. Bracketed Key: In the Bracketed key the pairs of contrasting statements are used for
identification. The bracketed number on the right side indicates the next choice of paired
contrasting statements. These are most popular keys.

4. Zoological Parks
 Zoos or zoological gardens (parks) are protected areas or enclosed space where live
 animals are kept, under human care. This enables us to learn their food habits and behaviour.

• Objectives are public exhibition to understand wild life, recreation, education, ex

situconservation and breeding of rare fauna.

• Largest zoo of the world is situated in Kruger (S. Africa).

• National Zoological Park (Delhi) is one of the finest zoo of Asia.

5. Museums

• These have collections of preserved plants and animals for study and reference.

• Specimens are preserved in jars or containers in preservative solution.

• Plant and animal specimens may also be preserved as dry specimens.

• Insects are preserved in insect boxes after collecting, killing and pinning.

• Larger animals are usually stuffed and preserved.

• These often have collections of skeletons of animals too.

• Museums are prepared to preserve algae, fungi, mosses, ferns and organs of gymnosperms
since they cannot be kept in herbaria. These differs from parks because no living object is
displayed in museums.

Some important Museums:

Natural History Museum, London (England)
United States National Museum, Washington
National Museum of Natural History (NMNH), Delhi
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai etc.
 Comperative Study of Botanical Garden, Herbarium and Museum :

6. Flora, Manuals,
Flora: Monographs
Contains and Catalogues
the actual account of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area. These
provide the index to the plant species found in a particular area.

Some Important Flora are given below

Flora of British India by J.D. Hooker.
Flora of Delhi by J.K. Maheshwari.
Flora Indica by William Roxburgh.
Flora Simlensis by H. Collet

Manuals: The complete listing and description of the plants growing in a particular area.
e.g., Manual of Cultivated Plants by L.H. Bailey
Monographs: Contain information on anyone
taxon. e.g., The Genus Pinus by N.T. Mirov
Catalogues: This includes the alphabetical arrangements of species describing their
features.

D
o you Know?
Ex-situ / Off-site conservation strategies for organisms includes Botanical gardens and Zoological parks.
Succulent plants or those plants which are unsuitable for pressing and drying techniques, are fixed in
suitable liquid preservative like 2.5% solution of formaldehyde, glacial acetic acid and ethyl alcohol [FAA].
Herbarium technique was first introduced by Caesalpino et. al.
Botanical gardens of world have 15% or 35,000 plants species of the world flora. Tapiary -
Beautifying areas
Bonsai trees -Dwarf trees are grown,in pots
 M
ultiple Choice
Q.1 Which one of the following group of taxa does not represent similar category in hierarchy?
(1) Potato, brinjal and tomato (2) Tiger, lion and leopard
(3) Wheat, monocots and angiosperms (4) Wheat, rice and mango
Which one of the following obligate category in taxonomic hierarchy will have maximum number of common
characters?
(1) Family (2) Class (3) Order (4) Species
ncorrect match w.r.t. mango
(1) Family Anacardiaceae (2) Order Sapindaceae
(3) Class Dicotyledonae (4) Division Angiospermae
correct statement
1) Tomato, dicots and plants represent same taxa at different levels
2) Species is genetically open system
3) A breed of tiger and lion is a fertile true species
4) Biological concept of species is based on reproductive isolation
of the following taxonomical aid serve as quick referral systems in taxonomic studies?
(1) Botanical gardens (2) Museum
(3) Zoological parks (4) Herbaria
Select the odd one out w.r.t. Botanical gardens
1) Collection of living plants for reference
2) Indian Botanical garden is at Howrah
3) It is a method of ex-situ study
4) Collections of preserved plants and animals specimens
d the following statements carefully and select correct option
(a) In zoological parks, conditions similar to natural habitats are provided to animals
(b) Keys are generally analytical in nature
(c) In herbarium sheet, local names are not mentioned
(d) Taxonomical aids are useful in knowing bioresources
(1) Only (a) & (b) (2) (a), (c) & (d) (3) (a), (b) & (d) (4) All of the above
ount of habitat and distribution of plants of a given area is provided by
(1) Manuals (2) Catalogues (3) Monograph (4) Flora
ch column-I with column-II
Column-1 Column-1I
a. Museum (i) Information on one taxon
b. Herbaria (ii) Couplet
c. Botanical gardens (iii) Arranged on universally
accepted classification system
d. Taxonomic key (iv) Educational institutes
 (v) Records of local flora for monographic work
(1) a(iv), b(iii), c(v), d(ii) (2) a(iii), b(v), c(i), d(ii)
(3) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(v) (4) a(v), b(iii), c(iv), d(ii)
Select the incorrect statement
(1) Museums often have collections of skeletons
(2) Separate taxonomic keys are required for each taxonomic category
(3) Taxonomic keys are based on the contrasting characters
(4) Monograph is useful in providing information for identifications of names of species
found in an area
Select the correct match w.r.t. features (column I) related to botanical gardens (column II)
Column I Column II
a. Bamboo garden and Lily pond (i) Villa Taranto
b. Most beautiful garden of Italy (ii) Orto Botanica
c. Founded in 1787, by Robert Kyd (iii) Pisa, Italy
d. Palaeontological study (iv) The Indian Botanical Garden
e. Index kewensis (v) Royal Botanical Garden
(vi) Main Botanical Garden
(vii) Lloyd Botanical Garden
The herbarium specimens are poisoned to keep away the microbes by using
Which group of plants are not kept in herbaria?

