Sensor Technology

Outline
Basic Sensor Technology
Sensor Performance Characteristics Definitions
Sensor Systems
Applications Considerations
Sensor Characteristics
System Characteristics
Instrument Selection
Data Acquisition and Readout
Installation
Measurement Issues and Criteria
Basic Sensor Technology
A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into
an electrical signal. As such, sensors represent part of the
interface between the physical world and the world of electrical
devices, such as computers.
A sensor differs from a transducer in that a sensor converts the
received signal into electrical form only. A sensor collects
information from the real world.
A transducer only converts energy from one form to another.
The other part of this interface is represented by actuators,
which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena.
Sensor Performance Characteristics Definitions
The following are some of the more important sensor characteristics:
1. Transfer Function:
 shows the functional relationship between physical input signal and electrical
output signal.
 Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph showing the relationship
between the input and output signal, and the details of this relationship may
constitute a complete description of the sensor characteristics.
2. Sensitivity:
 It is defined in terms of the relationship between input physical signal and
output electrical signal.
 It is generally the ratio between a small change in electrical signal to a small
change in physical signal.
3. Span or Dynamic Range:
 The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals by
the sensor is the dynamic range (span).
 Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably large inaccuracy.
4. Accuracy or Uncertainty:
 Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and
ideal output signals.
 “Accuracy” is generally considered by metrologists to be a qualitative term, while
“uncertainty” is quantitative.
5. Hysteresis:
 Some sensors do not return to the same output value when the input stimulus
is cycled up or down.
 The width of the expected error in terms of the measured quantity is defined as
the hysteresis.
6. Nonlinearity (often called Linearity):
 The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the specified
dynamic range.
 There are several measures of this error. The most common compares the actual
transfer function with the “best straight line,” which lies midway between the
two parallel lines that encompass the entire transfer function over the specified
dynamic range of the device.
7. Noise:
 All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal. In some
cases, the noise of the sensor is less than the noise of the next element in the
electronics, or less than the fluctuations in the physical signal, in which case it is
not important.
 Many other cases exist in which the noise of the sensor limits the performance of
the system based on the sensor.
 Noise is generally distributed across the frequency spectrum
8. Resolution:
 The resolution of a sensor is defined as the minimum detectable signal
fluctuation. Since fluctuations are temporal phenomena, there is some
relationship between the timescale for the fluctuation and the minimum
detectable amplitude.
9. Bandwidth:
 All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical
signal. In addition, many sensors have decay times, which would represent the
time after a step change in physical signal for the sensor output to decay to its
original value.
 The reciprocal of these times correspond to the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies, respectively.
 The bandwidth of a sensor is the frequency range between these two
frequencies. The bandwidth of this sensor depends on choices of external
capacitors and resistors.
Sensor Systems
 Strictly speaking, a sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus and
responds with an electrical signal, while a transducer is a converter of one type
of energy into another.
 In practice, however, the terms are often used interchangeably. Sensors and their
associated circuits are used to measure various physical properties such as
temperature, force, pressure, flow, position, light intensity, etc.
 These properties act as the stimulus to the sensor, and the sensor output is
conditioned and processed to provide the corresponding measurement of
the physical property.
 Sensors do not operate by themselves.
 They are generally part of a larger system consisting of signal conditioners and
various analog or digital signal processing circuits.
 The system could be a measurement system, data acquisition system, or process
control system, for example Sensors may be classified in a number of ways.
From a signal conditioning viewpoint it is useful to classify sensors as either
active or passive.
An active sensor requires an external source of excitation.
Resistor-based sensors such as thermistors, RTDs (Resistance Temperature
Detectors), and strain gages are examples of active sensors, because a current
must be passed through them and the corresponding voltage measured in order to
determine the resistance value.
Passive (or self-generating) sensors generate their own electrical output
signal without requiring external voltages or currents. Examples of passive
sensors are thermocouples and photodiodes which generate thermo-electric
voltages and photo-currents, respectively, which are independent of external
circuits.
Application Considerations
The highest quality, most up-to-date, most accurately calibrated and
most carefully selected sensor can still give totally erroneous data if it is
not correctly applied.
This section will address some of the issues that need to be considered
to assure correct application of any sensor.
What is the most difficult tasks facing an instrumentation
engineer?
The selection of the proper measuring system.
 Why do we need to select the proper measuring system?
obtain accurate, reliable data on each and every
measurement.
The instrumentation engineer must carefully analyze every
aspect of the test to be performed, In most cases, this process
will indicate a clear choice of acceptable system components.
Test article,
 Environmental conditions
Analytical predictions (if available).
Our aim is to assist in the process of selecting
an acceptable measuring system.
 For all measurement systems, it is not adequate to consider
only that which we wish to measure.
 In fact, every physical and electrical phenomenon that is
present needs to be considered lest it contaminate our data.

