CHAPTER 5

THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of life. The cell was discovered by
Robert Hooke. A number of cells can work together to form tissues and organs.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which food releases energy in the mitochondria.
Cells absorb glucose from food and burn it to produce energy.

Structural Organization of Cells

Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
Two types of cells – Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are primitive
and lack a well-defined nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are more advanced and have a
well-defined nucleus.

Cell Structure in Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells have the most well-defined structure. These cells have cell
membranes, membrane-bound cell organelles and a well-defined nucleus. The
nucleus has its own membrane called the nuclear membrane.

Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell.

 It is made up of a phospholipid bilayer membrane.
 It is selectively permeable in nature.
 The structure of a cell membrane is best described by the fluid mosaic model.

Diffusion

The movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of lower

concentration is known as diffusion. E.g. carbon dioxide and oxygen move across
the cell membrane by diffusion.

Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane. Osmosis is
a selective process since the membrane does not allow all molecules to pass
through it. Water is usually the only free-flowing molecule across this membrane.
Isotonic, Hypotonic, and Hypertonic Solutions
 Isotonic solutions are those which have the same solute as the surrounding
body fluid or the cytoplasm.
 Hypotonic solutions contain a lesser amount of solute concentration
compared to the surrounding fluid and can force the cell to rupture due to
excess input of water into the cell.
 Hypertonic solutions contain a higher concentration of solute compared to the
surrounding fluid and thus push water out of the cell, shrinking it.

Cell Walls in Plants

Plant cells are different from animal cells due to the presence of a cell wall. The cell
wall is made of cellulose and gives a rigid structure to the plant cell. It provides
structural support to plants. Due to cell walls, cells of plants, fungi and bacteria can
withstand greater changes in surrounding conditions than animal cells. E.g. Cell wall
enables the cells to withstand hypotonic solution without bursting.

Cell Organelles

Eukaryotic cells contain various membrane-bound organelles that carry out various
functions in the cell, e.g. Nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
Lysosomes, etc.

Endocytosis

Endocytosis is the flexibility of cell membrane that enables amoeba to engulf the
food. This is commonly seen in Amoeba.

Nucleus in Cells

The nucleus is the processing unit of the cell. It is a double membrane-bound

organelle which contains the genetic material for inheritance. The nuclear membrane
contains pores that allow the transfer of materials from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
The nucleus is the brain of the cell as it controls various functions such as cell
division, reproduction, inheritance, etc. The nucleus contains genetic material, i.e.
chromosomes that contain DNA. DNA carries information for inheritance from
parents to offspring. Prokaryotes lack a well-defined nucleus and the genetic
material is present in a region known as the nucleoid.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes are the genetic material present in the nucleus. It contains DNA with
associated proteins. They are present as threads called chromatin. During the
growth phase of the cell, the chromatin condenses into a much thicker structure
called a chromosome. Human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46).

Chromatin

Chromatin is a thread-like structure which serves as the genetic material present

inside the nucleus of the cell. It is made up of DNA and protein molecules. DNA
contains the hereditary information needed for the structure and function of the
organism.

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm is the fluid found inside the cell. It gives the structure to the cell and
houses different organelles of the cell.

Organelles

Organelles are structures present in the cytoplasm of the cell that helps in several
functions of the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane-bound cell organelle that plays an

integral role in the interpretation of the genetic information present in the nucleus.

Rough ER

Rough ER is the one that has ribosomes on them. The ribosome is made up of
nucleic acids and proteins. They are the site of protein synthesis. The Rough ER is
also involved in the modification and folding of proteins.

Smooth ER

Smooth ER does not have ribosomes and thus is not involved in protein synthesis.
They are, however, involved in lipid metabolism and detoxifying of poisonous
molecules.

Golgi Apparatus

Golgi Apparatus help in packaging and transport the proteins across the cytoplasm.

Lysosomes
They are referred to as suicide bags of the cell as they contain powerful enzymes
that can digest a cell. They also help in defence by attacking a foreign object.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are also called the powerhouse of a cell. They generate ATP via the
electron transport chain. They can make their own proteins.

Plastids

There are various types of plastids in different cells based on the pigment they
contain. The chloroplast is the plastid where photosynthesis occurs, they contain
chlorophyll. Some of the other plastids are leucoplast and chromoplast. Leucoplasts
store starch, oil and protein granules. Plastids also contain their own DNA and
ribosomes.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are storage sacs that hold water or air in them and give structural rigidity to
the cell. Vacuoles are common in plant cells. In animals, the vacuoles are either very
small or absent.