Ans. : Q.1 (3), Q.2 (4), Q.3 (2), Q.4 (4), Q.5 (4), Q.6 (4), Q.7 (3), Q.8 (4), Q.9 (1), Q.10 (4), Q.11 a(v),
b(i), c(iv), d(iii), e(v), Q.12 0.1% HgCl2 solution, Q.13 Algae, Fungi, mosses, ferns
 1. The living world is rich in variety. Millions of plants and animals have been identified and
described but a large number still remains unknown.
2. The very range of organisms in terms of size, colour, habitat, physiological and
morphological features make us seek the defining characteristics of living organisms.
3. In order to facilitate the study of kinds and diversity of organisms, biologists have evolved
certain rules and principles for identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms.
4. The branch of science dealing with these aspects is referred to as taxonomy.

13. Taxonomic keys are tools that help in identification based on characteristics.
 Multiple
Choice Questions Exercise 1
1. At present scientific names have been given to
(1) 10 million species (2) 1.7 million species
(3) 3.9 million species (4) 1 million species

2. Study of principles and procedures of classification of organisms is

(1) Systematics (2) Classification (3) Taxonomy (4) Nomenclature

3. Firsl step of taxonomy is

(1) Characterisation (2) Identification (3) Nomenclature (4) All of these

4. Taxonomy comprises
(1) Classification (3) Identification (4) Classification (2) Nomenclature

5. Who among the following is called as the father of taxonomy?

(1) Lamarck (2) Linnaeus (3) A. P. de Candolle (4) Casper Bauhin

6. The father of Indian systematic botany is

(1) R.Mishra (3) Theophrastus (2) Santapau (4) Linnaeus

7. 'Historia Generalis Plantarum' was published by

(1) Engler and Prantl (2) Hutchinson
(3) Bentham & Hooker (4) John Ray

8. The book' Philosophic Zoologique' published in 1809 was written by

(1) C. Darwin (2) Huxley (3) A.I. Oparin (4) Lamarck

9. 'Species Plantarum' and 'Systema Naturae' were written by

(1) Engler (2) Linnaeus (3) Hooker (4) Wallace

10. Carolus Linnaeus is the father of taxonomy because of one of his contribution
(1) Genera Plantarum (2) Binomial nomenclature
(3) Described nearly ten thousand plants and animal species
(4) Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien

