HBO – MIDTERM

Individual Differences

✓ Individual differences are personal distinguish one person from

attributes that vary from one another
person to another. ✓ Individual differences that
✓ May be physical, psychological, and characterizes a specific person
emotional make that person unique

The Concept of Fit

✓ People need to fit with an 3. Person-Organization Fit

employment opportunity to be a ✓ Fit between individual’s values,
successful match beliefs, and personality and the
1. Person-Job Fit values, norms, and culture of the
(job requirement and employee organization
requirement) 4. Person-Vocation Fit
✓ Fit between a person’s abilities and ✓ Fit between a person’s interests,
demands of the job abilities, values, and personality and
✓ Fit between a person’s desires and a profession
motivations and the attributes and ✓ Our adjustment and satisfaction are
rewards of a job greater when our occupation meets
✓ An employee’s talents need to meet our needs
a job’s requirements, and the job
needs to meet the employee’s needs Realistic Job Previews
and motivations.
2. Person-Group Fit/Person-Team ✓ Involves the presentation of both
Fit positive and potentially negative
✓ Extent to which an individual fits information to job candidates
with the workgroup’s and ✓ Company presents the job
supervisor’s work styles, skills, and opportunity through an RJP
goals
✓ Recognizes that employees often
must work effectively with their
supervisor, workgroup, and
teammates to be successful

Personality and Individual Behavior

Personality “Nature vs. Nurture”

✓ The relatively stable set of ✓ Concerns the extent to which

psychological attributes that personality attributes are inherited
from our parents (nature) or
 shaped by our environment 2. The Myers-Briggs Framework
(nurture) - Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
- Based upon Carl Jung’s work on
Models of Personality psychological types; first developed
by Isabel Briggs
1. The “Big Five” Framework
✓ set of five fundamental traits that Four scales of the Myers-Briggs
are especially relevant to Framework
organizations
1. Extroversion(E)/Introversion(I)
✓ These 5 dimensions represent
➢ Extroversion
fundamental personality traits
- Energized by things and people
presumed to be important in
➢ Introversion
determining the behaviors of
- Finds energy in ideas, concepts, and
individuals in organizations
abstraction
1. Agreeableness
- Can be social but also need quiet time
- Ability to get along with
to recharge
others
2. Sensing(S)/Intuition(N)
2. Conscientiousness
➢ Sensing
- Refers to an individual being
- Detail oriented; wants and trusts
dependable and organized
facts
- Extent to which a person can be
➢ Intuition
counted on to get things done
- Seek out patterns and relationships
3. Neuroticism
among the facts they learned
- Characterized by a person’s tendency
- Trusts their “intuition” and look for
to experience unpleasant emotions
the “big picture”
such as anger, anxiety, depression,
3. Thinking(T)/Feeling(F)
and feelings of vulnerability
➢ Thinking
- Refers to the stability of a person’s
- Values fairness and decide things
emotions
personally based on objective criteria
4. Extraversion
and logic
- Quality of being comfortable with
➢ Feeling
relationships
- Value harmony and focus on human
➢ Introversion
values and needs as they make
- Being less comfortable in social
decisions
situations
4. Judging(J)/Perceiving(P)
5. Openness
➢ Judging
- Capacity to entertain new ideas and
- Decisive and tend to plan
to change as a result of new
- Develops plans and follow them,
information
adhering to deadlines
- Reflects a person’s rigidity of beliefs
➢ Perceiving
and range of interests
- Adaptable, spontaneous, and curious
3. Locus of Control 6. Tolerance for Risk and Ambiguity
✓ extent to which one believes one’s ✓ Tolerance for Risk / risk propensity
circumstances are a function of either - Degree to which a person is
one’s own actions or of external comfortable with risk and is willing
factors beyond one’s control to take chances and make risky
✓ People believe that their behavior has decisions
a real effect on what happens to them ✓ Tolerance for Ambiguity
- Tendency to view ambiguous
Effects of Locus of Control on
situations as either threatening or
Organizational Outcome
desirable
1. Job Satisfaction - Being tolerant of ambiguity is related
2. Commitment to creativity, positive attitudes
3. Job Motivation towards risk, and orientation to
4. Job Performance diversity
5. Career Success
6. Conflict and stress 7. Type A and B Traits
7. Social Integration ✓ Type A Personality
- Impatient, competitive, ambitious,
4. Authoritarianism and uptight
✓ Belief that power and status - More prone to stress and
differences are appropriate within coronary heart disease
hierarchical social systems such as ✓ Type B Personality
organization - More relaxed and easygoing and less
✓ A person who is highly authoritarian overly competitive than type A
may accept directives or orders from - Rarely experience a frustrated sense
someone with more authority purely of wasting time when nor actively
because the other person is “the engaged in productive activity
boss” - Confronts challenges and external
✓ A person who is not highly threats less frantically
authoritarian is more likely to
question things, express
disagreement but does so anyway in
order to follow orders.