Comparison between Plant and Animal Cells

Plants cells are different from animal cells structurally. Plant cells have cell walls and
chloroplast which are missing in animal cells. Plants cells also have large vacuoles,
which are either very small or missing in animal cells. The nucleus is present at the
centre of the cell in animal cells and at the periphery in plant cells.

1. Who discovered cells, and how?

Solution: In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered cells while examining a thin slice of cork through
a self-designed microscope. He observed that the cork resembled the structure of a
honeycomb consisting of numerous tiny compartments. The minuscule boxes are referred
to as cells.

2. Why is the cell called the structural and functional unit of life?
Solution: Cells form the structure of an entity. A group of cells form a tissue, further an
organ and ultimately an organ system. They perform fundamental functions and life
processes such as respiration, digestion, excretion etc., in both unicellular and multicellular
entities. They perform all the activities independently. Hence, cells are referred to as
structural and fundamental units of life.
3. How do substances like CO2 and water move in and out of the cell? Discuss.
Solution: CO2 moves by diffusion. The cellular waste accumulates in high concentrations in
the cell, whereas the concentration of CO2 in the external surroundings is comparatively
lower. This difference in the concentration level inside and outside of the cell causes the
CO2 to diffuse from a region of higher (within the cell) to a lower concentration.
H2O diffuses by osmosis through the cell membrane. It moves from a region of higher
concentration to a lower concentrated region through a selectively permeable membrane
until equilibrium is reached.

4.Why is the plasma membrane called a selectively permeable membrane?

Solution: If the plasma membrane ruptures or breaks down, then molecules of some
substances will freely move in and out of the cells. As the plasma membrane acts as a
mechanical barrier, the exchange of material from its surroundings through osmosis or
diffusion in a cell won’t take place. Consequently, the cell would die due to the
disappearance of the protoplasmic material.

5. What would happen to the life of a cell if there was no Golgi apparatus?
Solution: The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane-bound vesicles whose
functions are as follows:
• Storage of substances
• Packaging of substances
• Manufacture of substances
Without the Golgi apparatus, the cells will be disabled from packing and dispatching
materials that were produced by the cells. The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the
formation of cells. Hence, in the absence of the Golgi apparatus, cells will not be produced.

6. Which organelle is known as the powerhouse of the cell? Why?

Solution: Mitochondria are known as the powerhouse of the cell. It is because it releases the
energy required for different activities of life. Mitochondria releases energy in the form of
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) molecules, essential for numerous chemical activities of life.
Hence, ATP is often referred to as the ‘energy currency of the cell’.

7. Where do the lipids and proteins constituting the cell membrane get synthesised?
Solution: Lipids and proteins are synthesised in the ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum).

8. How does an Amoeba obtain its food?

Solution: Through the process of endocytosis, an Amoeba obtains its food. As its cell
membrane is flexible enough, food particles are engulfed, forming a food vacuole girdling it,
which is assisted by the pseudopodia. Amoeba secretes digestive enzymes to bring about
digestion of the engulfed particle once the food is trapped.

9. What is osmosis?
Solution: The process of movement of a water molecule from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration through a semipermeable membrane is
known as osmosis.

10. Carry out the following osmosis experiment:

Take four peeled potato halves and scoop each one out to make potato cups. One of these
potato cups should be made from a boiled potato. Put each potato cup in a trough
containing water. Now,
(a) Keep cup A empty
(b) Put one teaspoon sugar in cup B
(c) Put one teaspoon salt in cup C
(d) Put one teaspoon sugar in the boiled potato cup D.
Keep these for two hours. Then observe the four potato cups and answer the following:
(i) Explain why water gathers in the hollowed portion of B and C.
(ii) Why is potato A necessary for this experiment?
(iii) Explain why water does not gather in the hollowed-out portions of A and D.

Solution:
(i) Water accumulates in the hollowed portions of B and C as a difference in the water
concentration is observed. Thereby, endosmosis occurs as the cells act as a semipermeable
membrane.
(ii) Potato A is essential in this experiment as it is significant to compare different scenarios
seen in potato cups B, C and D. Potato A in this experiment clearly shows that the potato
cavity on its own cannot bring about water movement.
(iii) Cup in A does not show any change in the water flow concentration for osmosis to
occur, which requires concentration to be higher than the other. Cells in cup D are dead;
thus, there is no existence of a semipermeable membrane for water flow. Consequently,
osmosis does not occur.

11. Which type of cell division is required for the growth and repair of the body, and which
type is involved in the formation of gametes?
Solution:
There are two ways in which a cell divides:
• Mitosis
• Meiosis
Mitosis is the type of cell division that is involved in the growth and repair of the body,
whereas meiosis is a type of cell division which results in the formation of gametes.
 CH: TISSUES

Introduction

→ A group of cells that are similar in structure and/or work together to achieve a particular
function forms a tissue.