11. According to binomial nomenclature, two words used for naming a plant or animal are
(1) Species and genus (2) Genus and species
(3) Species and family (4) Genus and family
 12. Corvus splendens splendens is the scientific name of Indian crow, it represents
(1) Binomial nomenclature (2) Autonyms
(3) Tautonyms (4) Synonyms

13. Type specimen described alongwith holotype is

(1) Isotype (2) Paratype (3) Topotype (4) Syntype

14. Scientific names were first standardised through

(1) ICBN (2) ICZN (3) BSI (4) ZSl

15. The category that includes related families is

(1) Class (2) Phylum (3) Order (4) Kingdom

16. The fundamental taxonomic category or basic unit of classification is

(1) Genus (2) Species (3) Sub-species (4) Variety

17. Organisms which can freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring and have similar coded
information or blue print for making these organisms are called
(2) Species (2) Tribe (3) Genus (4) Sub-genus

18. The concept of genus was first proposed by

(1) Linnaeus (2) Brunfels (3) Bentham (4) Julian Huxley

19. Who gave the biological concept of species?

(1) Aristotle (2) Ernst Mayr (3) John Ray (4) Carolus Linnaeus

20. Hinny is a hybrid produced under natural conditions by crossing

(1) Male tiger and female lion (2) Female horse and male donkey
(3) Male horse and female donkey (4) Female tiger and male lion

21. A genus having many species is known as

(1) Polytypic (2) Monotypic (3) Polygamic (4) Both (1) & (3)

22. Which of the following chemicals is used for poisoning the specimens in herbarium technique?
(1) Hg2Cl2 (2) AgNO3 (3) HCl (4) HgCl2

23. The international size of herbarium sheet is

(1) 41 × 29cm (2) 40 × 30 inches (3) 42 × 20cm (4) 39 × 28cm
24. Which of the following is not included in the minor herbaria?
(1) Regional herbaria (2) College herbaria (3) National herbaria (4) Localherbaria

25. Central National Herbarium is situated at

(1) Chennai (2) Kolkata (3) Dehradun (4) Mumbai

26. National Museum of Natural History is located at

(1) Mumbai (2) Washington (3) Delhi (4) London

27. Largest zoo of the world is situated in

(1) London (2) Chicago (3) Washington (4) Kruger

28. The concept of key was introduced by

(1) John Ray (2) Bentham (3) Linnaeus (4) Hutchinson

29. Most acceptable concept of species is -

(1) Static concept (2) Biological concept
(3) Typological concept (4) Genetic concept

30. The term new systematics was introduced by -

(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham (3) Hutchinson (4) Huxley

31. Group of organisms that closely resemble each other and freely interbreed in nature, constitute a -
(1) Species (2) Genus (3) Family (4) Taxon

32. ICBN was first revised in -

(1) 1961 (2) 1964 (3) 1975 (4) 1753

33. The term taxon refers to -

(1) Name of a species (2) Name of genus
(3) Name of family (4) A taxonomic group of any rank

34.The basic unit of classification is -

(1) Genus (2) Species (3) Order (4) All of the above

35. Suffix for sub species is -

(1) Phytina (2) Oideae (3) Ineae (4) None
36. Taxonomy refers to -
(1) Plant classification (2) Plant nomenclature
(3) Plant identification (4) All the above

37. Systematics deals with -

(1) Classification (2) Nomenclature (3) Plant description (4) Plant exploration

38. Static concept of species is given by -

(1) Linnaeus (2) Bentham (3) Koch (4) Mayr

39. The suffix-ine singnifies the rank -

(1) Tribe (2) Sub-tribe (3) Sub-order (4) Sub-family

40. Species living in different geographical areas are called -

(1) Allochronic (2) Allopatric (3) Sympatric (4) Siblings
(2)
41. For higher plants, flowers are chiefly used as a basis of classification, because-
(1) These show a great veriety in colour
(2) It can be preserved easily
(3) Reproductive parts are more conservative than vegetative parts
(4) None of these