5. Machiavellianism
✓ Trait causing a person to behave in
ways to gain power and control the
behavior of other
✓ Used to describe behavior directed at 8. The Bullying Personality
gaining power and controlling the Workplace bullying
behavior of others - Repeated mistreatment of another
employee through verbal abuse
- It is a conduct that is threatening,
humiliating, or intimidating or
 sabotage that interferes with the
other person’s work ✓ Relationship between personality
- Common types of bullying is the and behavior changes depending on
abuse of authority and power, the strength of the situation we are
stemming from the bully’s need to in.
control another person
Intelligence

✓ Another set of individual differences 6. Bodily (kinesthetic) – body

is intelligence movement and control
7. Spatial (visual) – images and
Types of Intelligence space
8. Interpersonal – other people’s
1. General Mental Ability
feelings
- Capacity to rapidly and fluidly
9. Intrapersonal – self-awareness
acquire, process, and apply
information
✓ This represent not only different
- Associated with the increased ability
content domains but also learning
to acquire, process, and synthesize
preferences
information and has been defined
✓ Assessment of abilities should
simply as the ability to learn
measure all forms of intelligence
➢ Information processing capacity
3. Emotional Intelligence
- Involves the way individuals process
- An interpersonal capability that
and organize information
includes the ability to perceive and
- General mental ability influences
express emotions, to understand and
information processing capacity
use them, and to manage emotions in
oneself and other people
2. Multiple Intelligences
- “the capacity for recognizing our own
- Suggests that there are several
feelings and those of others, for
distinct forms of intelligence that
motivating ourselves, and for
everyone possesses in varying
managing emotions well in ourselves
degrees
and in our relationships” – Daniel
Forms of Intelligence Goleman

1. Linguistic – words and language Five dimensions of EI

2. Logical (mathematical) – logic
✓ Includes three personal
and numbers
competencies (self-awareness, self-
3. Musical – music, rhythm, and
regulation, and motivation) and two
sound
social competencies (empathy and
4. Bodily (kinesthetic) – body
social skills)
movement and control
1. Self-awareness – being aware of
5. Spatial (visual) – images and
what your are feeling
space
 2. Self-motivation – persisting in the
face of obstacles, setbacks and
failures
3. Self-management – managing
your own emotions and impulses
4. Empathy – sensing how others
are feelings
5. Social skills – effectively handling
the emotions of others