→ Most of the tissues in plants are supportive, which provides them with structural
strength.

These tissues are dead, since dead cells can provide mechanical strength as easily as live
ones, and need less maintenance.

Plant Tissues are of two types:

Meristematic & Permanent tissues.

Meristematic Tissue

These are simple living tissues having thin walled compactly arranged immature cells which
are capable of division and formation of new cells.

Features of Meristematic tissues:

Thin primary cell wall (cellulosic).

→ Intercellular spaces are absent (compact tissue).

→ Generally vacuoles are absent, dense cytoplasm & prominent nuclei are present.

→ Large numbers of cell organelles are present.

→ Actively dividing cells are present in growing regions of plants, example: root & shoot
tips.

Classification of Meristematic Tissues on the Basis of Location

• Apical Meristem

It is present at the growing tips of stems and roots.

Cell division in this tissue leads to the elongation of stem & root, thus it is involved in
primary growth of the plant.
• Intercalary Meristem

→ It is present behind the apex.

It is the part of apical meristem which is left behind during growth period.

These are present at the base of leaf & internode region.

These lead to the increase in the length of leaf (Primary), example: in grass stem, bamboo
stem, mint stem etc.

• Lateral Meristem

It is also called as secondary meristem.

→It occurs along the sides of longitudinal axis of the plant.

It gives rise to the vascular tissues.

→Causes growth in girth of stem & root.

They are responsible for secondary growth.

Permanent Tissue

The permanent tissues are composed of those cells which have lost their capability to
divide.

-They have definite shape, size and thickness. The permanent tissue may be dead or living.

The division & differentiation of the cells of meristematic tissues give rise to permanent
tissues.

In cell differentiation, developing tissue and organs change from simple to more complex
forms to become specialized for specific functions.

The cells of permanent tissue loose the capacity to divide and attain a permanent shape,
size and function.

Permanent tissues are classified into two types on the basis of Structure and Composition
i.e. Simple Permanent Tissues and Complex Permanent Tissues.
Simple Permanent Tissues

These are made up of same type of cells which are similar structurally and functionally.

→ They include two types of tissue Protective tissues and Supporting Tissues.

• Protective Tissues: These tissues are primarily protective in function.

→ They consist of Epidermis and Cork

Epidermis forms one cell thick outermost layer of various body organs of plants such as
leaves, flowers, stems and roots.

→ Epidermis is covered outside by cuticle. Cuticle is a water-proof layer of waxy substance

called as cutin which is secreted by the epidermal cells.

Cuticle is very thick in xerophytes,

→ Cells of epidermis of leaves are not continuous at some places due to the presence of
small pores called as stomata.

Each stomata is guarded by a pair of bean-shaped cells called as guard cells. These are the
only epidermal cells which possess chloroplasts, the rest being colourless.

Functions of Epidermis

The main function of epidermis is to protect the plant from desiccation and infection.

→Cuticle of epidermis cuts the rate of transpiration and evaporation of water and prevents
wilting.

Stomata in epidermis allow gaseous exchange to occur during photosynthesis respiration.

Stomata also helps in transpiration.

(ii) Cork

In older roots and stems, tissues at the periphery become cork cells or phellem cells.

→ Cork is made up to dead cells with thick walls and do not have any intercellular spaces.
The cell walls in cork deposit waxy substance called as suberin.

The cells of cork become impermeable to water and gases due to the deposition of suberin.
The cork cells are without any protoplasm but are filled with resins or tannins.

Functions of Cork

Cork is protective in function. Cork cells prevent desiccation, infection and mechanical
injury.

Supporting Tissues: These are supportive in function.

There are three types of Supporting tissues i.e. Parenchyma, Collenchyma and
Sclerenchyma.

Parenchyma

Thin walled cells, oval or spherical in structure.

→Cell wall mainly composed of cellulose & pectin.

Large central vacuole for food & water storage.

Primary function is food storage.

Collenchyma

It is the living mechanical tissue.

Elongated cells with thick corners.
Localised cellulose and pectin thickening.
Provides flexibility to the plant parts and easy bending of various parts of the plant

Sclerenchyma
Composed of extremely thick walled cells with little or no protoplasm.

Cells are dead & possess very thick lignified walls.

Lignin is water-proof material.

Intercellular spaces are absent.

Cells of sclerenchyma are of two types Sclereids and Fibres.

Complex Permanent Tissues

It consists of more than one type of cells which work together as a unit.
It helps in transportation of organic materials, water & minerals.

It is also known as conducting or vascular tissue.

Xylem & phloem together form vascular bundles.

XYLEM consists of four types of cells as elements Tracheids, vessels , xylem parenchyma
and xylem Sclerenchyma.