 User must remember that every measurement

system responds to its total environment.
Sensor Characteristics

System Characteristics

Instrument Selection
 Sensor Characteristics
The prospective user is generally forced to make a selection based on
the characteristics available on the product data sheet.
Many performance characteristics are shown on a typical data sheet.
Many manufacturers feel that the data sheet should provide as much
information as possible.
The instrumentation engineer must be sure he or she understands the
characteristics and how they will affect the measurement.
 If there is any doubt, the manufacturer should be contacted for
clarification.
 System Characteristics

Sensor and signal conditioners must be selected to

work together as a system.
Overall system accuracy is usually affected most
by sensor characteristics.
Instrument Selection
Selecting a sensor/signal conditioner system for highly
accurate measurements requires very skillful and careful
measurement engineering.
Must be considered:
All environmental,
 mechanical, and
measurement conditions.
Installation must be carefully planned and carried out.
 Some Guidelines
The following guidelines are offered as an aid to selecting and
installing measurement systems for the best possible accuracy.
Sensor
The most important element in a measurement system is the
sensor. If the data is distorted or corrupted by the sensor, there
is often little that can be done to correct it.
 Will the sensor operate satisfactorily in
the measurement environment?
Check:
Temperature Range
Corrosive Gases
 Maximum Shock & Vibration Magnetic and RF Fields
Humidity Nuclear Radiation
 Pressure  Salt Spray
Acoustic Level Transient Temperatures
 Strain in the Mounting Surface
 Will the sensor characteristics provide
Check:
the desired data accuracy?
Sensitivity  Internal Resistance at Maximum Temperature
Frequency Response  Calibration Accuracy
Resonance Frequency Strain Sensitivity
 Damping at Temperature Extremes
Minor Resonances
Zero Measurand Output
Internal Capacitance Thermal Zero Shift
Transverse Sensitivity Thermal Transient Response
Amplitude Linearity & Hysteresis
 Temperature Deviation
Weight and size
Is the proper mounting being used
for this application?
Check:
Is Insulating Stud Required?
Ground Loops
Calibration Simulation
Is Adhesive Mounting Required?
Thread Size, Depth and Class
Reminder
Cable
 Will the cable operate satisfactorily in the measurement environment?
Will the cable characteristics provide the desired data accuracy?
power supply
Will the power supply operate satisfactorily in the measurement
environment?
 Is this the proper power supply for the application?
Will the power supply characteristics provide the desired data accuracy?
Amplifier
Will the amplifier operate satisfactorily in the measurement environment?
Is this the proper amplifier for the application?
Will the amplifier characteristics provide the desired data accuracy?
Data Acquisition and Readout
Data acquisition (DAQ) is the process of measuring
an electrical or physical phenomenon such as voltage,
current, temperature, pressure, or sound with a
computer.
A DAQ system consists of sensors, it measurement
hardware, and a computer with programmable
software.
Does the remainder of the system, including any
additional amplifiers, filters, data acquisition and
readout devices, introduce any limitation that will tend
to degrade the sensor-amplifier characteristics?
Check: All of previous check items, plus Adequate
Resolution.
 Installation
 Even the most carefully and thoughtfully
selected and calibrated system can produce
bad data if carelessly or ignorantly installed.
Sensor
Is the unit in good condition and ready to use?
Check:
 Up-to-Date Calibration
Physical Condition
Case
Mounting Surface
Connector
 Mounting Hardware
Inspect for Clean Connector
Internal Resistance
Is the mounting hardware in good condition and ready to
use?
Check:  Mounting Surface Condition
Thread Condition & Burred End Slots
Insulated Stud
 Insulation Resistance & Stud Damage by Over Torqueing
 Mounting Surface Clean and Flat
 Sensor Base Surface Clean and Flat
Hole Drilled and Tapped Deep Enough
Correct Tap Size
Hole Properly Aligned Perpendicular to Mounting Surface
Stud Threads Lubricated & Sensor Mounted with
Recommended Torque
Cement Mounting
Check:
Mounting Surface Clean and Flat
Dental Cement for Uneven Surfaces
Cement Cured Properly
Sensor Mounted to Cementing Stud with Recommended
Torque
Cable
Is the cable in good condition and ready for use?
Check:
 Physical Condition
Cable Kinked, Crushed
Connector Threads, Pins
Inspect for Clean Connectors & Continuity
Insulation Resistance & Capacitance
All Cable Connections Secure
Cable Properly restrained
Excess Cable Coiled and Tied Down
Drip Loop Provided
Connectors Sealed and potted, if required
Power Supply, Amplifier, and Readout
Are the units in good condition and ready to use?
Check:
Up-to-Date Calibration
Physical Condition
Connectors
Case
Output Cables
 Inspect for Clean Connectors & Mounted Securely
All Cable Connections Secure & Gain Hole Cover Sealed, if Required
 Recommended Grounding in Use
 When the above questions have been
answered to the user’s satisfaction, the
measurement system has a high
probability of providing accurate data.
Measurement Issues and Criteria
Sensors are most commonly used to make
quantifiable measurements, as opposed to
qualitative detection or presence sensing.
Therefore, it should be obvious that the
requirements of the measurement will determine
the selection and application of the sensor.
 How then can we quantify the requirements of the
measurement?
First, we must consider what it is we want to measure.
Second, we must consider the environment of the sensor
Third, we must consider the requirements for accuracy
(uncertainty) of the measurement.
Last, but not least, the user must assure that the whole
system is calibrated and traceable to a national standards
organization (such as National Institute of Standards and
Technology [NIST] in the United States).
Thank you!