Learning Styles

✓ Refers to individual differences and ➢ Learning Style Inventory

preferences in how we process ✓ Learning process is considered from
information while problem solving, the two dimensions of active/passive
learning, or engaging in similar and concrete/abstract
activities
Four basic learning styles
Several Approaches to Learning 1. Convergers
Styles - Depends primarily on active
experimentation and abstract
➢ Sensory Modalities
conceptualization to learn
✓ System that interacts with the
2. Divergers
environment through one of the basic
- Depend primarily on concrete
senses
experience and reflective observation
Most important sensory modalities - Tends to organize concrete situations
from different perspectives and
1. Visual – learning by sensing
structure their relationships into a
2. Auditory – learning by hearing meaningful whole
3. Tactile – learning by touching
4. Kinesthetic – learning by doing 3. Assimilators
- Depend on abstract conceptualization
and reflective observations
- Tend to be more concerned about
abstract concepts and ideas than
people
4. Accommodators
- Rely mainly on active
experimentation and concrete
experiences and focus on risk taking,
opportunity seeking, and action
- Deals with people easily and
specialize in action-oriented jobs,
such as marketing
✓
➢ Learning Style Orientations
✓ Address some of the limitations of
learning style inventory and identify
key styles and preferences for
learning
✓ Demonstrates that learning style
orientations predict preferences for
instructional methods beyond the big
five personality traits
Five key factors:
1. Discovery learning
- Inclination for exploration during
learning
2. Experiential learning
- Desire for hands-on approached to
instruction
3. Observational learning
- Preference for external stimuli
4. Structured learning
- Preference for processing strategies
such as taking notes
5. Group learning
- Preference to work with others while
learning
 Individual Value, Perceptions, and Reactions

Attitudes in Organizations

✓ Attitudes
- Person’s complexes of beliefs and Cognitive Dissonance
feelings about specific ideas,
situations or other people - An incompatibility or conflict
- Mechanism through which most between behavior and an attitude or
people express their feelings between two different attitudes

How attitudes are formed? Attitude Change

- Formed by a variety of forces, - Attitude are not as stable as
including our personal values, our personality attributes
experiences, and our personalities
Key work-related attitudes

1. Job Satisfaction
- Reflects our attitudes and feelings
about our job
-
➢ Factors that have the greatest
✓ We come to know something that we
influence on job satisfaction:
believe to be true (cognition). This
a. The work itself
knowledge triggers a feeling (affect).
- Largest influence on job satisfaction
Cognition and affect then together
- If you do not like the work, it is hard
influence how we intend to behave.
to be satisfied with your job
• Cognition b. Attitudes
- Knowledge a person presumes to - With a negative attitude toward work
have about something
is less likely to be satisfied with any
- Based on perceptions of truth and job than someone with a positive
reality, and perceptions agree with attitude
reality to varying degrees. c. Values
• Affect - If someone values challenges and
- Person’s feeling toward something variety in work, that person will be
- Similar to emotion, something which more satisfied
we have little or no conscious control d. Personality
• Behavioral Intention - Self-evaluation, extroversion, and
- Component of an attitude that guides conscientiousness influence job
a person’s behavior satisfaction
- You may intend to do one thing but
late alter your intentions because of a
more significant and central attitude.
-
 2. Organizational commitment 3. Employee engagement
- Reflects the degree to which an - Heightened emotional and
employee identifies with the intellectual connection that an
organization and its goals and wants employee has for his job,
to stay with the organization organization, manager, or coworkers
- that, in turn, influences him to apply
➢ 3 ways we can feel committed to an additional discretionary effort to his
employer: or work
a. Affective commitment
- Positive emotional attachment to the ➢ Engaged employees gives their full
organization and strong identification effort to their jobs, going beyond
with its values and goals what is required because they are
b. Normative commitment passionate
- Feeling obliged to stay with an ➢ Disengaged workers do not perform
organization for moral or ethical close to their potential capability,
reasons lacking emotional and motivational
c. Continuance commitment connections to their employer that
- Staying with an organization because drives discretionary effort
of perceived high economic and
social costs