PHLOEM
They consists of both parenchymatous and sclerenchymatous cells.

Phloem consists of four elements which are Sieve tubes, Companion cells , phloem fibre and
phloem parenchyma

Animal tissue are of four different types depending upon their structure and function. They
are epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous tissues.

A Epithelial tissue: It covers the entire body externally as well as internally. The cells are
tightly held together with various types of junctions and small amount of cementing
materials. Inter cellular spaces are nearly absent. Epithelium rests over an extra cellular
layer of collagen fibres and dense matrix called basement membrane which connects
epithelium with underlying connective tissue Epithelia are classified on the basis of
arrangement of layers, cells shapes and functions.

B. Muscular tissue: A contractile tissue which possesses contractile proteins inside cells held
together by connective tissue. Cells of muscular tissue are elongated and are called as
muscle fibres. Muscle fibres are of three types - striated, smooth and cardiac.

(i) Striated muscles are also known as skeletal or voluntary muscles.

These muscles are attached to the bone and work according to our conscious will, hence
also known as skeletal or voluntary muscles. The cells of these muscles are elongated,
cylindrical, unbranched, non tapering, showing dark and light bands and contain many
nuclei situated towards the periphery of muscle fibre.

(ii) Unstriated or smooth muscles are also referred as Sarcoplasm non-striated or

involuntary or visceral muscles.

iii. Cardiac muscle are found exclusively in heart. The cells are cylindrical, branched and
have light and dark bands. They do not work according to our will. So they are involuntary in
action. The cells are uninucleate and are rich in glycogen and mitochondria. They develop
small lateral branches to form a highly interconnected network that helps in quick spread of
impulses.
C. Connective tissue: A fundamental animal tissue that binds, supports and packs different
organs of animal body. It helps in transport of gases, hormones, nutrients and excretory
products. This tissue comprises of abundant matrix, secreted by living cells of connective
tissue. It can be jelly like, fluid or solid. On the basis of nature of matrix, connective tissue is
of three types - connective tissue proper (jelly like matrix), skeletal tissue (solid matrix) and
vascular tissue (fluid matrix).
Nervous tissue: Nervous tissue is specialised for receiving and transmitting impulses. It
comprises of brain, spinal cord and nerves. Neuron is the basic structural and functional unit
of nervous system. It is made up of expanded cell body and processes like dendrites and
axon. Interneuron junctions where nerve endings of one neuron are in close contact with
the dendrites of successive neuron is referred as synapse.

1. What is a tissue?
Solution: A tissue is defined as a cluster of cells, which are similar in structure and work
together to perform a particular function.

2. What is the utility of tissues in multicellular organisms?

Solution: The use of tissues in multicellular organisms is to provide structural and
mechanical strength as well as to allow division of labour.

3. Name the types of simple tissues.

Solution:The types of simple tissues are as follows:
➢ Parenchyma
➢ Collenchyma
➢ Sclerenchyma

4. Where is apical meristem found?

Solution: In plants, apical meristem is typically found at:
• The tip of the shoot
• Root of the plant

5. Which tissue makes up the husk of a coconut?

Solution: The sclerenchymatous tissue, which is a type of permanent tissue makes up the
husk of the coconut. These tissues causes the plant to become stiff and hard. The cells of
this tissue are dead and their cell walls are thickened because of the presence of lignin.

6. What are the constituents of phloem?

Solution: The phloem constitutes of the following four elements, they are:
➢ Sieve tube
➢ Companion cells
➢ Phloem parenchyma
➢ Phloem fibres

7. Name the tissue responsible for movement of our body.

Solution: Two tissues jointly are responsible for the movement of our body, namely:
➢ Muscular tissue
➢ Nervous tissue

8. What does a neuron look like?

Solution: A neuron is a nerve cell consisting of the cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm
from which a long and thin hair-like structure emerges. Every neuron has one elongated
part known as the axon, and several short and small branched structures known as
dendrites. A single neuron can even be a meter long.

9. Give three features of cardiac muscles.

Solution: Cardiac muscles are specialized tissues that are evolved to pump blood throughout
the body.
The following are the features of cardiac muscles:
➢ They are cylindrical in shape.
➢ Striated muscle fibers.
➢ They are uninucleated and branched.
➢ These muscles are involuntary in nature.

10. What are the functions of areolar tissue?

Solution: Areolar tissues are typically observed in animals. They are connective tissues and
are found in between skin and muscles. They are also located around blood vessels and
nerves, and are present in the bone marrow. The space inside the organs is filled with these
tissues. They support the delicate internal organs and assist in tissue repair in case of
damage.