42. The smallest unit of classification is-

(1) Family (2) Order (3) Genus (4) Species

43. Concept of phylogeny was proposed by -

(1) John Ray (2) Lamarck (3) Ernest Haeckel (4) Darwin

44. The standared size of herbarium sheets is -

(1) 11.5'' × 16.5'' (2) 15.5'' × 16.5'' (3) 18.5'' × 10.5'' (4) 20.5'' × 21.5''

45. The systematic arrangement of taxa is called-

(1) Key (2) Taxonomy (3) Geneology (4) Hierarchy

46. Number of obligatory categories in taxonomy are-

(1) 7 (2) 8 (3) 9 (4) 5

47. Herbarium is -
 (1) A garden where medicinal plants are grown
(2) Garden where herbaceous plants are grown
(3) Dry garden (4) Chemical to kill plants

48. The year of publication of ''Species plantarum''-

(1) 1853 (2) 1857 (3) 1753 (4) 1786

49. A duplicate of holotype is called -

(1) Isotype (2) Syntype (3) Neotype (4) Paratype

50. Which of the following is a correct scientific name -

(1) Tamarindus (2) Indicus (3) Indica (4) Tamarindus indicus

51. Practical significance of taxonomy is -

(1) Classification (2) To understand diversity
(3) To understand evolution (4) Identification of organisms

52. Which name is invalid-

(1) Name not published in species plantarum
(2) Name proposed prior to 1961
(3) Name which is in latin
(4) Name for which holotype is not designated

53. Author of book ''Flora of British India'' -

(1) Father Santapau (2) J.D. Hooker
(3) William Rouxburgh (4) G. Bentham

54. ''Genera Plantarum'' was written by -

(1) Engler and Prantal (2) Hutchinson
(3) Bentham & Hooker (4) Bessey

55. Live specimens are used for reference in taxonomic studies in

(1) Museum (2) Zoological parks
(3) Botanical gardens (4) More than one option is correct

56. The scientific naming of plants begin with publication of Linnaeus book -
(1) Genera plantarum (2) Systema nature
(3) Species plantarum (4) Charaka sanhita
57. Morphologically similar but reproductively isolated species are called -
(1) Neontological species (2) Sibling species
(3) Allopatric species (4) Morpho-species

58. The biological concept of species is mainly based on -

(1) Morphological features (2) Morphology and method of reproduction
(3) Method of reproduction only (4) Reproductive isolation

59. Tautonmys are valid names according to-

(1) ICBN (2) Species plantarum
(3) Genera plantarum (4) ICZN

60. Father of Indian Botany is associated with which one of the following botanical garden?
(1) National Botanical Garden (2) Lloyd Botanical Garden
(3) The Indian Botanical Garden (4) Royal Botanical Garden

Multiple
Choice Questions Exercise 2
1. Select correct statement for growth as one of the characteristic of living organisms.
(1) Growth by increase in mass is a defining property of prokaryotic organisms only
(2) Non-living objects do not show growth by increase in mass of body
(3) Intrinsic growth is a characteristic of all living organisms
(4) Growth can be extrinsic or intrinsic for multicellular organisms

2. Reproduction is synonymous with growth in

(1) Most of the fungi and Planaria (2) Desmids, diatoms and protozoans
(3) Cyanobacteria, fungi and mosses (4) Mosses, algae and hydra