Values and Emotions in Organizations

- Terminal values influence what we

Values want to accomplish; instrumental
influence how we get there
- Ways of behaving or end-states that
are desirable to a person or to a
2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Work Values
group
➢ Intrinsic
- Can be conscious or unconscious
- Relate to the work itself
Types of Values ➢ Extrinsic
- Relate to the outcomes of doing work
1. Terminal and Instrumental Values
➢ Terminal
- Reflects our long0term life goals and
Conflicts among Values
may include prosperity, happiness, a 1. Intrapersonal value conflict
secure family, and a sense of - Conflict between the instrumental
accomplishment value of ambition and the terminal
- May change over time depending on value of happiness
our experiences and accomplishment
➢ Instrumental 2. Interpersonal value conflict
- Preferred means of achieving our - Occur when two different people hold
terminal values or our preferred conflicting values
ways of behaving - Often the cause of personality clashes
and other disagreement
3. Individual-organization value conflict ➢ Two types of Affectivity
- When an employee’s values conflict 1. Positive affect
with the values of the organization - Reflects a combination of high energy
and positive evaluation characterized
The Role of Emotions in Behavior by emotions like elation
- Individuals with high positive
✓ Emotions
affectivity tend to experience more
- Intense, short term physiological,
positive emotions
behavioral, and psychological
- Increases likelihood of cooperation
reactions to a specific object, person,
strategies n negotiation, improving
or event that prepare us to respond
results
to it
2. Negative affect
➢ Four important elements
- Comprises feelings of being upset,
1. Emotions are short events or
fearful, and distressed
episodes
- Individuals with high negative
2. Emotions are directed at
affectivity tend to experience more
something or someone
negative emotions such as irritations
3. Emotions are experienced
or nervousness
4. Emotions create a state of
- Related to lower organizational
physical readiness through
citizenship behaviors, greater
physiological reactions.
withdrawal and counterproductive
work behaviors, lower job
✓ Attitude can be thought as a
satisfaction, and greater injuries.
judgment about something, an
emotion is experienced or felt.
✓ Emotions do not last long as attitude

Affect and Mood

✓ It is also possible to fall in between
✓ Mood these extremes and reflect neither
- Short-term emotional states that are positive nor negative affect.
not directed toward anything in
particular
- Cause of mood tends to be more
unfocused and diffused
- Mood are harder to cope with and
last for hours and even days

✓ Affectivity
- Represents our tendency to
experience a particular mood or to
react to things with certain emotions
 Perception in Organizations

✓ Perception 4. Projection
- Set of processes by which an - Occurs when we project our own
individual becomes aware of and characteristics onto other people
interprets information about the 5. First impression bias
environment 6. Our impressions and expectations of
others also can become self-fulfilling
Basic Perceptual Processes prophecies

1. Selective Perception Perception and Attribution

- Process of screening out information
that we are uncomfortable with or ✓ Attribution
that contradicts our beliefs - The way we explain the causes of our
2. Stereotyping own as well as other people’s
- Process of categorizing or labeling behaviors and achievements, and
people on the basis of a single understand why people do what they
attribute do
- Certain forms of stereotyping can be - The strongest attribution people tend
useful and efficient to make is whether their own or
others’ behaviors or outcomes are
Errors in Perception due to the individual (internal
factors) because of things like effort
✓ Errors may creep into how we or ability or to the environment
interpret the things we perceive (external factors)
✓ Stereotyping and selection
perception are often underlying
causes of these errors

1. Halo effect
- When we form a general impression
about something or someone based
on a single (typically good)
characteristic ✓ Observed behaviors are interpreted
2. Horns effect in terms of their consensus, their
- Opposite of halo effect consistency, and their distinctiveness.
- Occurs when we form a general Based on these interpretations,
impression based on a single “bad behavior is attributed to either
characteristics internal or external causes
3. Contrast effect • Consistency
- Occurs when we evaluate our own or - Has the person regularly behaved
another person’s characteristics this way or experienced this outcome
through comparisons with other in the past?
people we have recently encountered • Distinctiveness
who rank higher or lower on the
same characteristics
- Does the person act the same way or 2. Procedural fairness
receive similar outcomes in different - Addresses the fairness of the
types of situations? procedures used to generate the
• Consensus outcome
- Would others behave similarly in the - Low procedural fairness increases
same situation or receive the same negative outcomes, such as lower job
outcome? performance
- If procedural fairness is high,
✓ Self-handicapping negative reactions are much less
- Related aspect of attribution likely
- Occurs when people create obstacles
for themselves that make success less 3. Interactional Fairness
likely - Whether the amount of information
- Tends to emerge during adolescence about the decision and the process
among persons with a high concern was adequate, and the perceived
about looking competent fairness of the interpersonal
treatment and explanations received
during the decision-making process
Perception of Fairness, Justice, and Trust