11. How many types of elements together make up the xylem tissue? Name them.
Solution: The xylem tissue is made up of four main elements, namely:
➢ Vessels
➢ Tracheids
➢ Xylem fibres
➢ Xylem parenchyma

12. Name the following.

(a) Tissue that forms the inner lining of our mouth. Suamous epithelium
(b) Tissue that connects muscle to bone in humans. Tendon
(c) Tissue that transports food in plants – Phloem
(d) Tissue that stores fat in our body – Adipose tissue
(e) Connective tissue with a fluid matrix – Blood, it is a fluid connective tissue
(f) Tissue present in the brain – Nervous tissue

13. Identify the type of tissue in the following:

Skin, bark of tree, bone, lining of kidney tubule, vascular bundle.
Solution:
➢ Skin: Stratified squamous epithelial tissue
➢ Bark of tree: Protective tissue and cork
➢ Bone: Connective tissue
➢ Lining of kidney tubule: Cuboidal epithelial tissue
➢ Vascular bundle: Conducting tissue (xylem and phloem), complex permanent tissue

14. Name the regions in which parenchyma tissue is present.

Solution:
The parenchyma is found in:
• The pith of stems and roots
• When parenchyma contains chlorophyll it is called a chlorenchyma. It is found in green
leaves
• Parenchyma found in aquatic plants has large air cavities which enables them to float, and
are hence called aerenchyma.

15. What is the role of epidermis in plants?

Solution:
The epidermis in plants forms an uninterrupted and continuous layer that has no
intercellular spaces. It provides protection.

16. How does the cork act as a protective tissue?

Solution:
Cork cells are dead. The arrangement of cells is so dense, that there is no intercellular space.
Deposition of suberin is observed on the walls of the cells that make them impervious to
water and gases.

CH. IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES

Q1. What do we get from cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables?

Ans:Cereals are the source of carbohydrates and are the main source of energy.
Pulses provide protein for growth and development. Vegetables and fruits are loaded
with minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, proteins and fats for overall developme
Q2. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect crop production?

Ans: 2 major factors that affect the crop are:

• Biotic factors like insects, rodents, pests, and many more spread the disease and
reduce crop production.
• Abiotic factors like humidity, temperature, moisture, wind, rain, flood and many
more destroy the crop raised.

Q3. What are the desirable agronomic characteristics for crop improvement?
Ans: The essential agronomic features required for crop improvement are:
• Profuse branching along with tallness in any fodder crop.
• Dwarfness in any cereals.

Q4. What are macro-nutrients, and why are they called macronutrients?
Ans: Macro-nutrients are the fundamental elements that are used by plants in more
quantity. Macro-nutrients needed by the plants are
• Macro-nutrients as the constituent of protoplasm.
• Phosphorus, Nitrogen, and Sulphur are present in proteins.
• Calcium exists in the cell wall.
• Magnesium is a significant component of chlorophyll.

Q5. How do plants get nutrients?

Ans: There are 16 basic essential nutrients required by plants to grow. Carbon and
Oxygen are supplied by water, and the remaining nutrients are supplied through the
soil.
Q6. Compare the use of manure and fertilisers in maintaining soil fertility.

Ans:• Manure improves soil quality with added nutrients.

• Manure provides extra organic matter called humus to the soil and therefore
increasing the water retention capacity of sandy soils and drainage in clayey soil.
• Manures reduce soil erosion.
• They provide food for soil-friendly bacteria, which are helpful in growing crops.

The effects of fertilisers are

• Fertilisers make the soil become too dry and powdered and raise the rate of soil
erosion.
• The organic matter decreases by decreasing the porosity of the soil; hence, the
plant roots do not get oxygen properly.
• The nature of soil changes, either basic or acidic.

Q7. Which of the following conditions will give the most benefits? Why?
(a) Farmers use high-quality seeds; do not adopt irrigation or use fertilisers.
(b) Farmers use ordinary seeds, adopt irrigation and use fertilisers.
(c) Farmers use quality seeds, adopt irrigation, use fertiliser and use crop protection
measures.

Ans: Option (c) will give the most benefits because the use of good quality seeds is
not only sufficient until the soil is properly irrigated, enriched with fertilisers and
protected from biotic factors.

Q8. Why should preventive measures and biological control methods be preferred for
protecting crops?

Ans: Over-exposure to chemicals leads to environmental problems; hence, biological

methods are preferred for protecting crops from pathogens, insects and rodents,
along with increasing production. Since chemicals are harmful to plants and also to
the animals which feed on them, bio-pesticides are used as a safe way of crop
protection.