3. Binomial epithet has

(1) Two Latin names only
(2) Two Italics names written in Latin
(3) Two Latin names and author's name in Italics
(4) Two Latin names followed by author's name in Roman
4. In taxonomic hierarchy, which of the following group of taxa will have less number of
similarities as compared to other?
(1) Solanaceae, Convolvulaceae and Poaceae
(2) Polymoniales, Poales and Sapindales
(3) Solanum, Petunia and Atropa
(4) Leopard, Tiger and Lion
5. In which of the following pair of category, greater is the difficulty of determining the
relationship to other taxa at the same level, thus, the problem of classification becomes more
complex?
(5) Genus and species (2) Tribe and genus
(3) Division and phylum (4) Species and family
6. Rice, cereals, monocots and plants represent
(1) Different taxa at different level (2) Same taxa of different category
(3) Different category of same taxa (4) Same category for different taxa
7. Select the correct match
Column I Column II
a. Ex-situ conservation (i) Herbarium
b. Quick referral system (ii) Museum
c. Preserved plants (iii) Flora
d. Actual account of habitat and (iv) Botanical
Gardens distribution of plants of a given area
(1) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i) (2) a(i), b(iv), c(ii), d(iii)
(3) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii) (4) a(iv), b(i), c(ii), d(iii)
8. Which one of the following criteria is/are essential and form the basis of modern taxonomic
studies?
(1) Ecological information of organisms (2) Development process
(3) External and internal structure (4) All of these
9. The equivalent rank of Carnivora in taxonomic categories of man and housefly is respectively
(1) Homo and Musca (2) Hominidae and Muscidae
(3) Mammalia and Insecta (4) Primata and Diptera
10. Individuals of same species having non-genetic difference due to environment are called -
(1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype (3) Ecophenes (4) None

11. Plant nomenclature means -

(1) To give names to plants without any rules
(2) Nomenclature of plants under the international rules
(3) Nomenclature of plants in local language
(4) Nomenclature of plants in english language
12. Individuals of same species having genetic variation and occur in same environment are called-
(1) Biotypes (2) Ecotype (3) Ecophenes (4) Ecads
13. For declaration of new species of higher plants what characters are used -
(1) Floral character of new species (2) Anatomical characters of new species
(3) Physiological character of new species (4) Character of endosperm
a. Drying
14. Find the correct sequenceb.of
Poisoning c. Collection
various steps of herbarium technique d.
Labelling
e. Mounting f. Deposition g. Stitching
 (1) c, a, b, e, g, d, f (2) c, b, d, e, I, g, a (3) c, a, b, e, g, I, d (4) c, a, b, g, e, f. d

15. Species belonging to narrow zone of overlapping area are called

(1) Allochronic species (2) Parapatric species
(3) Sympatric species (4) Allopatric species
16. Family tree of organisms based on the concept of E. Haeckel is
(1) Cladogram (2) Dendrogram (3) Monogram (4) Cryptogram
17. The taxon Pteroopsida represents which one of the following categories in taxonomic
hierarchy?
(1) Order (2) Cohort (3) Division (4) Class
18. Specimen selected from original material to serve as new nomenclature type when holotype is
missing
(1) Syntype (2) Paratype (3) Lectotype (4) lsotype
19. Systematics is the study of
(1) Diversity amongst groups of organisms (2) Grouping of organisms
(3) Identification and grouping of organisms
(4) Identification, classification and taxonomy
20. Find incorrectly matched pair
(1) Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien – Engler and Prantl
(2) Families of Flowering Plants – John Hutchinson
(3) Flora of British India – Bentham
(4) Philosophila Botanica – Linnaeus
21. The correct sequence of taxonomic categories is
(1) Division-class-family-tribe-order-genus-species
(2) Division-class-order- family-tribe-genus-species
(3) Phylum-order-class-tribe-family-genus-species
(4) Class-phylum-tribe-order-family-genus-species

22. Two species can be said to be reproductively isolated if they are

(1) Interfertile
(2) Not interfertile
(3) Do not grow together in a common habitat
(4) Growing together in a common habitat
23. Over 6,000,000 specimens are preserved in which botanical garden or herbaria?
(1) Museum of National History, Paris (2) Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew
(3) Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh (4) U.S. National Herbarium. Washington D.C.
24. Which one of the following is the first zoological museum of India?
(1) Indian Museum, Kolkata (2) Maharaja Sawai Man Singh Museum. Jaipur
(3) Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai (4) National Museum of Natural History, Delhi
 25. Which of the following statements regarding nomenclature is correct -
(1) Generic name always begins with capital letter whereas specific name with small letter
(2) Scientific name should be printed in italics
(3) Scientific name when typed or handwritten should be underlined
(4) All the above