✓ Organizational Fairness ➢ Two specific types of interpersonal

- Refers to employee’s perceptions of treatment:
organizational events, policies, and a. Interpersonal fairness
practices as being fair or not fair - Reflects the degree to which people
- Perception of fairness affects a wide are treated with politeness, dignity,
variety of employee attitudes and and respect by authorities or third
behaviors including satisfaction, parties involved in executing
commitment, trust, and turnover procedures or determining outcomes.
- It is insufficient to just be fair; you b. Informational fairness
must also be perceived as fair by your - Focuses on the extent to which
subordinates employees receive adequate
information and explanations about
decisions affecting their working
lives
Ways on how we think of fairness

1. Distributive fairness ✓ Trust

- Refers to the perceived fairness of the - Expectation that another person will
outcome received, including resource not act to take advantage of us
distributions, promotions, hiring and regardless of our ability to monitor or
layoff decisions, and raises control him or her
- Relates only to the outcomes - It is critical to long-term
received, not to the fairness of the relationships and is positively related
process that generated the decision to job performance
- Particularly important to the
developmental stages of relationships
 Stress in Organizations

• Next is the actual resistance to the

Nature of Stress
stressor, usually leading to an
✓ Stress increase above the person’s normal
- A person’s adaptive response to a level of resistance
stimulus that places excessive • Stage 3, exhaustion may set in and
psychological or physical demands on the person’s resistance declines
that person sharply below normal levels.

➢ Components of the definition: ➢ Three levels

1. Notion of adaptation 1. Alarm
- People may adapt to stressful - Person may feel some degree of panic
circumstances in any of several ways and begin to wonder how to cope
2. Role of the stimulus 2. Resistance
- The stimulus, generally called a - Person is resisting the effects of the
stressor, is anything that induce stressor
stress 3. Exhaustion
3. Stressors can be either - Exposure to a stressor without
psychological or physical resolution may bring on exhaustion
4. The demands the stressors places - Person literally gives up and can no
on the individual must be longer fight the stressor
excessive for stress to actually
result Distress and Eustress

The Stress Process ✓ Eustress

- The pleasurable stress that
✓ General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) accompanies positive events
- Describes three stages of response to - Can lead to a number of positive
stressor: alarm, resistance, and outcomes
exhaustion
✓ Distress
- The unpleasant stress that
accompanies negative events
- This results to negative consequences
for the individual

• Stress can be either good or bad. It

can motivate and stimulate us, or it
can lead to any number of dangerous
• The initial stage is called alarm. A side effects
person’s resistance often drip slightly
below the normal level during this
stage
 Common Causes of Stress Consequences of Stress
1. Organizational stressors 1. Individual consequences
- Various factors in the workplace that - The outcomes that mainly affects the
can cause stress individual
➢ Four general sets of organizational - Organization may suffer directly or
stressors indirectly it is the individual who
a. Task demands pays the real price
- Stressors associated with the specific ➢ Stress produces:
job a person performs a. Behavioral consequences
b. Physical demands - This may harm the person under
- This are the physical requirements on stress or others
the worker; these demands are - Other consequences are accident
function of the physical proneness, aggression and violence,
characteristics of the setting and the and appetite disorders
physical tasks the job involves b. Psychological consequences
c. Role demands - Relates to a person’s mental health
- Set of expected behaviors associated and well-being
with a particular position in a group c. Medical consequences
or organization - Affects a person’s physical well-being
- It has both formal (job-related) and - Includes headaches, backaches,
informal (social) requirements ulcers and related stomach and
d. Interpersonal demands intestinal disorders and skin
➢ Group pressure conditions such as acne
- Include pressures to restrict output,
pressure to conform to the group’s 2. Organizational Consequences
norms - Other results of stress have even
➢ Leadership more direct consequences for
- Leadership style may also cause organizations.
stress ➢ Includes:
➢ Interpersonal conflict a. Decline in performance
- Conflicting personalities and b. Withdrawal
behaviors may also cause stress - Two most significant forms of
- Conflict can occur when two or more withdrawal behavior are absenteeism
people must work together even and quitting
though their personalities, attitudes, c. Negative changes in attitudes
and behaviors differ.
3. Burnout
2. Life Stressors - General feeling of exhaustion that
➢ Life change develops when an individual
➢ Life trauma simultaneously experiences too much
pressure
- Effects are prolonged stress, fatigue,
frustration, and helplessness of
burden of overwhelming demands
 Managing and Controlling Stress Work-Life Balance