Q9. What factors may be responsible for the losses of grains during storage?
Ans: Biotic and Abiotic factors are responsible for the loss of grains during storage
like• Rodents
• Pests
• Insects
• Fungi
• Bacteria
• Sunlight
• Flood
• Rain
• Temperature
• Moisture

Q10. Which method is commonly used for improving cattle breeds and why?

Ans: Cross-breeding is generally the best method adopted for improving cattle breed
quality. In this method, breeding between two good cattle breeds results in a new,
improved variety of cattle breeds or offspring. While breeding, care is taken to have a
good resultant with a high yield having resistance to climatic conditions.

Q11. What management practices are common in dairy and poultry farming?

Ans:• Well-designed Hygienic shelter for dairy animals and poultry birds.
• Good quality proper food and fodder are provided to dairy animals and poultry
birds.
• Importance for animal health by prevention and cure of disease caused by bacteria,
viruses, or fungi.
• Sunlight-feasible and airy ventilated shelter for animals.
Q12. What are the differences between broilers and layers and their management?

Ans: Broilers

The poultry bird raised for meat purposes is called a broiler. Broilers feed on protein-
rich adequate-fat food. The level of vitamins A and K is kept high in poultry feeds.

Layers

The egg-laying poultry bird is called a layer. The housing, environmental and
nutritional requirements of broilers vary from those of egg layers. Layers require
proper lighting and enough space.

Q13. Discuss the implications of the following statement: “It is interesting to note
that poultry is India’s most efficient converter of low-fibre foodstuff (which is unfit
for human consumption) into highly nutritious animal protein food.”

Ans: Poultry farming aims to raise domestic birds for egg and chicken meat purposes.
These domestic birds feed on animal feeds which mainly consist of roughages for
getting good quality feathers, eggs, chicken and nutrient-rich manure. For these
reasons, it is said that “poultry is India’s most efficient converter of low-fibre
foodstuff into highly nutritious animal protein food.”

Q14. How are fish obtained?

Ans: Fishes are obtained in two ways:

Capture fishing: Obtaining fish from natural resources.

Culture Fishery: Culturing of fishes in freshwater ecosystems, like rivers, ponds and
lakes, also including marine.

Q15. What are the advantages of composite fish culture?

Ans: The advantages of composite fish culture are

• In a single fish pond, a combination of 5 or 6 types of fish species can be cultured
since they do not compete for food among themselves
• Food resources can be completely utilised
• Survival of the fish also increases
• More yield
Q16. What are the desirable characteristics of bee varieties suitable for honey
production?

Ans: • The variety of bees should yield a large amount of honey.

• The bees should stay for a longer period in bee hives.
• The bees should not sting much.
• Bees should be disease resistant.

Q17. What is pasturage, and how is it related to honey production?

Ans: Pasturage refers to the availability of flowers to the bees for easy accessibility
for pollen collection and nectar. The kinds of flowers available will determine the
taste of the honey; hence, Pasturage is the main reason for good quality honey.

Q18. Explain any one method of crop production which ensures high yield.
Ans: Plant breeding is one of the methods adopted for high-yield plant breeding and
is implemented to improve the varieties of crops by breeding plants. Plants from
various places/areas are picked up with preferred traits, and then the process of
hybridisation or cross-breeding is done among these diversities to get a crop/plant of
anticipated characteristics.

Q19. Why are manure and fertilisers used in fields?

Ans: Manures and fertilisers are used to enrich the soil quality and improve the yield.
They also help in controlling diseases. Manure and fertilisers replenish the soil by
supplying nutrients to the soil. They are excellent sources of potassium, phosphorous
and nitrogen which assist in the healthy development of plants. Manures and
fertilisers mainly improve the fertility of the soil.

Q20. What are the advantages of inter-cropping and crop rotation?

Ans: Inter-cropping

• Checks pests and rodents and hence decreases the chances of the spoiling of whole
crops
• Decreased chances of soil erosion
• Reduced loss of crops with high yield
• Less water requirement

Crop rotation
• Farmers can grow two or three crops annually
• Pulses take nitrogen directly from the atmosphere and hence require a minimal
amount of fertilisers
• Both fruits and vegetables can be grown easily
• Best use of land with a proper supply of nutrients

Q21. What is genetic manipulation? How

useful in agricultural practices?

Ans: Genetic manipulation is a process in which the transfer of genes takes place
from one organism to another. Here, a gene of a particular character is introduced
inside the chromosome cell, resulting in a transgenic plant.

Example: BT Cotton is a genetically modified crop which carries bacterial genes that
protect this plant from insects. These are used in plants like brinjal, cabbage, rice,
cauliflower, and maize crops to get protection from insects.

Q22. How do storage grain losses occur?