Answer Key
Multiple Choice Questions Exercise 1

Q.1 2 Q.2 3 Q.3 1 Q.4 4 Q.5 2 Q.6 2 Q.7 4

Q.8 4 Q.9 2 Q.1 2 Q.1 2 Q.1 2 Q.1 2 Q.1 1
0 1 2 3 4
Q.1 3 Q.1 2 Q.1 1 Q.1 2 Q.1 2 Q.2 3 Q.2 1
5 6 7 8 9 0 1
Q.2 4 Q.2 1 Q.2 3 Q.2 2 Q.2 3 Q.2 4 Q.2 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Q.2 2 Q.3 4 Q.3 1 Q.3 3 Q.3 4 Q.3 2 Q.3 4
9 0 1 2 3 4 5
Q.3 4 Q.3 3 Q.3 1 Q.3 1 Q.4 2 Q.4 3 Q.4 4
6 7 8 9 0 1 2
Q.4 3 Q.4 1 Q.4 4 Q.4 1 Q.4 3 Q.4 3 Q.4 1
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Q.5 4 Q.5 4 Q.5 4 Q.5 2 Q.5 3 Q.5 4 Q.5 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Q.5 2 Q.5 4 Q.5 4 Q.6 1
7 8 9 0

Multiple Choice Questions

Exercise 2
Q.1 3 Q.2 2 Q.3 4 Q.4 2 Q.5 3 Q.6 1 Q.7 3
Q.8 4 Q.9 4 Q.1 3 Q.1 2 Q.1 1 Q.1 1 Q.1 1
0 1 2 3 4
Q.1 2 Q.1 1 Q.1 4 Q.1 2 Q.1 1 Q.2 3 Q.2 2
5 6 7 8 9 0 1
Q.2 2 Q.2 2 Q.2 1 Q.2 4
2 3 4 5
 EXERCISE – AIIMS Special Questions
Instructions for Q.No. 1 to 10
In the following questions (1 to 10), a statement of assertion (A) is followed
by a statement of reason (R).
(1) If both Assertion & Reason are true and the reason is the correct
explanation of the assertion, then mark (1).
(2) If both Assertion & Reason are true but the reason is not the correct
explanation of the assertion, then mark (2).
(3) If Assertion is true statement but Reason is false, then mark (3).
(4) If both Assertion and Reason are false statements, then mark (4).
A : De Candolle introduced the term taxonomy.
R : He proposed plants classification in his book "Theorie Elementaire de la
Botanique”.
A : Species is a genetically closed system.
R : Because the reproductive isolation constitutes the most important
boundary between different species.
A : Scientific names have been standarized through ICBN.
R : First international botanical congress was held in Paris in 1967.
A : Dried specimens are poisoned by HgCl2.
R : It prevents the specimen from the moisture.
A : Members of a species are reproductively isolated from others belonging to
other species.
R : Species is the basic taxonomic category.
A : A group of closely related families form an order.
R : The families of an order show close resemblance in certain fundamental
features and also inevolutionary trends.
A : Biological concept of species is based on reproductive isolation.
R : Tigon is interspecific sterile hybrid produced in captive condition.
A : Synonyms are concerned with most important of all rules of ICBN.
R : Out of the two or more scientific names given to the organism, the
oldest name is recognized as valid name and other names as synonyms.
A : Arboretum is ex-situ conservation strategy of plants.
R : It is a special kind of garden with main collection of herbs and shrubs.
A : Two plants A and B are treated as two taxonomic species.
R : Both A and B are different in correlated characters.

Answer Key
Q.1 2 Q.2 1 Q.3 3 Q.4 3 Q.5 2 Q.6 1 Q.7 3
Q.8 1 Q.9 3 Q.10 1