1. Individual Coping Strategies ✓ Fundamental Work-Life Relationships

- Exercise is one method of managing - Interrelationships between a
stress person’s work life and personal life
- A related method of managing stress (work-life relationship)
is relaxation - Common dimensions of the part of a
- Coping with stress requires person’s life tied specifically to work
adaptation; proper relaxation is an include an individual’s current job,
effective way to adapt his or her career goals, interpersonal
- Time management is recommended relations at work, and job security.
for managing stress - Stress will occur when there is a basic
- Role management, in which inconsistency or incompatibility
individual actively works to avoid between a person’s work and life
overload, ambiguity and conflict dimensions
- Final method for managing stress is
to develop and maintain support ✓ Balancing Work-Life Linkages
groups - Demands from both sides can be
extreme, and people may need to be
2. Organizational Coping Strategies prepared to make trade-offs
a. Institutional programs - Recognize potential trade-offs in
- Institutional programs for managing advance so that they can be carefully
stress are undertaken through weighed and a comfortable decision
established organizational made
mechanisms - Also recognize long-term vs. short-
b. Collateral programs term perspectives in balancing their
- Collateral stress programs is an work demands and personal lives
organizational program specifically
created to help employees deal with
stress
 Motivating Behavior

The Nature of Motivation

Importance of Motivation

✓ Motivation
- Set of forces that leads people to
behave in particular ways
P=M+A+E

P = perform
• When people experience a need
M = motivation deficiency, they seek ways to satisfy
A = ability it, which results in a choice of goal-
directed behaviors. After performing
E = environment the behavior, individual experiences
rewards or punishments that affect
• Job performance depends on ability
the original need deficiency
and environment as well as
motivation
Early Perspectives on Motivation
• To reach high levels of performance,
an employee must want to do the job 1. Traditional Approach
well (motivate); must be able to do ➢ Scientific management
the job effectively (ability); and must - Approach to motivation that assumes
have the materials, resources that employees are motivated by
equipment, and information required money
to do the job (environment). - Other assumptions of the traditional
approach were that work is
The Motivational Framework inherently unpleasant for most
people and that the money they earn
✓ Need is more important to employees than
- Anything an individual requires or the nature of the job they performing.
wants
- Motivated behavior usually begins 2. The Human Relations Approach
when a person has one or more - Suggests that fostering a false sense
important needs of employees’ inclusion in decision
- A need already satisfied may also making will result in positive
motivate behavior, unmet needs employee attitudes and motivation to
usually result in more intense work hard
feelings and behavioral changes - Assumes that employees want to feel
- Need deficiency usually triggers a useful and important, that employees
search for ways to satisfy it have strong social needs, and that
these needs are more important than
money in motivating employees.
3. The Human Resources Approach
- Assumes that people want to
contribute and are able to make
genuine contributions to
organizations
- Just the feelings of contribution and
participation would enhance
➢ Three dimensions of task-specific self-
motivation
efficacy
Individual Differences and Motivation 1. Magnitude – beliefs about how
difficult a specific task is to be
- Different things motivate different accomplished
people 2. Strength – beliefs about how
➢ Task-specific self-efficacy confident the person is that the
- A person’s beliefs in his or her specific task can be accomplished
capabilities to do what is required to 3. Generality – beliefs about the
accomplish a specific task degree to which similar tasks can
- Influences an individual’s effort and be accomplished
persistence in the face of challenges
related to performing a specific task