Ans:
Storage grain losses occur due to various abiotic and biotic factors.
Abiotic factors
• Humidity
• Air
• Temperature
• Flood
• Wind

Biotic factors
• Insects
• Rodents
• Pesticides
• Bacteria
• Mites
• Birds

Q23. How do good animal husbandry practices benefit farmers?

Ans:
Good practice of animal husbandry benefits farmers in the following ways:

• Yields in good quality cattle

• Better quality of milk production
• Use in agriculture for carting, irrigation and tilling

Q24. What are the benefits of cattle farming?

Ans:
 The benefits of cattle farming are

• Cattle are used for agricultural purposes

• Generation of good quality cattle

• Milking and meat purpose

• The skin of cattle is used for the leather and wool industry

Q25. For increasing production, what is common in poultry, fisheries and bee-
keeping?

Ans:

For increasing production, cross-breeding techniques are used adopted in poultry,

fisheries and bee-keeping. Along with these techniques, regular and proper
maintenance methods are useful in improving production.

Q26. How do you differentiate between capture fishing, mariculture and

aquaculture?

Ans:
Capture fishing: It is a technique in which fish are captured from various sources of
natural resources like sea, rivers, lakes and ponds.

Mariculture: Culturing of fish in marine fishes like prawns, oysters, bhetki and mullets
in marine water for commercial use.

Aquaculture: Involved in culturing of fish in both marine and freshwater.

Chapter 5 THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
Assignment

1. Name the scientist who:

(a) discovered the cell in a cork slice
(b) observed first living cell in pond water
(c) discovered nucleus
(d) coined the term ‘Protoplasm’ for the fluid substance of the cell
2. Write an activity to demonstrate that a plant body is made up of cells.
3. Name the chemical substance used to stain onion peel in an experiment.
 4. Define the following terms and give two examples of each.
(a) Unicellular organisms (b) Multicellular organisms
5. Draw diagrams showing various cells from the human body.
6. What is the Cell Theory? Who gave it? Name the scientist who made an addition in
it. State his contribution also.
7. Why is the cell called the structural and functional unit of life?
8. What do you mean by division of labour? Give examples.
9. Why is the plasma membrane called ‘selectively permeable membrane’? Give reason.
10. Define diffusion. Give an example.
11. How are O2 and CO2 exchanged by a plant with its environment? Discuss.
12. Define the following terms
(a) Hypotonic solution (b) Hypertonic solution
(c) Isotonic solution
13. Define osmosis. Give an example.
14. What will happen when a raisin is kept in water?
15. Why is osmosis considered as a special type of diffusion?
16. Write the composition of plasma membrane.
17. Define endocytosis. Give an example.

(Cell wall, Nucleus and Cytoplasm)

18. Name the chemical substance that constitutes plant cell wall.
19. Define plasmolysis. Give an example.
20. The cells of plants, bacteria and fungi can withstand very dilute (hypotonic) solutions
without bursting in it but an animal can not. Give reason.
21. Name two chemicals used to stain nucleus in a cell (other than safranin).
22. Describe the structure of nucleus.
23. Why are pores necessary in the nuclear envelop?
24. Write two functions of nucleus.
25. What are chromosomes? Write their chemical composition. At what stage in a cell,
can we observe chromosomes?
26. Define gene.
27. Write four points of difference between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell.
 28. Where is cytoplasm located?

29. What do you mean by nucleoid?

(CELL ORGANELLES)

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

1. Draw labelled diagrams of an animal cell and a plant cell.
2. What is ER? Name its two types. How are they different from each other?
3. Write any three functions of ER.

GOLGI APPARATUS
1. What is the role of Golgi Apparatus? Name the scientist who discovered it.
2. Mention five function of Golgi apparatus.
3. What do you call Golgi Apparatus in plants?

LYSOSOMES
1. What are lysosomes? Write their functions.
2. Why are lysosomes known as ‘suicide bags’ of the cell?

MITOCHONDRIA
1. Why are mitochondria called power house of the cell?
2. Inner membrane of mitochondria is deeply folded. State its advantage.
3. Write full form of ATP.
4. State two functions for ATP are utilised in a cell.
5. How can mitochondria make its own proteins?

PLASTIDS
1. Name the cell organelle found in plant cells only.
2. Name different types of plastids. Write functions of each.
3. Name two cell organelles that contain their own genetic material (DNA).

VACUOLES
1. Plant cells have small-sized vacuoles. (True/False)
2. Animal cells have small-sized vacuoles. (True/False)
3. Write any four functions of vacuoles.