Needs-Based Perspectives on Motivation

✓ Need-based Theories
- Assumes that need deficiencies cause
behavior

The Hierarchy of Needs

- Developed by Abraham Maslow

- Assumes that human needs are
arranged in a hierarchy of
importance • The most basic needs are
The three set of needs at the bottom physiological needs
are called deficiency needs because • Security needs are the things that
they must be satisfied for the offer safety and security
individual to be fundamentally • Belongingness needs are primarily
comfortable social, example of which is the need
- The top two sets of needs are growth to be accepted by peers
needs because the focus on personal • Esteem needs encompasses two
growth and development slightly different kinds of needs: the
need for positive self-image and self-
 respect and the need to be respected The Two Factor Theory/Dual-
by others. Structure Theory
• Self-actualization needs involves a
person’s realizing his or her full - Identifies motivation factors, which
potential and becoming all that he affect satisfaction, and hygiene
can be. factors, which determine
✓ Each need level must be satisfied dissatisfaction
before the level above can become
important

The ERG Theory

- Developed by Yale psychologist

Clayton Alderfer
- Describes existence, relatedness, and
growth needs

➢ ERG stands for the 3 basic needs:

a. Existence needs – necessary for
human survival
b. Relatedness needs – involving the
need to relate to others
• The traditional view of
c. Growth needs – analogous to
satisfaction suggested that
Maslow’s need for self-esteem an
satisfaction and dissatisfaction
self-actualization
were opposite ends of a single
- ERG theory suggests that one kind of
dimension.
need may motivate a person at the
• In this theory, motivation factors
same time
affect one dimension, ranging
from satisfaction to no
➢ ERG theory includes a satisfaction-
satisfaction.
progression component and a
frustration-regression component.
➢ Motivation factors
➢ Satisfaction-progression
- Are intrinsic to the work itself and
- Suggests that after satisfying one
include factors such as achievement
category of needs, a person
and recognition
progresses to the next level
➢ Hygiene factors
➢ Frustration-regression
- Are extrinsic to the work itself and
- Suggests that a person who is
include factors such as pay and job
frustrated by trying to satisfy a
security
higher level of needs eventually will
regress to the preceding level.
The Acquired Needs Framework

➢ The Need for Achievement

- Centers on the needs for
achievement, affiliation and power
- Desire to accomplish a task or goal
more effectively than was done in the
past

➢ The Need for Affiliation

- Need for human companionship
- Individuals with a high need tend to
want reassurance and approval from
others and usually are genuinely
concerned about other’s feelings

➢ The Need for Power

- Desire to control the resources in
one’s environment

Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation

➢ Process-based perspectives ➢ Forming equity perceptions

- Focus on how people behave in their - People form perceptions of the equity
efforts to satisfy their needs of their treatment through a four-step
- Concerned with how motivation process:
occurs - First, they evaluate how they are
- Focus on why people choose certain being treated by the firm
behavioral options to satisfy their - Second, they form a perception of
needs how a “comparison-other” is being
treated
The Equity Theory of Motivation - Third, they compare their own
circumstances with those of the
✓ Equity Theory comparison-other and then use this
- Focuses on people’s desire to be as the basis for forming an
treated with what they perceive as impression of either equity or
equity and to avoid perceived inequity.
inequity - Fourth, depending on the strength of
- Defines equity as the belief that we this feeling, the person may choose to
are being treated fairly and inequity pursue one or more of the alternative
as the belief that we are being treated
unfairly

• Inputs = individual’s contribution

to the organization
 • Outcomes = what the person ➢ Six methods to reduce inequity
receives in return 1. Change our own inputs
• If the two sides of this equation - Put more or less effort into the job
are comparable, the person 2. Change our own outcomes
experiences a feeling of equity - Alter our perceptions of the value of
• If the two sides do not balance, a our current outcomes
feeling of inequity results 3. Alter our perceptions of ourselves
and our behavior
➢ Responses to Equity and Inequity - Change our original assessment and
- If a person feels equitably treated, he decide that we are contributing less
is generally motivated to maintains but receiving more than we originally
status quo believe.
- If a person experiences inequity, comparison-other’s inputs or
either real or imagined, they are outcomes
motivated to use one or more 4. Change the object of comparison
strategies shown to reduce the - A different person may provide a
inequity more valid basis for comparison
5. Leave the situation
- The only way to feel better about
things is to be in a different situation

➢ Evaluation and Implication

- Everyone in the organization needs
to understand the basis for rewards
- People tend to take a multifaceted
view of their rewards; they perceive
and experience a variety of rewards
- People base their actions on their
perception, not the reality

The Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The Basic Expectancy Model

✓ Expectancy Theory
- Suggests that people are motivated - The basic premise of expectancy
by how much they want something theory is that motivation depends on
and the likelihood they perceive of how much we want something and
getting it how likely we think we are to get it
 The Porter-Lawler Model

• The components interact with the

effort, the environment, and the
ability to determine an individual’s
performance
• Provides interesting insights into the
➢ Effort-to-Performance Expectancy relationships between satisfaction
- A person’s perception of the and performance
probability that effort will lead to • This model predicts that satisfaction
performance is determined by the perceived equity
- If we believe our effort will lead to of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards for
higher performance, expectancy is performance
very strong and approaching a • This model argues that it is actually
probability of 1.0, where 1.0 equals performance that eventually leads to
absolute certainty that the outcome satisfaction
will occur.
➢ Performance results in two kinds of
➢ Performance-to-Outcome rewards:
Expectancy/ instrumentality 1. Intrinsic rewards
- Individual’s perception of the - Intangible – a feeling of
probability that performance will accomplishment, a sense of
lead to certain outcomes achievement
- Each outcome has its own expectancy 2. Extrinsic rewards
- Tangible outcomes such as pay and
➢ Outcome and Valences promotion
✓ Outcome - Evaluation and Implication
- Anything that results from - Research confirmed that expectancy
performing a particular behavior theory’s claims that people will not
✓ Valences engage in motivated behavior unless
- Degree of attractiveness of they (a) value the expected rewards
unattractiveness a particular (b) believe their efforts will lead to
outcome has for a person performance, and (c) believe their
performance will result in the desired
rewards.
 Learning-Based Perspective on Motivation

✓ Learning
Social Learning
- Relatively permanent change in
behavior or behavioral potential - When people observe the behaviors
resulting from direct or indirect of others, recognize the
experience consequences, and alter their own
behavior as a result
How Learning Occurs
➢ The Traditional View: Classical Behavior Modification
Conditioning
- Application of reinforcement theory
- Simple form of learning that links a
to influence the behavior of people in
conditioned response with an
organizational settings
unconditioned stimulus
- This is simplistic and not directly
➢ Kinds of Reinforcement
relevant to motivation
- Classical conditioning relies on
simple cause-and-effect relationships
between one stimulus and one
response; it cannot deal with the
more complex forms
• Positive reinforcement
➢ The Contemporary View: Learning as - Involves the use of rewards to
a Cognitive Process increase the likelihood that a desired
- Generally, views learning as a behavior
cognitive process; it assumes that • Negative reinforcement
people are conscious; active - Based on the removal of current or
participants in how they learn future unpleasant consequences to
- This suggests that people draw on increase the likelihood that someone
their experiences and use past will repeat a behavior
learning as a basis for their present - Avoidance or removal of something
behavior undesirable can be motivating
• Punishment
Reinforcement Theory and Learning - application of negative outcomes to
decrease the likelihood of a behavior
- Also called “operant conditioning” • Extinction
- Based on idea that behavior is a - Involves removal of other
function of its consequences reinforcement following the
- Behavior that results in a pleasant incidence of the behavior to be
consequences is more likely to be extinguished to decrease the
repeated and behavior that results in likelihood of that behavior being
unpleasant consequences is less repeated
likely to be repeated
➢ Timing of Reinforcement
- Reinforcement should ideally come
immediately after the behavior being
influenced

➢ Four types of partial reinforcement

schedules:
1. Fixed ratio – desired behavior is
reinforced after a specified
number of correct responses
2. Fixed-interval – desired behavior
is reinforced after a certain
amount of time has passed
3. Variable-ratio – desired behavior
is reinforced after an
unpredictable number of
behaviors
4. Variable-interval – desired
behavior is reinforced after an
unpredictable amount of time
elapsed