CELL DIVISION
1. Write three differences between mitosis and meiosis.
2. Draw the diagrams showing both mitosis and meiosis cell divisions.
Chapter 6 TISSUES
ASSIGNMENT 2
(Plant Tissues)
1. Define the term “tissue”.
2. How are meristematic tissues different from permanent tissues?
3. Give an example of lateral meristem.
4. Write three differences between
(a) Parenchyma and collenchyma
(b) Parenchyma and Sclerenchyma
5. Give three functions of a waxy layer present on epidermal cells on aerial parts of the
plants.
6. Where are stomata located? Write their two functions.
7. Why do epidermal cells of roots bear hair like structures?
8. The epidermis of desert plants has a thick waxy coating on it. Name this layer and
write its function.
9. Where is secondary meristem present?
10. What is cork? How does it protect the plants?
11. How are complex permanent tissues different from simple permanent tissues?
12. Write the functions of xylem and phloem.
13. Name different types of cells present in xylem. Write function of each of them.
14. Name the dead elements of xylem.
15. Name different types of cells present in phloem. Write function of each of them.
16. Name the dead elements of phloem.

ASSIGNMENT 3
(Animal Tissues)

1. Name different types of animal tissues.

2. Write two functions performed by epithelial tissue in our body.
3. Write three characteristic features of epithelial tissue.
4. Give the types of epithelial tissues. Write the characteristic shape of cells of them.
Name two organs each having such tissues.
5. Write three features of connective tissues.
6. Name different types of connective tissues.
7. Where is areolar tissue found in our body?
8. Name the tissue in which fat is stored in our body? Where is it found?
9. Write two differences between ligament and tendon.
10. Write two differences between cartilage and bone.
11. Name two chemicals each present in the matrix of cartilage and bone.
12. Write a note on ‘Blood’ as a connective tissue.
13. Name the proteins present in muscle cells, which contract and relax to cause
movement in body.
 14. Fill in the blanks.
Features Striated Non-striated Cardiac
Voluntary
Striated/unstriated
Cylindrical/spindle-
shaped
Branched/unbranched
Uni/multinucleate
15. Describe the structure of a neuron.
16. Name the longest cell in our body.
17. What is a nerve?
18. Define nerve impulse.

Ch. 15 IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES

(IMPROVEMENT IN CROP YIELD)
ASSIGNMENT 4
1. Give examples of:
(a) Carbohydrate yielding crops
(b) Protein yielding crops
(c) Oil seed providing crops
(d) Vitamin and minerals providing crops
(e) Fodder crops
2. What is photoperiod? How does it affect plants?
3. What do you mean by Rabi and Kharif crops? Write the duration for which they are
grown. Give their examples.
4. Write two ways of improving crop varieties.
5. In India, from 1952 and 2010, there has been ……….. times increase in the
production of food grains but ………..% increase in the cultivable land area.
6. Discuss various factors for which crop variety improvement is done.

(NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT, MANURE & FERTILIZERS)

1. Define the following and give six examples of each:
(a) Micronutrients (b) Macronutrients
2. Name the elements taken by plants from water and air respectively.
3. What is manure? How does it improve the nature of sandy and clayey soil?
4. How are compost and vermi-compost prepared? How are they different from green
manure?
5. Name the elements for which fertilizers are applied to plants.
6. Write three differences between manure and fertilizer.
7. What do you mean by organic farming? Discuss.

(IRRIGATION, CROPPING PATTERNS & CROP PROTECTION MANAGEMENT)

 1. Write in detail about various irrigation methods used in India.
2. Define the following and give examples of each.
(a) Mixed cropping (b) Intercropping (c) Crop rotation
3. What are weeds? Give examples. How do they harm crop plants?
4. Mention various ways in which insects harm crop plants.
5. Name the pathogens which affect the plants.
6. “Summer ploughing is a good measure to kill weeds and microbes”. Justify.
7. Name the factors responsible for loss in grains during storage. How can this loss be
prevented?

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
(CATTLE FARMING)
1. Define Animal Husbandry.
2. Write scientific names of cow and buffalo.
3. How are milch and draught animals different from each other?
4. Define lactation period.
5. Name two each exotic and local breeds of cow and the special feature they possess.
6. How is roughage different from concentrate?
7. What are external and internal parasites? Give examples.

(POULTRY FARMING)
1. Name one each indigenous and exotic breeds of poultry.
2. List the desirable traits for which a poultry variety improvement is done.
3. What are layers and broilers?

(FISH PRODUCTION)
1. Name two methods of fishing. How are they different from each other?
2. Give some examples of marine fish.
3. Name some aquatic animals of economic value.
4. What do you mean by composite fish culture system? Give its advantages.
5. How can hormonal stimulation ensure the supply of fish seeds?

(BEE-KEEPING)
6. Name two products obtained from honey bees.
7. Name Indian and Italian honey bee species. How are they different from each other?
8. What is pasturage and how is it related to honey production?